ZENITH International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research _______________ISSN 2231-5780

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EARLY NAXALITE MOVEMENT IN KERALA (1968-1976) : A STUDY

ON THE ISSUES, CHALLENGES AND ALTERNATE APPROACHES
MANJUSHA.K.A.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR,
SCHOOL OF GANDHIAN THOUGHT AND DEVELOPMENT STUDIES,
MAHATMA GANDHI UNIVERSITY, P.D.HILLS.P.O., KOTTAYAM, KERALA, INDIA.

ABSTRACT

As in states which had a tradition of communist politics, Kerala too witnessed the
sound and fury of the naxalite movement in the 1960s and 70s. The naxalite movement in
Kerala was more an intellectual phenomenon than political activism arising from any feudal
social and economic order in the state. It is mainly based on the Maoist ideology and gains
its strength through mobilizing the poor, unprivileged, discouraged and marginalized,
especially in the tribal areas. The movements root causes are located within Indias
numerous social and economic inequalities as well as environmental degradation. Without
understanding the root causes, the state will not be able to solve the problem. This paper is
divided into three parts and tries to give an extensive overview of the complex issue of the
Naxalite conflict. Therefore the first part deals with the history of the movement in Kerala by
describing its origin and development from 1968-1976 . Part two deals with the strategy and
actions of the Naxalites and sets its focus on the root causes. The final part covers the causes
for the failure of the movement and conclusion.
KEYWORDS: Marxism, Maoism, Naxalbari, Naxalite Movement.

Introduction
The naxalite armed movement challenges the Indian state since more than 40 years.
To understand the genesis of the Naxal Movement, one has to study it within the framework
of the Communist Movement in India. Likewise, in order to understand the current phase of
Naxalism, we need to understand different aspects of organisational transformation that have
occurred within the Naxal Movement, since the genesis and current phase of the movement
is a reflection of continuity and change. The term Naxalism comes from Naxalbari 1 a
small village in the Darjeeling district of West Bengal, where a section of the Communist
Party of India(Marxist)[CPI(M)] led by Charu Majumdar amd Kanu Sanyal led an armed
uprising of the peasants in May, 1967. On May 25, 1967, landlords attatcked a tribal who
was granted the right to a piece of land by the court on the basis of tenancy rights.
Revolutionary cadres of the CPI(M) counter atttacked the landlord, giving rise to the
Naxalbari Uprising2. By July 1967, the police was able to suppress the uprising and were
able to arrest almost all major rebel leaders and thus the uprising fizzled out without
achieving any significant results. The leaders of the Naxalbari uprising broke away from

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CPI(M) in 1969 to form the CPI(Marxist-Leninist)-the Maoists, or Naxalites. This party

advocated armed revolution and denounced participation in the electoral process. Naxalbari
incident had a far reaching impact on the entire agrarian scene throughout India which
inspired the rural poor to launch military struggles.
The naxalite movement in Kerala was inspired from the events that had happened in
the Naxalbari village of West Bengal. The Naxalite attacks in Kerala were concentrated in
the northern districts of Wynad, Kannur and Kozhikode. The rural conditions existed in this
region made it suitable for a revolution. In 1968, the first attack modelled on the Naxalbari
incident occurred in Wynad region. It was followed by the naxalite attacks in Thalassery in
Kannur district, revolt in Kuttiyadi(1969) and later in Thirunelli(1970). The Petty
Bourgeoisie intellectuals played a prominent role in mobilising the peasants and adivasis and
they were guided by the Maoist ideology and received direct encouragement from China.
The genesis of the problem
The first attack modelled on the Naxalbari incident occurred in the Wynad region.
The Wynad region had vast stretches of paddy field. The major portion of the Wynad region
was occupied by the adivasi population. So the revolutionaries find this region most
condusive for fostering their revolutionary ideas. The revolutionary role was assigned by
the petty bourgeois who belonged to the middle and lower-middle class people consisting of
teachers, white-collar employees, students etc. As employed and educated intellectuals, they
provided leadership for the naxalite revolts in Kerala. They popularised the ideologies of
Mao Tse Tung among the peasants and tribals. Kunnikkal Narayanan, Mandakini and their
daughter Ajitha, T.V.Appu, Philip.M.Prasad , Varghese etc were the main leaders of the
revolutionaries.
During that time the CPI(M) was not in favour of armed rebellion and they actively
participated in the parliamentary democracy. So the revolutionaries were totally dissatisfied
with the attitude of CPI(M). They thought that after the death of Stalin, Soviet Union has
given up the interests in world revolution and they began to consider China under Mao as the
biggest adherents of the Marxist principle. They began to listen to the Chinese Radio Station,
Peking Radio which spread the message of Mao. Hearing this, they gradually became the
followers of Chinese model of Communism. After the Naxalbari incident, the Peking Radio
broadcasted the editorial of peoples Daily showering praises on Naxalbari peasants 3 and so
these intellectuals decided to support them.
The intellectuals began to consider Mao as their leader and guide. They began to
publish and distribute the pamphlets and booklets containing the ideologies of Mao. The
Chinese embassy sent them more books, photos and badges of Mao. They translated the
works of Mao and published them in Malayalam under Rebel Publications. So, It is their
direct contact with the Chinese government, that helped them to come under the central
leadership of CPI(ML) under Charu Majumdar. The intellectuals formed a co-ordination
committee to spread the message of the Naxalbaris. Thus their message of revolution spread
widely in Kerala.

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Root Causes
The root cause of the problem when it began, social and class inequality . In India
people followed two distinct lines of thinking within the communist movement. The line
promoted by Randive and his followers, rejected the significance of the Chinese revolution,
and advocated the simultaneous accomplishment of the democratic and the socialist
revolutions, based on city-based working class insurrections. The second line of thinking
drew lessons from the Chinese experiences and the teachings of Mao, particularly Mao Tse
Tungs theory of Protracted war, in building up the armed struggle4.
The following are the main causes for the emergence of Naxal Movement in Kerala.
1. System of Bonded Labour in Kerala
As mentioned earlier, Wynad region had a vast stretch of paddy fields. During the
18th century, there was a scarcity of agricultural labours to work on this paddy fields as
serfs. This prompted the landlords to import large number of adivasis from the
neighbouring forests that now belongs to Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In Malabar, the
cultivating peasants were dispossessed by the influx of immigrants. They got only poor
wages from the labour on land and there was no chances for employment other than
agriculture. This led the landless workers to borrow money from their landlords to meet
their needs. But inability to pay off the debts ultimately resulted in a system of bonded
slavery. The Commissioner of Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes commented in his
report of 1955-56: The survey on the economic conditions of Paniyas of Wynad in
Kerala, conducted by the Bureau of Statistics and Economics of the Government of
Kerala, throws light on the system of bonded labour prevalent in that area. They were
not only exploited as landless labourers by the landlords, they also fell prey to money
lenders. Thus the ideologies of the naxalite revolutionaries appealed them most and the
revolutionaries could gather a lot of support from this adivasis.
2. Influence of Peking ideologues and propagandists
China provided all kinds of support to the Indian revolutionaries through books and
ideology. The Chinese leaders, since 1967, seem to have taken upon themselves the task
of directing and guiding the oncoming Indian revolution.5 So, when the Naxalbari
incident had happened, Peking found an opportunity for which they have been waiting
for. Encouraged by the outbreak of this peasant rebellion, the Peoples Daily laid down
the Maoist line for India in clear and unmistakable terms. Describing it as spring thunder
over India, Peoples Daily held that it was the result of the militant action of the
revolutionaries of the Indian Communist Party who had deserted the United Front
government in West Bengal because it served as a tool of the Indian reactionaries.....
Naxalbari was the prelude to a violent revolution by hundreds of millions of people
throughout India; but, to make it possible, the Indian Revolution must take the road of
relying on the peasants, establishing base areas in the countryside, persisting in protracted
armed struggle and using the countryside to encircle and finally capture the cities. The
city orientation of the Indian Communist Strategy must be given up and the peasants must
be made the invicible force of the Indian revolution; the proletariat must therefore

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integrate with the peasants. Since the reactionary forces were temporarily stronger than
the revolutionary forces, the communists must use the whole set of the flexible strategy
and tactics of peoples war and preserve in protracted armed struggle. This armed
struggle must begin in the countryside where the reactionary rule is weak and where
the revolutionaries can manoeuvre freely. It did not matter if the beginning was small,
and if the peasants had to fight with bows and arrows; so long as the Indian proletarian
revolutionaries adhere to the rtevolutionary line of Marxism-Leninism, Mao Tse Tungs
thought and rely on their great ally, the peasants, it is entirely possible for them to
advance from one revolutionary rural base area to another in the huge backward rural
areas and build a peoples army of a new type. And it is this propaganda of Peking
Radio that inspired the revolutionaries in Kerala to start armed rebellions in the villages
on the model of Naxalbari.
3. Immediate Cause for the Early Revolts
The earliest naxalite revolts were started with the attacks in Pulpally and Thalassery.
In Pulpally, about 20,000 acres of forest lands were occupied by the migrant farmers and they
were cultivating the land for years. The Pulpally attack was directed against the exploitation
of this migrant farmers. The forest department tried to evict them from there and filed
criminal cases against them. A special Police Camp (M.S.P) began to station there with the
purpose of evicting the migrants from these forest lands. The people have to suffer a lot of
corruption and vulgarism from the policemen who camped there. The Communist Party
promised them to provide with title to these lands and they failed to keep the promise which
they had offered during the election. In these circumstances, there was no alternative for
them other than approaching the bourgeoisie intellectuals who were spreading the ideology of
Mao and Naxalbari to help them. On the other hand, these intellectuals were waiting for an
opportunity to put their propaganda into practice and they took up the issue.
The reason behind the Thalassery attack was Ganesh-Bharat Beedi Crisis in Kannur
District. After coming to power, the E.M.S. government implemented the beedi-cigar Rules
as the Minimum Wages Act. The Ganesh and Bharat Beedi companies were owned by the
proprietors in Mangalore (Karnataka). They provide employment for about 20,000
contractual labourers. With the implementation of the Minimum Wages Act, they closed
down their operations in Kannur and shifted to Mangalore where these act was not
applicable. Thus, more than 20,000 labourers lost their only means of livelihood. So they
have to work as agricultural labourers but with their entry to that field, the wages of the
agricultural labourers also went down. The government failed to solve the crisis and the
naxalite leaders decided to take up the issue.
Early Revolts
1. Thalassery-Pulpally Attack(November 1968)
The Naxalite leaders have decided to synchronise the attacks in Pulppally and
Thalassery. They formulated a plan and accordingly, they split into two groups. One
group under Kunnikkal Narayanan was decided to attack Thalassery Police station on
20th November and would procure arms from there. The other group under Varghese
was decided to launch attack at Pulpally. After this they have decided to rendezvous
in the forests near Thirunelli. They had decided to launch a massive rebellion in
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Thirunelli too. On the decided date of Thalassery Attack, out of 1000 people
expected, only 350 turned up. Among them, many of them were panic-struck by
seeing the heavy security at the Police station. So they decided to postpone the attack.
Next evening, fewer people turned up, but none of them went ahead in attacking the
police station. But when the sentry at the police station rung the alarm, all but one
fled, and the one grenade thrown into the police station did not explode. Thus the
Thalassery attack proved to be an utter failure.
The other group under the prominent members like Varghese, Thettamala
Krishnankutty, Kurichyan Kunjiraman, Kisan Thomman, Philip M.Prasad and
Ajitha formed a coordination council and they formulated a plan to attack the MSP
camp, Police station and decided to destroy the records in registrars office. They also
decided to attack the houses of the landlords on their way to Thirunelli. But on the
day of attack, out of 400 people recruited from among the tribals and farmers, only 50
turned up. They attacked wireless camp and hacked the operator to death. They also
attacked a Sub Inspector. On their way to Thirunelli, they attacked the houses of two
landlords and distributed money and grains to the tribals. But when they reached
Thirunelli, they were captured by the local people and were handed over to the Police.
2. Kuttiyadi Attack (1969)
One year after the Pulpally-Thalassery Attack, the revolutionaries outside the jail had
decided to attack the Kuttiyadi Police Station. They threw grenades at that station,
destroyed the records and attacked the Sub Inspector.
But when their leader
Velayudhan was killed by the sentry fire, all fled after throwing the pamphlets titled
Thalassery-Pulpally: One year . The pamphlet concluded by saying that no force in
the world can destroy the revolutionary spirit of the peasants of Kerala that sparked off
the Thalassery-Pulpally Revolts.
3. Thirunelli Attack (1970)
Two months after the Kuttiyadi Attack, the naxalite leaders led another attack
at Thirunelli. They murdered a landlord suspecting that he was an agent of police.
They also looted a landlords house too. The government was determined to curb the
naxalite menace by any force. The local police with the help of the Central Reserve
Police captured Varghese within few days and according to the local people , he was
brutally murdered by the police, though the police version was that he was killed in an
encounter. The police had arrested all the important naxalite leaders and the rest were
killed by this time. And by 1976, the naxalite movement for all practical purposes
died in Kerala.
Causes for the failure of the Movement in Kerala
When we study the naxalite movement in Kerala in detail, we can extract some
interesting features for its failure. One thing is clear that there was not great storm of
revolutionary armed struggle, but were isolated revolts happened in between intervals. The
naxalite movement didnt find deep roots in Kerala for the following reasons.
1. The naxalites of Kerala failed to realise the realities of Kerala . The people of Kerala
posed their faith in democratic government and the progressive policies followed by
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2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

them which resulted in the social reforms, organisation of the working class, spread
of literacy etc.
The government was able to curb the naxalism by following a carrot and stick
policy ie, carrots towards the people and stick towards the naxalites.
The Police arrested almost all the leaders of the movement, some of them were very
brutally murdered by the police and this police offensive played a vital role in curbing
the naxalite movement in Kerala.
Even after months of campaigning, propaganda and recruitment, the naxalite leaders
could mobilise only very few people into the struggle.
No programmes with long term goals were chalked out except attack on police
stations, attacks on enemies etc. None of these attacks were well planned and well
co-ordinated.
Military requirements of the movement were neglected by its leaders and there was
lack of military experience and training which is highly essential for this kind of
movement. Morover, they disregarded the military strength of the enemy.
There was disunity among the Naxalites from the very early stage. The early naxalite
leaders did not have the support of the AICCR.
The government was successful in appeasing the local population to an extent and
could prevent them from going in the naxalbari way. It is important to note that it is
the local population which captured the naxalite leaders and handed over them to the
police.

Conclusion
The characteristic feature of the Naxal Movement in Kerala is its disorganised
character which led to some interesting formulations, quite uncommon in the history of
Movement Organisations(MO). These movement organisations are characterized as loosely
structured, decentralized and prone to political changes and counter cultural practices. Due to
its fragemented character, the movement witnessed the comeback of many past leaders from
oblivion. Morover, the history of the movement proved to be the history of conflicts and
splits. Now the former revolutionaries became practical and even spiritual. The naxalite
leader Philip M.Prasad had a different identity and he converted into a peacenik and a
devotee of Sai Baba. Vellathooval Stephen became a pure follower of Jesus Christ. K.Venu
became a staunch supporter of Industrialisation. Ajitha, with her organisation Anweshi, now
fights for the legal rights of victims of sexual assault. Prasad, the old revolutionary had a
word of advice for his naxal ascendants:Marxism is not the sole answer to all social evils.
The movement is a battle lost. They must learn from revolutionaries of yore like me who
now use knives only to cut vegetables. .
Notes and References
1

V.Marwah, India in Turmoil (Rupa Publication, 2009). P.98

S.Adhikari, The Resurgence of Naxalism:Implications for Indias Security , Air Power
JournalVol.7No.1. Spring 2012(January-March), p.14.
3
The Editorial of Peoples Daily, July 5, 1967 described it thus:A peal of spring thunder has
crashed over the land of India.
2

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4

R.Kujar, Naxal Movement in India: A Profile, IPSC Research Papers, New Delhi,
Sptember 2008, p.2
5
Bhavani Sen Gupta, A Maoist Line for India, The China Quarterly, No.33.(Jan-Mar
1968), p.10
Articles
1. Bhavani Sen Gupta, A Maoist Line for India, The China Quarterly, No.33.(Jan-Mar
1968), p.10
2. C.R.Bijoy, Muthanga:The Real Story, Economic and Political Weekly, May 17,
2003.
3. Kanu Snyal et al., Documents:China and Naxalites, Pakistan Forum, Vol.3,
No.5.(Feb, 1973)
4. Marcus F. Franda, Indias Third Communist Party, Asisn Survey, Vol.9, No.11
(Nov.1996)
5. P.Krishnakumar, Embers of a Revolution, Frontline, Vol.22. issue 21, oct-8-21,
2005
6. Prakash Karat, Reviewed Works:Kerala:Yenan of India.Rise of Communist Power
1937-1969 by Victor M.Fic, Social Scientist, Vol.1, No.1.(August, 1972)
7. Sreejith K, Naxalite Movement and Cultural Resistance. Experience of Janakiya
Samskarika Vedi in Kerala(1980-82), EPW, Dec. 10, 2005
8. Sumanta Banerjee, Naxalbari: beyond past and future, EPW, June 1, 2002.
Books
1. K.Ajitha, Ormakkurippukal (Autobiography), Kottayam, D.C.Publications, 1982
2. K.Panoor, Ha Naxalbari, Kottayam, D.C.Publications, 1982
3. Sumanta Banerjee, In wake of Naxalbari: A History of Naxalite Movements in India,
Calcutta, Subarnarekha, 1980

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