Geometric Modelling

CAD/CAM Principles and
Applications
Ch 4 Geometric Modelling

Applications by P N Rao, 2nd Ed
Objectives
Understand the various requirements for the information that is

generated during the geometric modeling stage.
Study various types of geometric models possible and their
applications
Develop various methodologies used for geometric construction
such as sweep, surface models, solid models, etc.
Recognize the various types of surfaces and their application as
used in geometric modelling
Appreciate the concept of parametric modeling which is the
current mainstay of most of the 3D modeling systems
Develop the various mathematical representations of the curves
used in the geometric construction
Discuss the various CAD system requirements that need to be
considered while selecting a system for a given application
Understand the concept of rapid prototyping and the various
methods available for the purpose.
4.1 Requirements of
Geometric Modelling

Fig. 4.1
Total product cycle in a
manufacturing environment
Geometric
Modelling
Ideas
Design
Analysis
Production

Functions of Geometric
Modelling
Design analysis:
Evaluation of areas and volumes.

Evaluation of mass and inertia properties.
Interference checking in assemblies.
Analysis of tolerance build-up in assemblies.
Analysis of kinematics mechanics, robotics.
Automatic mesh generation for finite element
analysis.

Modelling
Drafting
Automatic planar cross sectioning.
Automatic hidden line and surface removal.
Automatic production of shaded images.
Automatic dimensioning.
Automatic creation of exploded views for
technical illustrations.
Modelling
Manufacturing
Parts classification.
Process planning.
Numerical control data generation and
verification.
Robot program generation.

Modelling
Production Engineering
Bill of materials.
Material requirement.
Manufacturing resource requirement.
Scheduling.
Inspection and Quality Control:

Program generation for inspection machines.
Comparison of produced part with design.
Requicha and Voelker [1981] specified the following

properties to be desired of in any geometric modelling
(solids) system.
The configuration of solid (geometric model) must stay invariant

with regard to its location and orientation.
The solid must have an interior and must not have isolated
parts.
The solid must be finite and occupy only a finite shape.
The application of a transformation or other operation that adds
or removes parts must produce another solid.
The model of the solid in E3 (Euler space) may contain infinite
number of points. However, it must have a finite number of
surfaces, which can be described.
The boundary of the solid must uniquely identify which part of
the solid is exterior and which is interior.
4.2
Geometric Models
Two-dimensional, and
Three-dimensional.
The three principal classifications can
be
The line model,
The surface model, and
The solid or volume model
10
Fig. 4.2 3D geometric representation

techniques
P2
P3
P1
S8
P10
S6
S5
P4
P9
P11
P12
S4
P5
P8
P6
S3
S1
S7
S2
P7
(a) LINE MODEL
(b) SURFACE MODEL
V1
V2
(c) VOLUME MODEL

11
Fig. 4.3 A geometric model represented in

wire-frame model

12
Fig. 4.4 Ambiguities present in the wire-frame

model

13
Fig. 4.5 Impossible objects that can be

modelled using a wire-frame model

14
Fig. 4.6 Generation of 3D geometry using

planar surfaces
S5
S3
S6
S6
S5
S8
S8
S4
S3
S4
S1
S7
S2
S1
S2
S7
(b) SURFACE MODEL

15
4.3 Geometric Construction

Methods
The three-dimensional geometric
construction methods which extend
from the 2D that is normally used are:
Linear extrusion or translational sweep,
and
Rotational sweep.

16
Fig. 4.8
Component model produced using
translational (linear) sweep (extrusion)

17
Fig. 4.9
translational (linear) sweep with taper in sweep direction

18
Fig. 4.10
Component model produced using linear
sweep with the sweep direction along a 3D curve

19
Fig. 4.11
translational (linear) sweep with an overhanging edge

20
Fig. 4.12 Component produced by the

rotational sweep technique

21
Fig. 4.13 Various solid modelling primitives

22
Fig. 4.14 The Boolean operators and their

effect on model construction

23
Fig. 4.15 The Boolean operators and their

effect on model construction

24
Fig. 4.16 Creating a solid with the 3D primitives in solid modelling

and the model shown in the form of Constructive Solid Geometry
(CSG)

25
Fig. 4.17 Model generated using the sculptured surfaces (Image

appears with the permission of IBM World Trade Corporation/Dassault
Systems - Model generated using CATIA)

26
Fig. 4.18 The various types of surfaces used

in geometric modelling
Classification of Surfaces
Planar surfaces
Plane
Polygon
Polyhedra
Curved surfaces
Free form surfaces
Single curved
Double curved
Cylinders
Cones
Spheres
Ellipsoids
Paraboloid
Torus
Ruled surfaces

Coons surface
B-spline
Bezier surface
NURBS
Fractals
Lofted surfaces
27
Fig. 4.19
Ruled surface on the left is shown the curves
from which the ruled surface on the right is formed.

28
Fig. 4.20 Coons surface generation

29
Fig. 4.21 The Bzier curve and the associated

control polygon
Control
Polygon
Control points
Curve
O
30
Fig. 4.22 The various examples of Bzier curves

depending on the associated control polygons
p2
p2
p1
p3
p3
p0
p0
p1
p1
p3
p0
p2

31
Fig. 4.23 The modification of Bezier curve by

tweaking the control points
Control
Polygon
Control points
Curve
Curve
Control
Polygon
Control points

32
Fig. 4.24 The spline curve
Y
Control points
Control
Polygon
Curve
O
33
Fig. 4.25 The lofted surface

34
Fig. 4.26 Example of filleting or blend method

for model generation

35
Fig. 4.27
Example of tweaking method for surface
modification ((Image appears with the permission of IBM World Trade
Corporation/Dassault Systems - Model generated using CATIA))

36
4.4 Constraint Based

Modelling

37
Fig. 4.28 Example of initial sketch without any

dimensions

38
Fig. 4.29 The sketch shown above which is

fully constrained and dimensioned

39
Fig. 4.30 The sketch in Fig. 4.29 when swept

along a linear path produces the solid

40
Fig. 4.31 The sketch for the new feature (a

cut)

41
Fig. 4.32 The solid after executing an

extruded cut of the geometry in Fig. 4.31

42
Fig. 4.33 The final solid

43
Fig. 4.34 The model tree of the part showing

the modelling process

44
Fig. 4.35 A geometric model created following

the sequence of features as
Box Hole Shell

45
Fig. 4.36 A geometric model created following

the sequence of features as
Box Shell Hole

46
Fig. 4.37 Feature based model and its

modified form
Base feature
Holes - 3
Slots - 2
(A) Original model
Base feature
Slots - 2
Holes - 5
(B) Modified model

47
Fig. 4.38 Typical drawing for the variant

method of modelling

48
Fig. 4.39 Part model produced using the

symbolic programming
T
C
R
G
N
COMPOSED PART
SYMBOL KEYS
G
KEY SEQUENCE

49
Fig. 4.40 Examples of form elements used for

model generation in the case of axi-symmetric
components
Thread
Arc
Groove
Taper
Turn
Fillet
Knurl
Chamfer
Face
Blank

50
Fig. 4.41 Examples of form features for modelling axi-symmetric

components with milled features
Taper
Turn
Chamfer
Groove
Step
Keyway
Splines
Concentric slot
Fillet
Face
Thread
Knurl
Axial hole
Radial hole
Axial slot

Radial slot
51
Fig. 4.42 Example component modelled using

the features shown in Fig. 4.41
A
3.2
All chamfers 1x45
Straight Knurl
Pitch 1mm
M36x1
1.6
45
90
60
42
-0.015
-0.040
0.01 A
R1.5
42
32
75
187
+
-
0.50
0.75
76

52
Fig. 4.43 Example component modelled using

the features shown in Fig. 4.41
Chamfer 2X2 @45
10 dia 4 holes
2X2 Groove
M8X1 LHT
12.5
75
50
Chamfer angle 45
25
12.5
25
80
Sectional Elevation
4 holes on pcd 37.5
End view
53
4.6 Curve representation

Implicit form, and
Parametric form.
In parametric form, the curve is
represented as
X = x(t)
Y = y(t)
Z = z(t)
54
Fig. 4.44 Circle

Y
(X, Y)

55
Fig. 4.45 Ellipse

Y
x
y
+
=
1
2
2
a
b
(X, Y)
b

56
Fig. 4.46 Parametric curve representation in

Cartesian space
p3
z
p2
y
u
x
p1
p0
57
Fig. 4.47 Two cubic Bzier curves joined at p3

p2
p3
p1
u
p4
p0
z
p5
y
p6
x

58
4.7 Surface Representation

Methods

59
Fig. 4.48 Typical surface display with the

parametric variables u and v
v
u
y
x
60
Fig. 4.49 A bi-cubic Bzier surface patch

p(u,1), v=1 curve
p(0,v), u=0 curve
p23
p13
p24
p21
p12
p22
p44=p(1,1)
v
p21
z
p11=p(0,0)
p33
p14=p(0,1)
p32
p43
p31
p42
p(1,v), u=1 curve
p(u,0), v=0 curve
p41=p(1,0)
61
4.8 Modelling Facilities

Desired
The geometric modelling features.

The editing or manipulation features.
The display control facilities.
The drafting features.
The programming facility.
The analysis features.
The connecting features.
62
Fig. 4.50 Elimination of hidden lines in display

63
Fig. 4.51
Shaded image of a CAD geometric model ((Image
appears with the permission of IBM World Trade Corporation/Dassault Systems Model generated using CATIA))

64
Fig. 4.52 Orthographic views from a geometric model (Image

appears with the permission of IBM World Trade Corporation/Dassault Systems Model generated using CATIA)

65
Fig. 4.53 Section view generation from a

geometric model

66
Fig. 4.54 Exploded view and bill of materials

of an assembly modelled

67
4.9 Rapid Prototyping (RP)

68
Figure 4.55 Schematic of Stereolithography

device
Scanning mirror
Cured resin
(to form model)
Liquid resin
Laser
Recoating bar
Platform

69
Figure 4.56 Schematic of selective laser

sintering device
Scanning mirror
Laser
Powder feed roller
Platform
Build
powder
Sintered
powder
(to form parts)

70
Figure 4.57 Schematic of Three-dimensional

printing device
Binder solution
Powder feed roller
Printing head
Nozzle
Platform
Build
powder
Glued
powder
(to form parts)

71
Fig. 4.58 Schematic of Fused deposition

modelling device
Filament from a coil
Feeder
Melter
Extrusion nozzle
Solidified plaster
(to form model)
Platform

72
Fig. 4.59 Schematic of Laminated Object

Manufacturing device
Top view
Splits in excess
material
(for ease of removal)
Band of
build material
Contour of actual
cross section of the model
Laminating roller
Scanning mirror
Laser
Band of
build material
Laminate model
Laminating roller
Excess
laminate
material
Take-up roll

Platform
Material supply roll
73
Summary
Information entered through geometric modeling is utilized in a

number of downstream applications such as drafting,
manufacturing, inspection and planning.
Geometric models are three types, viz line model, surface model
and solid model. Line model though simple is rarely used
because of the ambiguity present. Surface and solid models are
extensively used in industrial applications.
Among the geometric construction methods sweep or extrusion
is most widely used, because of its simplicity and elegance in
developing 3D models.
Solid modeling provides the most unambiguous representation
of the solid model, but is more computing intensive. However to
get the correct geometric model, it is essential to utilize solid
modeling approach.
74
Summary
Surfaces are more widely used and it is necessary to use

different types of surfaces such as b-splines, Bezier, NURB,
lofted, to get the user requirements fulfilled.
Constraint or parametric based modeling is the main
methodology used by most of the 3D CAD systems. This system
helps in grasping the designers intent and would greatly
facilitate the modification and reuse of the existing designs.
Some variant modeling systems are used based on tabular data
for specific applications.
Form features is another form of modeling system that helps in
designing CAD systems with more intelligence built into the
geometric entities that is possible by purely geometric systems
discussed thus far.

75
Summary
The mathematical representation of the geometric entities can

be in implicit or parametric form, the latter being the preferred
method used in CAD systems because of its easier adaptation
in software development.
The curve representation methods can be extended for surface
representations such as used in free form surfaces.
A number of modeling facilities need to be considered while
selecting a CAD/CAM system for any given application.
Rapid prototyping is used to generate the product directly from
the 3D CAD model data. A number of different processes such
as stereo lithography, selective laser sintering, 3D printing,
fused deposition modeling, laminated object manufacturing, are
used for this purpose.

76

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CAD/CAM Principles and

CAD/CAM Principles and

Understand the various requirements for the information that is

CAD/CAM Principles and

Total product cycle in a

CAD/CAM Principles and

Evaluation of areas and volumes.

CAD/CAM Principles and

CAD/CAM Principles and

Inspection and Quality Control:

Requicha and Voelker [1981] specified the following

The configuration of solid (geometric model) must stay invariant

Fig. 4.2 3D geometric representation

(b) SURFACE MODEL

(c) VOLUME MODEL

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.3 A geometric model represented in

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.4 Ambiguities present in the wire-frame

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.5 Impossible objects that can be

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.6 Generation of 3D geometry using

(b) SURFACE MODEL

CAD/CAM Principles and

4.3 Geometric Construction

CAD/CAM Principles and

Component model produced using

translational (linear) sweep (extrusion)

CAD/CAM Principles and

Component model produced using

translational (linear) sweep with taper in sweep direction

CAD/CAM Principles and

Component model produced using linear

sweep with the sweep direction along a 3D curve

CAD/CAM Principles and

Component model produced using

translational (linear) sweep with an overhanging edge

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.12 Component produced by the

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.13 Various solid modelling primitives

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.14 The Boolean operators and their

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.15 The Boolean operators and their

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.16 Creating a solid with the 3D primitives in solid modelling

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.17 Model generated using the sculptured surfaces (Image

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.18 The various types of surfaces used

Free form surfaces

CAD/CAM Principles and

Ruled surface on the left is shown the curves

from which the ruled surface on the right is formed.

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.20 Coons surface generation

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.21 The Bzier curve and the associated

Fig. 4.22 The various examples of Bzier curves

CAD/CAM Principles and

Fig. 4.23 The modification of Bezier curve by

CAD/CAM Principles and