Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Introduction

The Taxonomy of Signals

Signal: A function that conveys information

Continuous
Time
Discrete

Amplitude
Continuous
Discrete
continuous-time
analog signals
signals
discrete-time
digital signals
signals

Signal Process Systems

Facilitate the extraction
of desired information
e.g.,

signal

Filters
Parameter estimation

Signal
Processing
System

output

Signal Process Systems

continuous-time signal
signal

discrete-time signal
signal

continuous-time signal
analog
system

output

discrete-time signal

discretetime
output
system

digital signal

digital signal
signal

digital
system

output

Signal Process Systems

A important class of systems

Linear Shift-Invariant Systems.

In particular, well discuss

Linear Shift-Invariant Discrete-Time Systems.

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Discrete-Time Signals---

Sequences

Representation by a Sequence

Discrete-time system theory

Concerned with processing signals that are

represented by sequences.

x {x(n)},

n
x(n)
n

3 4 5 6 7
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

1 2

8 9 10

Important Sequences

Unit-sample sequence (n)

Sometime call (n)

a discrete-time impulse; or
an impulse
(n)

1 n 0
(n)
0 n 0

n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Important Sequences

Unit-step sequence u(n)

1 n 0
u ( n)
0 n 0

Fact:

(n) u(n) u(n 1)

u(n)
n
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Important Sequences
Real

exponential sequence

x ( n) a

x(n)

...
...
-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Important Sequences
Sinusoidal

sequence

x(n) A cos(n0 )
x(n)
n

Important Sequences
Complex

x ( n) e

exponential sequence

( j0 ) n

Important Sequences

A sequence x(n) is defined to be periodic with

period N if

x(n) x(n N ) for all N

Example: consider x(n) e

j0 n

x(n) e j0 n e j0 ( n N ) e j0 N e j0 n x(n N )
0 N 2 k

2 k
0

2
0

must be a rational
number

Energy of a Sequence

Energy of a sequence is defined by

| x ( n) |

Operations on Sequences

Sum

Product

Multiplication
x {x(n)}

Shift

x y {x(n) y(n)}
x y {x(n) y(n)}

y (n) x(n n0 )

Sequence Representation
Using delay unit
x ( n)

x ( k ) ( n k )

x(n)
a-3

a1
2

-8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1

3 4 5 6

a2

7
8 9 10

a7

x(n) a3(n 3) a1(n 1) a2(n 3) a7 (n 7)

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Linear Shift-Invariant
Systems

Systems
x(n)

T[]

y(n)=T[x(n)]

Mathematically modeled as a unique

transformation or operator.

Linear Systems
x(n)

T[]

y(n)=T[x(n)]

T [ax1 (n) bx2 (n)] aT [ x1 (n)] bT [ x2 (n)]

Examples:
x(n)

y(n)=T[x(n)]

T[]

Ideal Delay System

y (n) x(n nd )

Moving Average

k M
1
y(n)
x( n k )

M 1 M 2 1 k M1

Accumulator

y ( n)

x(k )

Examples:
y(n)=T[x(n)]
T [ ]system linear?
x(n) Are these
Ideal Delay System

y (n) x(n nd )

Moving Average

k M
1
y(n)
x( n k )

M 1 M 2 1 k M1

Accumulator

y ( n)

x(k )

Examples:
x(n)

T[]

A Memoryless System

y(n)=T[x(n)]
y (n) [ x(n)] 2

Is this system linear?

Linear Systems
x ( n)

y(n) T x(k )(n k )

k

x(n)
x(k )(n k )

y(n)=T[x(n)]

T[]

y ( n)

x(k )T [(n k )] x(k )h (n)

kimpulse
n

Shift-Invariant Systems
y(n)=T[x(n)]

x(n)
T[]

x(n-k)
x(n)

x(n-1)
x(n-2)

y(n-k)
y(n)

y(n-1)
y(n-2)

Shift-Invariant Systems
y(n)=T[x(n)]

x(n)
T[]

x(n-k)

y(n-k)
y(n)

x(n)

x(n-1)

x(n-2)

y(n-1)
y(n-2)

Linear Shift-Invariant Systems

x ( n)

y(n) T x(k )(n k )

k

x(n)
x(k )(n k )

y(n)=T[x(n)]

T[]

y ( n)

x(k )T [(n k )] x(k )h(n k )

kimpulse
n

Linear Shift-Invariant Systems

x ( n)

y(n) T x(k )(n k )

k

x(n)
x(k )(n k )

y(n)=T[x(n)]

T[]

y ( n)

x(k )T [(n k )] x(k )h(n k )

kimpulse
n

Impulse Response
h(n)=T[(n)]

x(n)=(n)
T[]

Convolution Sum
(n)

h(n)
T[]

y(n)

x(n)
y ( n)

x(k )h(n k ) x(n) * h(n)

A linear shift-invariant system is completely

characterized by its impulse response.

convolution

Characterize a System

x(n)

h(n)

x(n)*h(n)

Properties of Convolution Math

y ( n)

x(k )h(n k ) x(n) * h(n)

y ( n)

h( k ) x ( n k ) h( n) * x ( n)

x(n) * h(n) h(n) * x(n)

Properties of Convolution Math

x(n)

h1(n)

h2(n)

y(n)

x(n)

h2(n)

h1(n)

y(n)

x(n)

h1(n)*h2(n)

y(n)

These systems are identical.

Properties of Convolution Math

h1(n)
+

x(n)

y(n)

h2(n)

x(n)

h1(n)+h2(n)

y(n)

These two systems are identical.

Example
x(n) u(n) u(n N )

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

a n
h( n )
0

n0
n0

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

y(n)=?

Example
y ( n) x ( n) * h( n)

x(k )h(n k )

x(k)
k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

h(k)

h(0k)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Example
y ( n) x ( n) * h( n)

x(k )h(n k )

x(k)
k
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

compute y(0)
h(0k)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

compute y(1)
h(1k)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

How to computer y(n)?

Example

Two conditions have to be considered.

y ( n) x ( n) * h( n)

x(k )h(n k )

n<N and nN.

x(k)
k

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

compute y(0)
h(0k)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

compute y(1)
h(1k)

0 1 2 3 4 5 6

How to computer y(n)?

Example
y ( n) x ( n) * h( n)

x(k )h(n k )

n<N
n

k 0

k 0

N 1

N 1

k 0

k 0

y (n) a n k a n a k

( n 1)
n
1
1

a
a

a
a n

1
1 a
1 a 1

nN
y (n) a n k a n a k

N
n
n N
1

a
a

a
a n

1
1 a
1 a 1

Example
y ( n) x ( n) * h( n)

x(k )h(n k )

k
5
4
3
2
1
0

n<N
n

k 0

k 0

y (n) a n k a n a k
0

nN

10

15

20

N 1

N 1

k 0

k 0

y (n) a n k a n a k

( n 1)
n
1
1

a
a

a
a n

1
1 a
1 a 1
25

30

35

40

45

N
n
n N
1

a
a

a
a n

1
1 a
1 a 1

50

Impulse Response of
the Ideal Delay System
Ideal Delay System y (n) x(n nd )

By letting x(n)=(n) and y(n)=h(n),

h(n) (n nd )

(n nd)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

nd

Impulse Response of
the Ideal Delay System

x(n) * (n nd ) x(n nd )
(n nd)
Shift; or
Copy

(n nd)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

nd

Impulse Response of
the Moving Average
Moving Average

k M
1
y(n)
x( n k )

M 1 M 2 1 k M1

M
1
h(n)
(n k )

M 1 M 2 1 k M1

M1 n M 2

h( n) M 1 M 2 1
0
otherwise

... ...
M1 0 M2

(n k)?

Impulse Response of
the Accumulator
y ( n)

Accumulator

x(k )

h( n)

( k ) u ( n )

...
0

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Stability and Causality

Stability

Stable systems --- every bounded input

produce a bounded output (BIBO)
Necessary and sufficient condition for a BIBO

| h( k ) |

Prove
Necessary Condition for Stablility

Show that if x is bounded and S < , then y is

bounded.
| y(n) |

h(k )x(n k ) M | h(k ) |

where M = max x(n)

Prove
Sufficient Condition for Stablility

Show that if S = , then one can find a

bounded sequence x such that y is unbounded.
Define

h* ( n)

h( n) 0
x ( n) | h( n) |

h( n) 0
0

| h(k ) |2
y(0) x(k )h(k )
S
k
k | h(k ) |

Causality

Causal systems --- output for y(n0) depends

only on x(n) with n n0.
A causal system whose impulse response h(n)
satisfies

h(n) 0 for n 0

Example:

Show that the linear shift-invariant system with

impulse response h(n)=anu(n) where |a|<1 is
stable.

1
S | h( k ) | a

1 a
k 0
k 0
k

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Linear Constant-Coefficient
Difference Equations

N-th Order Difference Equations

N

a
k 0

y (n k ) bk x(n k )
k 0

Examples:
Ideal Delay System
Moving Average
Accumulator

y (n) x(n nd )

1 k M
y ( n)
x(n k )

M 1 k 0
y(n) y(n 1) x(n)

Compute y(n)
N

a
k 0

y (n k ) bk x(n k )

k 0

M
ak
bk
y ( n) y ( n k ) x ( n k )
k 1 a0
k 0 a0

The Ideal Delay System

y (n) x(n nd )
x(n)

Delay

x(n)

Delay

h(n) (n nd )
...

nd sample delays

Delay

y(n)

y(n)

The Moving Average

1 k M
y ( n)
x(n k )

M 1 k 0
1 k M
h( n)
( n k )

M 1 k 0

1
u(n) u(n M 1)

M 1
1
(n) (n M 1)* u(n)

M 1

The Moving Average

1 k M
y ( n)
x(n k )

M 1 k 0

1
(n) (n M 1)* u(n)
h( n)
M 1
Attenuator
1
M 1

++
_
M+1 sample
delay

Accumulator
system

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Frequency-Domain
Representation of
Discrete-Time Signals and
Systems

Sinusoidal and Complex

Exponential Sequences

Play an important role in DSP

y ( n)

x ( n ) e jn

LTI

h(k ) x ( n k )

j ( nk )
h
(
k
)
e

h(n)

h(k )e jk e jn
k

H (e )e

jn

Frequency Response

j n

H ( e j )

H (e )e

jn

eigenvalue
eigenfunction

H ( e j )

jk
h
(
k
)
e

Frequency Response
j

H (e )

h ( k )e

jk

H (e j ) H R (e j ) jH (e j )
j

H (e ) | H (e ) | e

H ( e j )

phase
magnitude

Example:
The Ideal Delay System
y (n) x(n nd )
H ( e j )

h(n) (n nd )

jn
h
(
k
)
e

j n d
jn

(
k

n
)
e

magnitude | H (e ) | 1
j

phase H (e ) nd

Example:
The Ideal Delay System
x(n) A cos(0 n )

y (n) A cos[0 (n nd ) ]

H ( e j ) e jn d
A
A
x(n) e je j0n e je j0n
2
2

A j j0n j0nd A j j0n j0nd

e e e
e e
e
2
2
A
A
e je j0 ( n nd ) e je j0 ( n nd )
2
2

y ( n)

Periodic Nature of
Frequency Response

H (e )

h ( k )e

jk

H (e

j ( 2 )

h ( k )e

H (e ) H (e

m 0,1,2,
jk ( 2 )

jk
h
(
k
)
e

H ( e j )

j ( 2 m )

Periodic Nature of
Frequency Response
j

H (e )

h ( k )e

jk

H (e ) H (e

j ( 2 m )

m 0,1,2,
| H ( e j ) |

Periodic Nature ofGenerally, we choose

Frequency Response
j

H (e )

To represent one period in

frequency domain.

h ( k )e

jk

H (e ) H (e

j ( 2 m )

m 0,1,2,
| H ( e j ) |

Periodic Nature of
Frequency Response

H (e )

h ( k )e

jk

H (e ) H (e

j ( 2 m )

m 0,1,2,
| H ( e j ) |

High
Frequency

Low
Frequency

High
Frequency

Ideal Frequency-Selective Filters

1

Lowpass Filter

1
b a

| H ( e j ) |

b a

Highpass Filter

Bandstop Filter

| H ( e j ) |

| H ( e j ) |

Moving Average
k M

1
y ( n)
x(n k )

M 1 k 0
1 M
h( n)
( n k )

M 1 k 0

H (e )

h ( k )e

jk

1 1 e j( M 1)
1 M jk

j
M 1 1 e
M 1 k 0

1 e j( M 1) / 2 (e j( M 1) / 2 e j( M 1) / 2 )

j / 2
j / 2
j / 2
M 1
e
(e
e
)

1 jM / 2 (e j( M 1) / 2 e j( M 1) / 2 )
e

j / 2
j / 2
M 1
(e
e
)

h(n)
0

1 jM / 2 sin[( M 1) / 2]
e

M 1
sin( / 2)

Moving Average
1 jM / 2 sin[( M 1) / 2]
e

H (e )
M 1
sin( / 2)

1 sin[(M 1) / 2]
| H (e ) |
M 1
sin( / 2)
j

 M=4
Lowpass
Try larger M

Moving Average

1 jM /1.52 sin[( M 1) / 2]
e

H (e )
1
M 1
sin( / 2)

0.5

1 sin[(M 1) / 2]
| H (e ) |
M 1
sin(1 / 2)
-4

-3

-2

-1

-0.5

0.5
0
-4

-3

-2

-1

-0.5
-1

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Representation of
Sequences by
Fourier Transform

Fourier Transform Pair

Synthesis
1
j
jn
Inverse Fourier Transform
x ( n)
X
(
e
)
e
d

(IFT)
2

Analysis
X ( e j )

j n
x
(
n
)
e

Fourier Transform
(FT)

Prove
j

X (e )

x ( n )e

1
j
jn
x ( n)
X
(
e
)
e
d

j n

1
j
jn
x ( n)
X
(
e
)
e
d
2
1 m
jm jn

x
(
m
)
e
e d

2 m

1 m
jm jn

x
(
m
)
e
e d

2 m

1 m

x ( m ) e j ( n m ) d

2 m

n=m

e j( n m ) d 2

Prove
j

X (e )

x ( n )e

1
j
jn
x ( n)
X
(
e
)
e
d

j n

1
j
jn
x ( n)
X
(
e
)
e
d
2
1 m
jm jn

x
(
m
)
e
e d

2 m

1
jm jn
x
(
m
)
e
e d

2 m

1 m

x ( m ) e j ( n m ) d

2 m

nm

e j ( n m ) d

1
j ( n m )

e
dj(n m)

j ( n m)
1
j ( n m )

e

j ( n m)

1
e j ( n m ) e j ( n m )
j ( n m)

1
2 j sin (n m)
j ( n m)

2 sin (n m)
0
( n m)

Prove
j

X (e )

1
j
jn
x ( n)
X
(
e
)
e
d

j n
x
(
n
)
e

1
j
jn
x ( n)
X
(
e
)
e
d
2
1 m
jm jn

x
(
m
)
e
e d

2 m

1 m
jm jn

x
(
m
)
e
e d

2 m

1 m

x ( m ) e j ( n m ) d

2 m

= x(n)

Notations
Synthesis
1
x ( n)
2

Inverse Fourier Transform

(IFT)
X (e j )e jn d

x(n) F -1[ X (e j )]

Analysis
X ( e j )

Fourier Transform
(FT)

j n
x
(
n
)
e

X (e ) F [ x(n)]

x(n) X (e )
F

Real and Imaginary Parts

Fourier Transform (FT)
j

X (e )

x[n]e

j n

is a complex-valued function

X (e ) X R (e ) jX I (e )

Magnitude and Phase

j

X (e ) X R (e ) jX I (e )
X ( e j )

X I (e )

magnitude

phase

| X ( e j ) |
X ( e j )

X (e ) | X (e ) | e

jX ( e )

X R ( e j )

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Symmetry Properties
of Fourier Transform

Conjugate-Symmetric and
Conjugate-Antiymmetric Sequences

Conjugate-Symmetric Sequence

xe (n) x (n)
*
e

Called an even sequence

if it is real.

Conjugate-Antisymmetric Sequence

xo (n) x (n)
*
o

Called an odd sequence if

it is real.

Sequence Decomposition

Any sequence can be expressed as the sum of a

conjugate-symmetric one and a conjugateantisymmetric one, i.e.,

x(n) xe (n) xo (n)

Conjugate
Symmetric

xe (n) 12 [ x(n) x * (n)]

Conjugate
Antiymmetric

xo (n) 12 [ x(n) x * (n)]

Function Decomposition

Any function can be expressed as the sum of a

conjugate-symmetric one and a conjugateantisymmetric one, i.e.,
j

X (e ) X e (e ) X o (e )
Conjugate
Symmetric

X e (e j ) 12 [ X (e j ) X * (e j )]

Conjugate
Antiymmetric

X o (e j ) 12 [ X (e j ) X * (e j )]

Conjugate-Symmetric and
Conjugate-Antiymmetric Functions

Conjugate-Symmetric Function
j

X e (e ) X (e

*
e

Called an even function if

it is real.

Conjugate-Antisymmetric Function

X o (e j ) X o* (e j )

Called an odd function if

it is real.

Symmetric Properties
j

x(n) X (e )
F

x(n) X (e
F

x(n)e

jn

x ( n )e

phase

X ( e j )

magnitude

magnitude

j n

phase

Symmetric Properties
x * (n) X (e

x(n) X (e )
F

x * (n)e

jn

x(n)e

jn *

phase

*
j
x(n)e jn X (e )
n

magnitude

magnitude

phase

Symmetric Properties
j

x(n) X (e )
F

phase

magnitude

magnitude

x * ( n)
X (e )
F

phase

Symmetric Properties
j

x(n) X (e )
F

Re{ x(n)} X e (e )
F

Re{ x(n)} 12 [ x(n) x * (n)]

1
2

F
j
*
j
1
[ x(n) x * (n)]
)]
2 [ X (e ) X (e

j Im{ x(n)} X o (e )
F

j Im{ x(n)} 12 [ x(n) x * (n)]

1
2

F
j
*
j
1
[ x(n) x * (n)]
)]
2 [ X (e ) X (e

Symmetric Properties
j

x(n) X (e )
F

xe (n) X R (e )
F

xo (n) jX I (e )
F

xe (n) 12 [ x(n) x * (n)]

1
2

F
j
*
j
1
[ x(n) x * ( n)]
2 [ X (e ) X (e )]

xo (n) 12 [ x(n) x * (n)]

1
2

F
j
*
j
1
[ x(n) x * (n)]
2 [ X (e ) X (e )]

Symmetric Properties for

Real Sequence x(n)
j

x(n) X (e )
F

magnitude

x * (n) X (e
F

Facts:
1. real part is even X R (e j ) X R (e j )

phase

2. Img. part is odd X I (e j ) X I (e j )

3. Magnitude is even | X I (e j ) || X I (e j ) |
4. Phase is odd

X (e j ) X (e j )

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Fourier Transform
Theorems

Linearity
j

ax(n) by(n) aX (e ) bY (e )
F

n 1

n 1

jn
jn
jn
[
ax
(
n
)

by
(
n
)
]
e

a
x
(
n
)
e

b
y
(
n
)
e

aX (e ) bY (e )

Time Shifting Phase Change

x(n nd ) e
F

F [ x(n nd )]

j n d

X (e )

j n
x
(
n

n
)
e

x(n)e

e jn d

j ( n n d )

jn
x
(
n
)
e

jnd

X (e )

Frequency Shifting Signal Modulation

e
F [e

j 0 n

j0 n

x(n) X (e

x(n)]

j0 n

x ( n ) e j n

j ( 0 ) n
x
(
n
)
e

X (e j ( 0 ) )

j ( 0 )

Time Reversal
x(n) X (e
F

F [ x(n)]

jn
x
(

n
)
e

j ( ) n
x
(
n
)
e

X ( e j )

Differentiation in Frequency
d
nx(n) j
X (e j )
d
F

F [nx(n)]

j n
nx
(
n
)
e

1
de jn

x ( n)

j n
d
d
d
jn
jn
j
x
(
n
)
e

j
X
(
e
)

d n
d

The Convolution Theorem

y ( n)

F
j
j
j
x
(
k
)
h
(
n

k
)

Y
(
e
)

X
(
e
)
H
(
e
)

F [ y (n)]

y ( n )e

j n

jn
x(k )h(n k ) e
n k

jn
x(k ) h(n k )e

k
n

x(k ) h(n)e j( n k )
k
n

x(k )e

jk

jn
h(n)e

X (e j ) H (e j )

The Modulation or Window Theorem

1
j
j ( )
y(n) x(n) w(n)
Y (e )
X
(
e
)
W
(
e
)d

2
j

Y (e )

w(n) x(n)e

jn

1
j
jn

e jn

w
(
n
)
X
(
e
)
e
d

2 n

1
j
j ( ) n

w
(
n
)
X
(
e
)
e

2 n

j
j ( ) n

X
(
e
)
w
(
n
)
e

2
n

1
j
j ( )

X
(
e
)
W
(
e
)d

Parsevals Theorem

1
j
*
j
x
(
n
)
y
*
(
n
)

X
(
e
)
Y
(
e
) d

2
n

Facts:

F
x(n)
X (e j )
F
y * (n)
Y * ( e j )

1
j
j ( )
y(n) x(n) w(n)
Y (e )
X
(
e
)
W
(
e
)d

2
F

x ( n ) y * ( n)e

1
j
j ( )

X
(
e
)
Y
(
e
)d

2 n

Letting =0, then proven.

Parsevals Theorem
Energy Preserving

1
j 2
|
x
(
n
)
|

|
X
(
e
) | d

2
n
2

| x ( n) |

x ( n) x * ( n)

1
j
*
j

X
(
e
)
X
(
e
)d

2
1
j 2

|
X
(
e
) | d

Example: Ideal Lowpass Filter

H ( e j )

1 | | c
H (e )
0 c
j

1 c
j
jn
h ( n)
H
(
e
)
e
d

2 c
1 c jn

e d

2 c
1 c j n

e d ( j n )

2 jn c
c

e jn
2 jn
c

sin c n

Example: Ideal Lowpass Filter

sin c n
h( n)
n

n 0,1,2,

The ideal lowpass fileter

Is noncausal.

0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-60

-40

-20

20

40

60

Example: Ideal Lowpass Filter

sin c n
h( n)
n

n 0,1,2,

TheTo
ideal
lowpass fileter
approximate
the
Is noncausal.
ideal lowpass filter
using a window.

0.6

sin c n jn
H (e )
e
0.2
n
n M
j

0.4 M

0
-0.2
-60

-40

-20

20

40

60

Example: Ideal Lowpass Filter

2
M=3

1
0
-1
-4

-3

-2

-1

2
M=5

sin c n jn
H (e )
e
n
n M
j

0
-1
-4

-3

-2

-1

2
M=19
1
0
-1
-4

-3

-2

-1

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Existence of Fourier
Transform

Key Issue

Does X(ej) exist

for all ?

Synthesis
1
j
jn
x ( n)
X
(
e
)
e
d

Analysis
X ( e j )

j n
x
(
n
)
e

We need that
|X(ej)| < for all

Sufficient Condition for Convergence

| x(n) |

| X (e ) | for all

| X (e j ) |

jn
x
(
n
)
e

jn
|
x
(
n
)
e
|

jn
|
x
(
n
)
||
e
|

| x ( n) |

More On Convergence

X M (e )

Define

x ( n )e

jn

n M

Uniform Convergence

lim | X (e j ) X M (e j ) | 0

Mean-Square Convergence

lim

| X ( e j ) X M ( e j ) | 2 0

Discrete-Time Signals and Systems

Important Transform
Pairs

Fourier Transform Pairs

Fourier Transform

Sequence
(n)

(n nd )

e jnd
(| a | 1)

a u ( n)

1
1 ae j

1
( 2k )
j
1 ae
k

u (n)
(n 1)a u (n)
n

1
(1 ae j ) 2

Fourier Transform Pairs

Fourier Transform

Sequence
r n sin p (n 1)
sin p

u (n) (| r | 1)

1
1 2r cos p e j r 2 e 2 j

sin c n
n

1 | | c
X (e )
0 c | |

1 0 n M
x ( n)
0 otherwise

sin[( M 1) / 2] jM / 2
e
sin( / 2)

Fourier Transform Pairs

Fourier Transform

Sequence

2 (

e j0n

cos(0 n )

2k)

[e j ( 0 2k ) e j ( 0 2k )]
k