Transmission line shunt and series

compensation with voltage sensitive loads

Ulas Eminoglu3, M. Hakan Hocaoglu1 and Tankut Yalcinoz3
Department of Electronics Engineering, Gebze Institute of Technology, Kocaeli, Turkey
2
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Nigde University, Nigde, Turkey
3
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Meliksah University, Talas, Kayseri,
Turkey
E-mail: hocaoglu@gyte.edu.tr

Abstract This paper presents an analysis of the effects of shunt and series line compensation
levels on the transmission line voltage profile, transferred power and transmission losses for different
static load models. For this purpose, a simple model is developed to calculate the series and/or shunt
compensated transmission line load voltage. Consequently, different shunt and series compensation
levels are used with several voltage sensitive load models for two different line models. It is observed
that the compensation level is significantly affected by the voltage sensitivities of loads. Moreover,
the voltage level of the transmission is an important issue for the selection of the shunt and series
capacitor sizes when load voltage dependency is used.
Keywords selection of capacitor sizes; shunt and series compensations; transmission systems;
voltage sensitive loads

In electrical power systems, shunt capacitive compensation is widely employed

to reduce the active and reactive power losses and to ensure satisfactory voltage
levels during excessive reactive loading conditions. Shunt capacitive compensation
devices are normally distributed throughout transmission or distribution systems
so as to minimise losses and voltage drops. There are two types of shunt compensation: active and passive. For passive compensation, shunt capacitors have been
extensively used since the 1930s. They are either permanently connected to the
system, or switched, and they contribute to voltage control by modifying characteristics of the network.1 Improvements in the field of power electronics have had a
major impact on the development of shunt active compensators, which are Static
Var Compensator (SVC) and Static Compensator (Statcom) devices. One of the
most important applications of such devices is to keep system voltage profiles at
desirable levels by compensating for the system reactive power. By employing these
devices for reactive power compensation, both the stress on the heavily loaded lines
and losses are easily reduced as a consequence of line loadability, which is
increased.2
In series compensation, capacitors are connected in series with the transmission
and distribution lines. This reduces the transfer reactance between buses to which
the line is connected, increases the maximum power that can be transmitted, and
reduces the effective reactive power losses. Although series capacitors are not
usually implemented for voltage control, they do contribute to improving the system
voltage and reactive power balance. The reactive power produced by a series capacitor increases with transferred power of the transmission line.34
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In electrical power systems, load modelling is a difficult problem due to the fact
that the electrical loads of a system comprise residential, commercial, industrial and
municipal loads. It should also be noted that variation of the loads over time and
number of uncertainties, spanning from economic parameters to the weather conditions, significantly increase the complexity of the load modelling process. On the
other hand, aggregate load models, which represent the load as an algebraic equation,
have extensively been used for various power system studies to understand and
analyse system behaviour under various conditions. Traditionally, most of the conventional load flow methods, for transmission and distribution systems, use the
constant-power load model. The constant-power load model is highly questionable,
especially for a distribution system where most of the buses are uncontrolled. For
transmission systems, where loads are generally served through transformers
equipped with OLTCs (on-load tap changers), it is reasonable to use a constant
power model for the analyses. However, economic and environmental force constrains the system operators to exploit existing power structure to the limits. This
can cause voltage stability problems and increases the risk of voltage collapse.5 It
is widely recognized that, for weak power systems, the dynamic behavior of OLTCs
contributes to the voltage collapse. Accordingly, OLTC blocking becomes a usual
practice among the operators of weak systems.6 Therefore, like distribution systems,
the constant power load model becomes questionable for particularly weak transmission systems. Accordingly a number of studies, found in the literature, deal with the
effects of static load models on various power systems phenomena.715
In Ref. 7, the authors analysed the effect of static loads modelled as an exponential
form on the optimal load flow solution. The load flow solutions are compared with
the standard optimal load flow solutions. The authors showed that the differences in
fuel cost, total power loss and voltage values are significant. Moreover, they concluded that the required iteration numbers are higher when the system is heavily
loaded. For distribution systems with constant-power, constant-current and constant
impedance loads, a new load flow algorithm has been proposed and the effects of
these load models on the convergence pattern of the load flow method have been
studied by Haque in Ref. 8. Results of the load flow show that the constant power
load model gives the lowest voltage profile while the constant impedance load model
provides the highest voltage profile. It is seen from the results that the convergence
of the load flow solutions gets difficult when load exponents increase. The effects
of voltage-dependent load on the convergence ability of the load flow method for
different characteristics of the distribution system are also analysed in Ref. 9. In this
study, the convergence ability of the proposed power flow algorithm has been compared with the Ratio-Flow method,10 which is based on Kirchoff Voltage Law (KVL)
and Kirchoff Current Law (KCL) for different loading conditions, different R/X ratio
and different voltage levels, under a wide range of load exponents in radial distribution systems. The authors have concluded that load exponents have a significant
effect on the convergence ability of KVL- and KCL-based load flow method and
load flow solutions.
The effect of shunt capacitor compensation on the voltage regulation of distribution systems for different static load models has been presented.12 A set of non-linear
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equations is established for radial systems by considering power balance and injected
power in terms of system parameters; consequently these equations are solved for
three types of loads: constant power, constant current and constant impedance load.
In this study, the effects of shunt capacitor levels on load voltage magnitude are
analysed for voltage levels lower than 1 p.u. It is demonstrated that the effect of
shunt capacitor sizes on the voltage magnitude increases with decrease of voltage
sensitivity of the static load. El-Metwally13 has developed a method for assessing
the loadability limit of high voltage compensated transmission lines taking into
account the effect of load characteristics. The effect of voltage and/or frequencydependent load on the maximum power transfer limit and critical voltage of the
series and shunt compensated lines are investigated. Results show that the critical
voltage and maximum power transfer limit of the less voltage-sensitive loads are
greater than the more sensitive load. Ramalingam and Indulkar14 have presented the
effects of load characteristics on the load voltage and current magnitudes, load phase
angle, active and reactive power losses of transmission lines for different static load
types. Results show that when load voltage sensitivity increases, the transferred
power and the transmission line power loss decrease. The same authors15 have also
analysed the effects of tap-changing transformer control on the power voltage characteristics of compensated EHV transmission lines for different static load types. It
should be noted that authors have only studied under 1 p.u. line voltage level. The
effect of high voltage level is not studied in all references cited above.
This paper presents the effects of shunt and series compensation levels on the
transmission system voltage profile, transferred power, and line losses for different
static load models. For this purpose a simple model is developed to calculate series
and/or shunt compensated transmission line load voltage. The developed theory
takes into account voltage dependency of static loads, transmission line parameters,
and series and/or shunt compensator reactance. Two different line models (nominal
circuit model and distributed line model) are used for analysing the effects of different static load models on transmission system performance. Effect of voltage
sensitivity of loads on the selection of shunt capacitor sizes for different voltage
levels is also analysed giving particular emphasis to the voltage level higher than
1 p.u.
Static load models
In electric power system analysis, loads may be modelled as a function of voltage
and/or frequency and this type of modelling is considered static. Common static load
models for active and reactive powers are expressed in a polynomial or an exponential form. A static load model depending on the powers relation to the voltage as an
exponential equation is given by
V
P = Po
Vo

np

V
Q = Qo
Vo

(1)
nq

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(2)

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357

Where Po and Qo are the active and reactive load powers, respectively, at the nominal
voltage of Vo and V is the actual voltage magnitude in p.u. The parameters np and
nq stand for the voltage sensitivities of the static load.
The polynomial load model is a static load model that represents the powervoltage relationship as a polynomial equation of voltage magnitude. It is usually
referred to as the ZIP model and consists of a combination of three different exponential load models, namely constant impedance (Z), constant current (I) and constant power (P). The active and reactive power characteristics of the ZIP load models
are given by:
2

V
V

P = Po ao + a1 + a2

Vo
Vo

(3)

V
V

Q = Qo bo + b1 + b2

Vo
Vo

(4)

Where
ao and bo are the parameters for constant power load component;
a1 and b1 are the parameters for constant current load component;
a2 and b2 are the parameters for constant impedance load component.
The values of these coefficients are determined for different load types in transmission and distribution systems. Usually data, determined from experience, could be
used for the estimation. Common values for the exponents of static load model for
different load components are widely analysed in the literature. These static loads
may have high voltage dependency such as battery charge or televisions.16 The
aggregate load model may attain high values of exponents in the system nodes where
the proportion of such devices is significant. These exponents may be valid for only
a limited voltage range, which are 10% of the 1 p.u. voltage level. At very high
and low voltage magnitude levels the models are inadequate for some load types
such as motors and lighting.1617
Transmission line compensation
Transmitted real and reactive power of the transmission line, which is shown in
Figs 1(a) and (b), can be derived in terms of the ABCD parameters of line using the
following notation:
Vr VS
A Vr
cos ( B s + r )
B
B

P=

Vr VS
A Vr
sin ( B s + r )
B
B

Q=

cos ( B A )

(5)

sin ( B A )

(6)

Where Vs and Vr stand for phase voltages at bus s and bus r, A and B are transmission line parameters of phase a. B and A stand for phase angles of the parameter
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Fig. 1

The circuit models of a transmission line. (a) Nominal TT-circuit model;

(b) distributed parameters model.

B and A, and s and r for the voltage of bus s and bus r. The value of A and B
changes according to the line model. Equations (5) and (6) can be rewritten as:
cos ( B s + r ) =

PB
A Vr
+
cos ( B A )
Vs Vr
Vs

(7)

sin ( B s + r ) =

QB
A Vr
+
sin ( B A )
Vs Vr
Vs

(8)

by using the trigonometric identity

cos2 ( B s + r ) + sin 2 ( B s + r ) = 1

(9)

and substituting eqns (1)(2) and (7)(8) into eqn (9), the polynomial equation of
the load voltage for the exponential load model is obtained as follows:
A Vr 4 + 2 A Vr 2 B ( Po Vr np cos ( B A ) + Qo Vr nq sin ( B A )) Vs 2 Vr 2
2

(10)

+ ( P 2 o Vr 2 np + Q 2 o Vr 2 nq ) B = 0
2

Equation (10) has a straightforward solution and depends on the voltage dependency
terms of exponential static load model and line parameters. It is noted that from the
solutions for Vr that only the highest positive real root of this equation is used in the
analyses. When polynomial load model is used, the voltage equation can be obtained
by using eqns (3) and (4) instead of eqns (1) and (2), and then the function of the
load voltage can be written as:
A Vr 4 + 2 A Vr 2 B ( Po ( ao + a1Vr + a2Vr 2 ) cos ( B A )
2

+ Qo ( bo + b1Vr + b2Vr 2 ) sin ( B A )) Vs 2Vr 2 + Po 2 ( ao + a1Vr + a2Vr 2 )

+ Qo 2 ( bo + b1Vr + b2Vr 2 )

)B

(11)

=0

Shunt compensation
Shunt compensation is used by utilities at both transmission and distribution levels.
In the shunt compensation applications, passive shunt capacitors are extensively
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359

used for power factor correction and to improve the system voltage profile by economical means. The principal advantages of shunt capacitors could be listed as their
low cost, flexibility on installation and practical operations. To show the effect of
shunt compensation on the system voltage profile, a simple two-bus system given
in Fig. 1 is used and a shunt capacitor is added.. The effect of shunt compensation
can be introduced using Thevenins theorem by keeping the load phase angle at a
constant value. For this case, the Thevenin equivalent voltage (Vth) and impedance
(Zth) seen from the end of the line (point of r) can be written for each line model,
given in Fig. 1, by neglecting the active losses of the shunt capacitor.
When the nominal circuit model of a transmission line, given in Fig. 1(a), is
used the Vth and Zth seen from the end of the line (point of r) can be written as:
ZS
)VS
Z S + r + jX

(12)

Z S (r + jX )
Z S + r + jX

(13)

XC X Sh
XC + X Sh

(14)

Vth = (
Z th =

ZS = j
X Sh =

2
YSh

(15)

When the distributed model of a transmission line, given in Fig. 1(b), is used, the
cascaded system parameters and Vth seen from the end of the line (point of r) with
the shunt compensation (jXc) can be written as:
Vs = A + jB XC
I s C + jD XC

B jAXC Vr
D jCXC I r

(16a)

when there is no current on the receiving end, the solution of the receiving end
voltage of eqn (16a) gives the Thevenin equivalent voltage as:
Vth =

1
VS
A + jB XC

(16b)

and, similarly Zth seen from the end of the line (point of r) can be written by using
the ratio of open circuit voltage and short circuit current as:
Z th =

jBXC
B + jAXC

(17)

where
X is the line series reactance;
r is the line series resistance;
Vs is the line sending end voltage magnitude;
YSh is the line shunt capacitor admittance;
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U. Eminoglu, M. H. Hocaoglu and T. Yalcinoz

Xc is the shunt capacitor reactance;

A and B are parameters of the transmission line.
The Thevenin equivalent voltage (Vth) and equivalent impedance (Zth) increase with
the shunt compensation levels by causing an increase on the load voltage magnitude.
The effect of shunt capacitor on the load voltage can be analysed by substituting Vth
and Zth into eqns (10) and (11) instead of Vs and B. When the Thevenin equivalent
circuit is used, load voltage varies with shunt capacitor reactance, line parameters
and load nominal power. In this case, the A parameters of each transmission line are
chosen as A = 1 in eqns (10) and (11).
Series compensation
Series capacitive compensation in a.c. transmission systems can yield several benefits such as increases in power transfer capability and enhancement in transient stability. For the series compensation, series capacitors are connected in series with the
line conductors to compensate the inductive reactance of the line. This reduces the
transfer reactance between buses to which the line is connected, increases maximum
power that can be transmitted, and reduces effective reactive power loss. Although
series capacitors are not usually installed for voltage control, they do contribute to
improving the voltage profile of the line.
When the nominal circuit model of a transmission line, which is given in Fig.
1(a), is used, the effect of series compensation on the transmission line voltage
profile, transferred power and line losses can be analysed by using eqn (18) in the
calculation of the parameters of A and B given in eqn (10) for exponential load model
and in eqn (11) for polynomial load model.
z = r + j ( x xS )

(18)

Where x is the line series reactance, xS is the series capacitor reactance, and r is the
line series resistance. In addition, the effect of series compensation on the transmission line voltage profile can be analysed by using the ABCD parameters of the series
capacitor reactance when a distributed parameters line model is used. In this case,
the equivalent ABCD parameters of the compensated line can be calculated by using
matrix multiplication of cascaded line and series capacitor parameters.
Analysis of shunt and series compensations
A two-bus power system is used and analysed for different static load models with
different shunt and series capacitor sizes. The two-bus system parameters are selected
as Vs = 1.1 p.u., Po = 7.0 p.u. and Qo = 1.0 p.u. with the base of 100 MVA and
345 kV. The load exponents are being varied from 0 to 5 in order to show the effect
of load exponents on the transmission system performance. Two transmission line
models are used. The line parameters are selected as Z = 0.032 + j0.35 /km, Ysh =
j4.2 * 106 S/km and l = 200 km.
Analysis of shunt compensation
Five different capacitor sizes are employed for the shunt compensation with different
voltage-sensitive load models and their voltage magnitudes obtained by solutions of
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361

eqn (10). Variations of the load voltage magnitude with different compensation
levels are given in Fig. 2 for two line models and in Fig. 3 for the nominal model
of a transmission line.
From Figs 2 and 3, it is seen that shunt compensation has approximately the same
effect on the load magnitude for high values of exponents of static load models. On
the other hand, the effect of shunt compensation on the voltage profile for low values
of the exponents is more significant than the high values of the exponents. From
these figures it is seen that load voltage magnitude varies with the load model, with
the increase in shunt capacitor size being highest for the system when load voltage
dependency decreases. It should be noted that for a load voltage magnitude at 1 p.
u., the load exponents have no effect on the shunt compensation level, as can be
seen from eqn (10). Moreover, the nominal circuit model has a lower voltage level
than the distributed parameters line model for each load model and the slopes change
with the load model with different shunt capacitor size being the same for each line
model.
Required reactive powers to keep the load voltage at predetermined levels are
presented in Fig. 4 for two line models and Fig. 5 for a nominal circuit line model.

Fig. 2

Variation of the load voltage magnitude (p.u.).

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U. Eminoglu, M. H. Hocaoglu and T. Yalcinoz

Fig. 3

Variation of the load voltage magnitude (p.u.).

As depicted in figures, load models have a significant effect over the required compensation power. If load exponents decrease, the required reactive power increases
when the voltage level is lower than 1 p.u. On the other hand, if load exponents
decrease, the required reactive powers decrease when the voltage level is higher than
1 p.u. From Fig. 4 it is seen that to keep the load voltage at 0.96 p.u. for the nominal
and distributed parameters line models, 33.41 and 31.57 MVAr capacitors would
be needed in the case of a constant power load, whereas 2.67 and 2.61 MVAr capacitors are required if the load is modelled as a constant impedance load respectively
and for each line model the magnitude of required reactive powers decrease when
load exponents increase. On the other hand, to keep the load voltage at 1.04 p.u.,
127.28 and 125.59 MVAr capacitors are required if the load is modelled as a constant
power load, whereas 162.38 and 160.5 MVAr capacitors are required if the load is
modelled as a constant impedance load, and required capacitor is on the increase
with the load exponents. Moreover, for different shunt compensation levels, variations of load active and reactive powers and transmission line losses, given in Fig.
6, with different voltage sensitivities of different static load models are analysed
when the nominal circuit model of the transmission line is used. It is seen from
the figure that transmission line voltage level has more effects on the line losses
when a different static load model is used. The results are summarised as follows:

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Fig. 4

363

Variation of required reactive power for different load voltage levels (MVAr).

Results show that transferred active power and reactive power increase with
increase of compensation level for each load type due to increase in load voltage
magnitude. It is clearly seen that for the load which has low voltage sensitivities,
the transferred active and reactive power attain higher values than the load with
high voltage sensitivities, for each compensation level when the voltage magnitude is lower than 1 p.u., which concurs with the previous findings. On the other
hand, transferred powers have higher values for more sensitive loads when
voltage magnitude is higher than 1 p.u.
From Fig. 6, active power losses are higher for the low voltage sensitive loads
than high voltage sensitive loads, for each compensation level when voltage
magnitudes are lower than 1 p.u. On the other hand, power losses are higher in
the case of high voltage sensitive loads than in the case of low voltage sensitive
loads when voltage magnitudes are higher than 1 p.u.
As expected, voltage sensitivity of loads has no effect on the transferred power
and transmission losses for the load voltage magnitude of 1 p.u.

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U. Eminoglu, M. H. Hocaoglu and T. Yalcinoz

Fig. 5

Variation of required reactive power (MVAr).

Analysis of series compensation

The effect of series line compensations on voltage profile, transferred power, and
power losses of transmission systems for exponential static load models is analysed
for the same system for two transmission line models by locating the series capacitor
in the middle of the line. Transmission line series reactance is compensated at
10%60% ratios to show the effects of load characteristics on the load voltage profile
with different series compensation levels. Results are given in Fig. 7 for two line
models and in Fig. 8 for only the nominal line model.
As illustrated in Figs 7 and 8, the effect of series compensation on voltage profile
for low values of the exponents is more significant than high values of exponents.
The slopes change with the load model, with the increase of series compensation
levels being highest for the system with decrease of values of exponents. For a fixed
load voltage, it is clearly seen that different voltage sensitive loads require different
series capacitor sizes and capacitor sizes increase with decreasing voltage sensitivities of loads. Nominal circuit line model has higher voltage level than distributed
parameter line model for ratios of 0.0%40% series line compensation. However
these differences in voltage magnitudes decrease with the increase in the line series
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Shunt and series line compensation

Fig. 6

Fig. 7

365

Variation of transmission line losses (p.u.).

Variation of the load voltage magnitude (p.u.).

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U. Eminoglu, M. H. Hocaoglu and T. Yalcinoz

Fig. 8

Variation of the load voltage magnitude (p.u.).

compensation levels. It is seen that the nominal circuit model overestimates the
voltage when line reactance is compensated less than 50% for given parameters set.
On the other hand, the model underestimates the voltage magnitude when line reactance is compensated more than 50%. Overestimation attains a maximum 1.8% of
1 p.u. and gradually decreases when the compensation level increases. Moreover,
the line model affects only the voltage magnitude of the load and the slopes change
with the load model, with different series capacitor size being the same for each line
model.
For different series compensation levels, variations of transferred active and reactive powers, and transmission losses with different voltage sensitivities of load
models are analysed and transmission losses are given in Fig. 9 in the case of using
the nominal line model. Results show that, when the load voltage is below the
magnitude of 1 p.u., transferred active and reactive powers, and transmission losses
increase with decreasing load exponents in the case of the ratio of 0% (no compensation)20% series line compensations. On the other hand, the ratio of 30%60%
series line compensations causes voltage levels higher than 1 p.u. for this particular
transmission system. Thus, transferred power and transmission losses increase with
load exponents. From these results, it can be said that load characteristics have a

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Shunt and series line compensation

Fig. 9

367

Variation of transmission line losses (p.u.).

significant effect on the transmission line performance and a selection of series

compensation levels.
Conclusions
This paper presents an analysis of the effects of shunt and series compensation levels
on the transmission system voltage profile, transferred power, and line losses for
different static load models. The voltage expressions, which are derived for different
load models, depend on load nominal active and reactive power, voltage sensitivities
of load and line parameters. Then, different shunt and series compensation levels
were used for shunt and series compensation with several voltage sensitive load
models by using two different transmission line models.
Results show that voltage sensitivities of load have significant effects on receiving
end voltage magnitude of the line, transferred power and power losses for different
sizes of series and shunt capacitors. It is evident that load exponents have a significant influence on the required shunt capacitor sizes. Effects of shunt and series
capacitors on the load voltage increase when voltage sensitivities of loads decrease.
It is concluded that for a fixed load voltage level, the required shunt compensation

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U. Eminoglu, M. H. Hocaoglu and T. Yalcinoz

levels decrease with increasing voltage sensitivity of the loads below a voltage
magnitude of 1 p.u. On the other hand, required shunt compensation levels increase
with voltage sensitivity of loads above the voltage magnitude of 1 p.u. for the
1 p.u. voltage magnitude, voltage sensitivities of loads are not important and all
loads require the same amount of shunt capacitor size. The voltage dependency of
loads is the primary factor in the determination of series and shunt capacitor sizes.
Therefore the nature of the served load in terms of dependence on the voltage should
be known and taken into account. The nominal circuit model has a lower voltage
level than the distributed parameters line model for each load model in the case of
shunt compensation. It is seen that the nominal circuit model overestimates the
voltage magnitude when line reactance is compensated at low levels (less than
1 p.u.). On the other hand the model underestimates the voltage magnitude when
line reactance is compensated at high level. These differences of voltage magnitude
decrease with increasing line series compensation levels and the line voltage reaches
a higher value than the voltage magnitude of the nominal line model when line
series reactance is compensated at a high ratio. Slopes change with the load model,
with different shunt and series capacitor sizes being nearly the same for each line
model.
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