Kaysons Education

Chapter
1

Electromagnetism

Moving Charge in
Magnetic Field
Day 1

Introduction

Two bar magnets attract when opposite poles (N and S, or and N) are next to each other

The bar magnets repel when like poles (N and N, or S and S) are next to each other,
Magnetic phenomena were first observed at least 2500 years ago in fragments of magnetized iron
ore found near the ancient city of Magnesia (now Manias, is western Turkey). These fragments
were examples of what are now called permanent magnets
Before the relation of magnetic interactions to moving charges was understood, the interactions of
permanent magnets and compass needles were described in terms of magnetic poles. If a barshaped permanent magnet, or bar magnet, is free to rotate, one end points north. This end is called
a north pole or N-pole; the other end is a south pole or S-pole. Opposite pole attract each other,
and like poles repel each other. An object that contains iron but is not itself magnetized (that is, it
shows no tendency to point north or south) is attracted by either pole of a permanent magnet. The
earth itself is a magnet. Its north geographical pole is close to a magnetic south pole, which is why
the north pole of a compass needle points north. The earths magnetic axis is not quite parallel to
its geographical axis (the axis of rotation), so a compass reading deviates somewhat from
geographic north. This deviation, which varies with location, is called magnetic declination or
magnetic variation. Also, the magnetic field is not horizontal at most points on the earths surface;
its angle up or down is called magnetic inclination. At the magnetic poles the magnetic field is
vertical

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Electromagnetism

(a) , (b) Either pole of a bar magnet attracts an unmagnetized object that contains iron.
The concept of magnetic poles may appear similar to that of electric charge, and north and south
poles may seem analogous to positive and negative charge. But the analogy can be misleading.
While isolated positive and negative charges exist, there is no experimental evidence that a single
isolated magnetic pole exists; poles always appear in pairs. If a bar magnet is broken in two, each
broken end becomes a pole. The existence of an isolated magnetic pole, or magnetic monopole,
would have a sweeping implication for theoretical physics. Extensive searches for magnetic
monopoles have been carried out, but so far without success

A compass placed at any location in the earths magnetic field points in the direction of the field
line at that location. Representing the earths field as that of a tilted bar magnet is only a crude
approximation of its fairly complex configuration. The field, which is caused by currents in the
earths molten core, changes with time; geologic evidence shows that it reverses direction entirely
at irregular intervals of about a half million years.

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Electromagnetism

Breaking a bar magnet. Each piece has a north and south pole, even if the pieces are different
sizes. (The smaller the piece, the weaker its magnetism)

In Oersteds experiment, a compass is placed directly over a horizontal wire (hire viewed from
above). When the compass is placed directly under the wire, the compass swings are reversed.

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Electromagnetism

Magnetic Field
1- A moving charge or a current creates a magnetic field in the surrounding space (in addition to
its electric field)
2- The magnetic field exerts a force
field

on any other moving charge or current that is present in the

Like electric field, magnetic field is a vector field-that is, a vector quantity associated with each
point in space. We will use the symbol for magnetic field. At any position the direction of is
defined as that in which the north pole of a compass needle tends to point. The arrows in suggest
the direction of the earths magnetic field; for any magnet,
its south pole.

The direction of
by

points out of its north pole and into

is always perpendicular to the plane containing

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and . Its magnitude is given

Kaysons Education
Where

Electromagnetism
is the magnitude of the charge and is the angle measured from the direction of

to

the direction of , as shown in the figure

(magnetic force on a moving charged particle)
The units of B must be the same as the units of F/qv. Therefore the SI unit of B is equivalent to
1N.s/C.m, or, since one ampere is one coulomb per second (1A = 1C/s), 1N/A, m. This unit is
called the tesla (abbreviated T), in honor of Nikola Tesla (1857-1943), the prominent SerbianAmerican scientist and inventor
Another unit of B, the gauss (1G = 104T) is also in common use. Instruments for measuring
magnetic field are sometimes called gauss meters

The magnetic field of the earth is of the order of 104T or 1G. Magnetic fields of the order of 10T
occur in the interior of atoms and are important in the analysis of atomic spectra. The largest
steady magnetic field that can be produced at present in the laboratory is about 45 T. Some pulsed
current electromagnets can produce fields of the order of 120 T for short time intervals of the
order of a millisecond. The magnetic field at the surface of a neutron star is believed to be of the
order of 108T.

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Chapter

Electromagnetism

Magnetic field of
Current Element
Day 1

Introduction
Principle of superposition of magnetic fields: The total magnetic field caused by several moving
charges is the vector sum of the fields caused by the individual charges. We begin by calculating
the magnetic field caused by a short segment
of a current carrying conductor, as shows in
Fig. The volume of the segment is a dl, where A is the cross sectional area of the conductor.
If there are moving charged particles per unit volume, each of charge q, the total moving charge
dQ in the segment is

The moving charges in this segment are equivalent to a single charge dQ, traveling with a velocity
equal to the drift velocity
. (Magnetic fields due to the random motions of the charges will, on
average, cancel out at every point) From the magnitude of the resulting field
P is

But from Eq.

A equals the current I in the element. So

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at any field point

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Electromagnetism

For these field points, and both lie in the tan colored plane, and
is perpendicular to this
plane for these field points,
and
both lie in the orange colored plane, and
is
perpendicular to this plane
(a) Magnetic field vectors due to a current element
. (b) Magnetic field lines in a plane
containing the current element . The indicates that the current is directed into the plane of the
page. Compare this figure to Fig. for the field of a moving point charge.
Law of Biot and Savart (pronounced Bee oh and Such var). We can use this law to find
the total magnetic field at any point in space due to the current in a complete circuit. To do this,
we integrate over all segments
that carry current; symbolically,

The field vectors

and the magnetic field lines of a current element are exactly like those set up
by a positive charge dQ moving in the direction of the drift velocity
. The field lines are
circles in planes perpendicular to and
centered on the line of . Their directions are given by
the same right hand rule that we introduced for point charges.
What we measure experimentally is the total for a complete circuit. But we can still verify these
equations indirectly by calculating for various current configurations using and comparing the
results with experimental measurements.
If matter is present in the space around a current carrying conductor, the field at a field point P in
its vicinity will have an additional contribution resulting from the magnetization of the material.
Well have return to this point in Section .However, unless the material is iron or some other
ferromagnetic material, the additional field is small and is usually negligible. Additional
complications arise if time varying electric or magnetic fields are present or if the material is a
super conductor; well return to these topics later.

Magnetic Field of a Straight Current- Carrying Conductor

We first use the law of Biot and Savart, to find the field
length dl = dy. From the figure,
and

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caused by the element of conductor of

The right- hand

Kaysons Education

Electromagnetism

rule for the vector product

shows that the direction of
perpendicular to the plane; furthermore, the directions of the

is into the plane of the figure,

a significant simplification

Magnetic Field of a Circular Current Loop

Magnetic field of a circular loop. The current in the segment
causes the field
which lies in
the xy-plane. The currents in other
cause
with different components perpendicular to
the x axis; these components add to zero. The x - components of the
combine to give the
total field at point P

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Electromagnetism

Illustration
Two circular coils X and Y having equal number of turns and carry equal currents in the same
sense and subtend same solid angle at point O. If the smaller coil X is midway between O and Y,
then if we represent the magnetic induction due to bigger coil Y at O as B, and due to smaller coil
X at O s Bx then

(a) By/Bx = 1
(c) By/Bx = 2

(b) By/Bx = 2
(d) By/Bx =

Solution

Now use binomial (1 + x)n = 1 + nx if x << i then divide.

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Electromagnetism

Illustration
Two circular coils of wires made of similar wires but of radius 20 cm and 40 cm are connected in
parallel. The ratio of the magnetic fields at their centre is
(a) 4 : 1
(c) 2 : 1

(b) 1 : 4
(d) 1 : 2

Solution

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Electromagnetism

Magnetic Flux and

Chapter
3
Gausss law of Magnetism
Day 1
Introduction
We define the magnetic flux B through a surface just as we defined electric flux in connection
with Gausss law. We can divide any surface into elements of area dA. For each element we
determine
the component of normal to the surface. (Be careful not to confuse with
.) In
general, this component varies from point to point on the surface. We define the magnetic flux
through this area as

(magnetic flux through a surface)

Magnetic flux is a scalar quantity. In the special case in which is uniform over a plane surface with
total area A. B and are the same at all points on the surface and
The SI unit of magnetic flux is equal to the unit of magnetic field (1T) times the unit of area (Im2).
This unit is called the Weber (1Wb), in honor of the German physicist Wilhelm Weber (1804
1891)

The magnetic flux through an area element

dA is defined to be

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Electromagnetism

In Gausss law the total electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the total electric
charge enclosed by the surface. For example, if the closed surface encloses an electric dipole, the
total electric flux is zero because the total charge is zero. The total magnetic flux through a closed
surface would be proportional to the total magnetic charge enclosed. But we have mentioned that
no magnetic monopole has ever been observed, despite intensive searches. We conclude that the
total magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero. Symbolically

In Gausss law the total electric flux through a closed surface is proportional to the total electric
charge enclosed by the surface. For example, if the closed surface encloses an electric dipole, the
total electric flux is zero because the total charge is zero. The total magnetic flux through a closed
surface would be proportional to the total magnetic charge enclosed. But we have mentioned that
no magnetic monopole has ever been observed, despite intensive searches. We conclude that the
total magnetic flux through a closed surface is always zero. Symbolically

Caution
Unlike electric field lines that begin and end on electric charges, magnetic field lines never have
end points; such a point would indicate the presence of a monopole. You might be tempted to
draw magnetic field lines that begin at the north pole of a magnet and end at a south pole. But as
Fig Shows, the field lines of a magnet actually continue through the interior of the magnet. Like
all other magnetic field lines, they form closed loops.
For Gausss law, which always deals with closed surface, the vector area element
Eq. always
points out of the surface. However, some applications of magnetic flux involve an open surface
with a boundary line; there is then an ambiguity of sign in Eq. because of the two possible choices
of direction for
. In these cases we choose one of the possible choices of direction for
. In
these cases we choose one of the possible sides of the surface to be the positive side and use that
choice consistently.
If the element of area dA in Eq. is at right angles to the field lines, then
calling the area
we have

That is, the magnitude of magnetic field is equal to flux per unit area across an area at right angles
to the magnetic field. For this reason, magnetic field

is sometimes called magnetic flux density

Induction Experiments
During the 1830s, several pioneering experiments with magnetically induced emf were carried out
in England by Michael Faraday and in the United States by Joseph Henry (1797 1878), later the
first director of the Smithsonian Institution. Fig shows several examples. In Fig a coil of wire is
connected to a galvanometer. When the nearby magnet is stationary, the meter shows no current.
This isnt surprising; there is no source of emf in the circuit. But when we move the magnet either
toward or away from the coil, the meter shows current in the circuit, but only while the magnet is

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Electromagnetism

moving. If we keep the magnet stationary and move the coil, we again detect a current during the
motion. We call this an induced current, and the corresponding emf required to cause this current
is called an induced emf.
To explore further the common elements in these observations, lets consider a more detailed
series of experiments with the situation shown in Fig. We connect a coil of wire to a
galvanometer, then place the coil between the poles of an electromagnet whose magnetic field we
can very. Heres what we observe
1. When there is no current in the electromagnet, so that
current.

, the galvanometer shows no

2. When the electromagnet is turned on, there is a momentary current through the meter
increases

as

3. When levels off at a steady value, the current drops to zero, no matter how large is
4. With the coil in a horizontal plane, we squeeze it so as to decrease the cross sectional area of the
coil. The meter detects current only during the deformation, not before or after. When we increase
the area to return the coil to its original shape, there is current in the opposite direction, but only
while the area of the coil is changing.

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(a) A stationary magnet has no effect on a stationary coil of wire. A galvanometer connected to the
coil shows zero current.
(b) When the magnet and coil move relative to each other, a current is induced in the coil. The
current is in one direction if the magnet moves down and the opposite direction if the magnet
moves up.
(c) We get the same effect as in (b) if we replace the magnet by a second coil carrying a constant
current.
(d) When the switch is opened or closed, the change in the inside coils current induces a current
in the outer coil
5. If we rotate the coil a few degrees about a horizontal axis, the meter detects current during the
rotation, in the same direction as when we decreased the area. When we rotate the coil back, there
is a current in the opposite direction during this rotation
6. If we jerk the coil out of the magnetic field, there is a current during the motion, in the same
direction as when we decreased the area.

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Electromagnetism

A coil in a magnetic field. When the

field is
constant and the shape, location, and orientation of
the coil do not change, no current is induced in the
coil. A current is induced when any of these factors
change.

7. If we decrease the number of turns in the coil by unwinding one or more turns, there is a current
during the unwinding, in the same direction as when we decreased the area. If we wind more turns
onto the coil, there is a current in the opposite direction during the winding
8. When the magnet is turned off, there is a momentary current in the direction opposite to the
current when it was turned on
9. The faster we carry out any of these changes, the greater the current
10. If all these experiments are repeated with a coil that has the same shape but different material
and different resistance, the current in each case is inversely proportional to the total circuit
resistance. This shows that the induced emf that are causing the current do not depend on the
material of the coil but only on its shape and the magnetic field

Faradays Law
The common element in all induction effects is changing magnetic flux through a circuit. Before
stating the simple physical law that summarizes all of the kinds of experiments described in
section, lets first review the concept of magnetic flux B (which we introduced in section). For an
infinitesimal area element
in a magnetic field , the magnetic flux dB through the area is

The magnetic flux through an area element

dA is defined to be

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Electromagnetism

School Level
Para magnetism
In an atom, most of the various orbital and spin magnetic moments of the electrons add up to zero.
However, in some cases the atom has a net magnetic moment that is of the order of B. When such
a material is placed in a magnetic field, the field exerts a torque on each magnetic moment, as
given
by. These torques tend to align the magnetic moments with the field, the
position of minimum potential energy, as we discussed in .This position, the directions of the
current loops are such as to add to the externally applied magnetic field.
We saw that the

field produced by a current loop is proportional to the loops magnetic dipole

moment. In the same way, the additional field produced by microscopic electron current loops
is proportional to the total magnetic moment
per unit volume V in the material. We call this
vector quantity the magnetization of the material, denoted by
n
The additional magnetic field due to magnetization of the material turns out to be equal simply to
, where completely surrounds a current- carrying conductor, the total magnetic field
material is
Where

in the

is the field caused by the current in the conductor.

To check that the units in are consistent, note that magnetization

is magnetic moment per unit
volume. The units of magnetic moment are current times area (A.m2), so the units of
magnetization are (A.m2)/m3 = A/m. From the units of the constant 0 are T. m/A. So the units
of are the same as the units of (T. m/A) (A/m) = T.
A material showing the behavior just described is said to be paramagnetic. The result is that the
magnetic field material, than it would be if the material were replaced by vacuum. The value of Km
is different for different materials; for common paramagnetic solids and liquids at room
temperature, Km typically ranges from 1.00001 to 1.003.
All of the equations in this chapter that relate magnetic fields to their sources can be adapted to the
situation in which the current-carrying conductor is embedded in a paramagnetic material. All that
need be done is to replace 0 by Km0. This product is usually denoted as and is called the
permeability of the material.
The amount by which the relative permeability differs from unity is called the magnetic
susceptibility, denoted by Xm.
Both Km and Xm are dimensionless quantities. Values of magnetic susceptibility for several
materials are given in Table. For example, for aluminum, Xm = 2.2 10-5 and Km = 1.000022. The
first group of materials in the table are paramagnetic; well discuss the second group of materials,
which are called diamagnetic, very shortly

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Electromagnetism

Diamagnetism
In some materials the total magnetic moment of all the atomic current loops is zero when no
magnetic field is present. But even these materials have magnetic effects because an external field
alters electron motions within the atoms, causing additional current loops and induced magnetic
dipoles comparable of the induced electric dipoles we studied in section. In this case the additional
field caused by these current loops is always opposite in direction to that of the external field.
(This behavior is explained by Faradays law of induction, which we will study. An induced
current always tends to cancel the field change that caused it)
Such materials are said to be diamagnetic. They always have negative susceptibility, as shown in
Table and permeability Km slightly less than unity, typically of the order of 0.99990 to 0.99999 for
solids and liquids. Diamagnetic susceptibilities are very nearly temperature-independent

In this drawing adapted from a

magnified photo, the arrows shows
show the directions of magnetization in
the domains of a single crystal of
nickel. Domains that are magnetized in
the direction of an applied magnetic
field grow larger.

Ferromagnetism
There is a third class of materials, called ferromagnetic materials, which includes iron, nickel,
cobalt, and many alloys containing these elements. In these materials. Strong interactions between
atomic magnetic moments cause them to line up parallel to each other in regions called magnetic
domains, even when no external field is present. Fig show an example of magnetic domain
structure. Within each domain, nearly all of the atomic magnetic moments are parallel
For many ferromagnetic materials the relation of magnetization to external magnetic field is
different when the external field is increasing from when it is decreasing. Fig shows this relation
for such a material. When the material is magnetized to saturation and then the external field is
reduced to zero, some magnetization remains. This behavior is characteristic of permanent
magnets, which retain most of their saturation magnetization when the magnetizing field is
removed. To reduce the magnetization to zero requires a magnetic field in reverse direction.
This behavior is called hysteresis, and the curves in Fig are called hysteresis loops. Magnetizing
and demagnetizing a material that has hysteresis involves the dissipation of energy, and the
temperature of the material increases during such a process.

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Ferromagnetic materials are widely used in electromagnets, transformer cores and motors and
generators, in which it is desirable to have as large a magnetic field as possible for a given current.
Because hysteresis dissipates energy, materials that are used in these applications should usually
have as narrow a hysteresis loop as possible. Soft iron is often used; it has high permeability
without appreciable hysteresis. For permanent magnets a broad hysteresis loop is usually
desirable, with large zero field magnetization and large reverse field needed to demagnetize.
Many kinds of steel and many alloys, such as Alnico, are commonly

A magnetization curve for

a ferromagnetic material.
The
magnetization
M
approaches its saturation
value Msat as the magnetic
field B0 (caused by external
currents) becomes large.

Hysteresis loops. The materials of both (a) and (b) remain strongly magnetized when is reduced to
zero. Since (a) is also hard to demagnetize, it would be good for permanent magnets. Since (b)
magnetizes and demagnetizes more easily, it could be used as a computer memory material. The
material of (c) would be useful for transformers and other alternating current devices where zero
hysteresis would be optimal.

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Summary
The magnetic field
created by a charge q
moving with velocity
depends on the distance r
from the source point (the
location of q) to the field
point
(where
is
measured). The
field is
perpendicular to
and ,
the unit vector directed
from the source point to the
field point. The principle of
superposition of magnetic
fields states that the total
field produced by several
moving charges is the
vector sum of the fields
produced by the individual
charges.
The law of Biot and Savart
gives the magnetic field d
created by an element d of
a
conductor
carrying
current I. The field
is
perpendicular to both
and the unit vector from
the element to the field
point. The field created by
a finite current- carrying
conductor is the integral of
over the length of the
conductor.
The magnetic field
at a
distance r from a long,
straight conductor carrying a
current I has a magnitude that
is inversely proportional to r.
the magnetic field lines are
circles coaxial with the wire,
with directions given by the
right-hand rule

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Two long, parallel, currentcarrying conductors attract

if the currents are in the
same direction and repel if
the currents are in opposite
directions. The magnetic
force per unit length
between the conductors
depends on their currents I
and I and their separation
r. The definition of the
ampere is based on this
relation.
The law of Biot and Savart
allots us to calculate the
magnetic field produced
along the axis of a circular
conducting loop of radius a
carrying current I. the field
depends on the distance x
along the axis from the center
of the loop to the field point.
If there are N loops, the field
is multiplied by N. at the
center of the loop x = 0.

Circular loop
(centre of N
circular loop)

Amperes law sates that the

line integral of around any
closed path equals times the
net current through the area
enclosed by the path. The
positive sense of current is
determined by a right-hand
rule.
The following table lists fields caused by several current distributions. In each the conductor is
carrying current I.
Current Distribution
Point in Magnetic Field
Magnetic Field Magnitude
Long , straight conductor
Distance r from conductor
Circular loop of radius a

On axis of loop
At center of loop
(for N loops, multiply these
expressions by N)

Long cylindrical conductor of

radius R

Inside conductor, r <

Outside conductor, r > R

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Long, closely wound solenoid

with n turns per unit length,
near its midpoint

Inside solenoid, near center

Outside solenoid

Tightly
wound
toroidal
solenoid (toroid) with N
turns

With the space enclosed by

the windings, distance r
from symmetry axis Outside
the space enclosed by the
windings

B0

When magnetic materials are present, the magnetization of the material causes an additional
contribution to . For paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials, 0 is replaced in magneticfield
expressions by
. Where is the permeability of the material and Km is its relative
permeability. The magnetic susceptibility Xm is defined as Xm = Km 1. Magnetic susceptibilities
for paramagnetic materials are small positive quantities; those for diamagnetic materials are small
negative quantities. For ferromagnetic materials, Km is much larger than unity and is not constant.
Some ferromagnetic materials are permanent magnets, retaining their magnetization even after the
external magnetic field is removed.

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