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The Relationship Between Loss
The Relationship Between Loss
(1)
s = q e
(2)
where q is the charge and e is the electric mobility (not the permeability) of the medium.
Likewise, the electric flux density varies linearly with the application of the
electric field so that
D =E
(3)
H = J + j D
(4)
J is the electric current density, and it has two parts. The first part is the impressed
electric current density, J i (that is, J i is an excitation to the system by an outside
source), and the second part is the aforementioned conduction electric current density,
J c , caused by the application of an external electric field. Thus, we have
H = J i + J c + j D
(5)
H = J i + s E + j D
(6)
In most materials there exists at least one of three types of electric dipoles. Any
kind of dipole exhibits a polarity; that is, one side of the dipole can be described as being
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11/13/2001
2
negatively charged, and the other side can be described as being positively charged. The
three types of dipoles are as follows.
1.
2.
3.
When an external electric field is applied, the dipoles align with the field. This action
causes a term to be added to the electric flux density that has the same vector direction as
the applied field. This relationship can be mathematically described as
D = 0 E + 0e E
(7)
(8)
D = 0 r E
(9)
or
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3
energy is available to propagate past the dipole. Thus, the imaginary part of the relative
permittivity directly relates to loss in the system.
To represent the real and imaginary parts of the absolute permittivity, the
following convention is used.
0 r = j
(10)
(11)
H = J i + ( s + )E + j E
(12)
H = J i + e E + j E
(13)
e = s +
(14)
The effective conductivity is the value that is usually specified in data sheets, although it
might be labeled as merely conductivity. The first term on the right-hand side of the
above equation is the static conductivity, and we can define the last term to be
conductivity due to an alternating field. Thus
e = s +a
(15)
H = J i + j 1 j e E
(16)
H = J i + j (1 j tan e )E
(17)
tan e =
(18)
H = J i + j 1 j s j E
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11/13/2001
(19)
This last equation highlights the fact that two terms contribute to the loss tangent.
s
, describes loss due to collisions of electrons with other electrons and
atoms. For instance, if the static conductivity is high (copper has s = 5.8 x10 7 S / m ),
then charges flow very easily without many collisions. At first glance it seems strange
that a term that approaches infinity in the numerator describes a low loss structure, but it
must be remembered that infinite conductivity implies zero electric field (and finite
current density). That is, instead of viewing the current density as a function of the
electric field,
Jc = s E
(20)
Jc
(21)
Now infinite conductivity makes sense. As one might expect, in conductors, this term of
(19), s , dominates the other term of (19),
.
The
term of (19) describes how much energy supplied by an external electric
field is dissipated as motion and heat. In dielectrics, this term usually dominates the first
term. In metals, the real part of the permittivity is usually equal to the permittivity of free
space, and the imaginary part is usually zero. Semiconductors maintain a relative balance
between the two terms.
Thus, when an effective conductivity is specified on a data sheet, it is useful to
remember that it arises from two sources. For a metal, the effective conductivity is due
almost entirely to the collisions of electrons, and the polarization dependent term is
dropped. Maxwells equation (19) reduces to
H J i + ( j 0 + s )E
(22)
For a dielectric, the effective conductivity is due almost entirely to polarization loss
(dipole motion), and the first term is dropped from the calculation. Maxwells equation
(19) becomes
H J i + j 1 j E
(23)
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5
equations are derived assuming that phasors represent the fields, and a dependence of
e j t is suppressed. Note that if these equations were derived using time derivatives, the
results would be different. That is, one can not merely replace
by j in the result
t
because of the non-linear nature of the equations (products of fields). For this reason, the
*
Ps = Pe + Pd + j 2 (Wm + We )
Ps =
Pe =
(24)
*
*
1
H
M
i + E J i dv
2
V
(25)
*
1
E H ds
2 S
Pd =
Wm =
We =
(26)
1
1
1
1
J E dv = s E E dv = s E dv =
dv
2 V
2 V
2 V
2 V s
(27)
*
1
H
4
V
(28)
dv
2
1
E dv
4 V
(29)
Ps = Pe + Pd + j 2 (Wm + We )
Ps =
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(30)
*
*
1
H M i + E J i dv
2 V
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(31)
Pe =
*
1
E H ds
2 S
(32)
Pd =
2
2
1
1
(
)
E
dv
=
E
dv
s
e
2
2
V
V
(33)
Wm =
We =
1
H
4
V
dv
(34)
2
1
E
dv
4
V
(35)
1
2
V
s +
2 J
s
(36)
dv
We now wish to compare the dissipated power with the exiting power and the
stored powers. As an example, we choose a block of dielectric material that has a plane
wave propagating inside. This wave originated from outside the block, so the impressed
sources, J i and M i , are zero. The plane wave enters at z = 0 and exits at z = z 0 . Thus,
Pe represents both the entering and the exiting power depending on the surface at which
it is evaluated. Pd is the amount of power dissipated in the medium, and Wm and We are
the stored energies.
Before we proceed, we note that non-zero but finite static conductivity implies
that charges are present within the medium. This fact is true because non-zero finite
static conductivity implies that charges take a finite time to travel through the medium, so
that the time-averaged charge is non-zero. Zero static conductivity implies that free
charges never enter the medium. Infinite static conductivity implies that charges progress
instantaneously through the medium; thus, the time-averaged charge is again zero.
Often books talk about a source-free lossy medium. By source-free these
books mean, in part, that the static conductivity is either zero or infinite. That is, the
time-averaged charge is zero. By lossy these same books mean that there is
polarization loss present in the material. That is, the permittivity has a non-zero
imaginary part.
When considering a material with a finite non-zero conductivity, it would seem
that discussion about a source-free medium could not apply. However, because the
charges can be expressed in terms of the electric field ( J c = s E ), the problem can be
treated by the same techniques used to treat source-free media. This fact is very
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11/13/2001
7
fortunate, otherwise materials with non-zero static conductivities could only be treated
numerically. As it is, we will now derive the closed-form solution to a plane wave
traveling in a medium with finite non-zero static conductivity and with polarization loss.
The wave equation that we must solve is
2 E + k 2 E = j s E
(37)
or
2 E + k 2 j s E = 0
(38)
Recalling that
k 2 = 2 = 2 ( j )
(39)
one obtains
2 E + 2 1
j + s E = 0
(40)
or
2 E + 2 1 j e E = 0
(41)
2 E + 2 (1 j tan e )E = 0
(42)
2 E + 2 E = 0
(43)
2 = 2 (1 j tan e )
(44)
or
or
where
(45)
11/13/2001
= 2 (1 j tan e )
(46)
= (1 + tan 2 e ) 4 cos
1
e
2
j sin
1
cos e j sin e
2
2
cos e
1 + cos e
1 cos e
j
2 cos e
2 cos e
(47)
(48)
(49)
1cos e
z
2 cos e
1+ cos e
z
2 cos e
(50)
Letting
1 cos e
2 cos e
(51)
1 + cos e
2 cos e
(52)
and
then
= j
(53)
E = E0 e z e j z x
(54)
=0
(55)
=k
(56)
and
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9
E = E0 e j k z x
(57)
which is the usual expression for a plane wave in lossless space. The magnetic field can
be found from
E = j H
(58)
j H = j E0 e j z y
(59)
or
or
H=
E0 e j z y
(60)
E0 e j z y = E0 e j z y
H=
(61)
when s = 0 , a condition that is not generally true. We now summarize the equations of
the fields.
E = E0 e z e j z x
H=
(62)
j
E0 e z e j z y
(63)
Pe =
*
1
1
+ j 2 z
E H d s = E02
e
z d s
2 S
2 S
(64)
Pd =
2
1
1
e E dv = e E02 e 2 z dv
2 V
2 V
(65)
Wm =
Chris Bishop
2
1
1
H dv =
E02 e 2 z dv
4 V
4 V cos e
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(66)
10
2
1
1
E dv = E 02 e 2 z dv
4 V
4 V
We =
(67)
For a block of material having length, z 0 , and cross-sectional area, A, the integrals
evaluate as follows.
The power entering the material at z = 0 :
Pin = Pe
z =0
1
+ j 2 z
A
+ j
E02
e
z d s = E02
2 S
(68)
z = z0
1
A
+ j 2 z
+ j 2 z0
E02
e
z d s = E02
e
2 S
(69)
1
A
e E02 e 2 z dv =
e E02 1 e 2 z0
2 V
4
(70)
1
A
E02 e 2 z dv =
E02 1 e 2 z0
4 V cos e
8 cos e
(71)
1
A
E 02 e 2 z dv =
E 02 1 e 2 z0
4 V
8
(72)
Note that Pin and Pout appear on the same side of equation (30). In (68) the sign of Pin is
reversed when it is defined to make the sum of the output, dissipated, and stored powers
equal to the input power.
Taking the ratio of Pd to the real part of Pin Pout , one obtains
Pd
= e
=
Re{Pin Pout } 2
Chris Bishop
e
2 2
1 cos e
2
2 cos e
11/13/2001
tan e
=1
(73)
11
Thus, the dissipated (real) power is equal to the difference between the input and output
real powers. Likewise, one can show that
2 (Wm + We )
=1
Im{Pin Pout }
(74)
to prove that the stored (imaginary) power equals the difference in the input and output
reactive powers. The ratio of the dissipated power to real input power is found as
A
e E02 1 e 2 z0
Pd
4
=
A 2
Re{Pin }
E0
2
)
(75)
Pd
e
=
1 e 2 z0 = 1 e 2 z0
Re{Pin } 2
(76)
If s = 0 then the more general equations (18), (51), (52), and (62) through (67)
specialize as
tan e =
s
+
=
= k sin
(77)
(78)
= k cos
(79)
E = E0 e z e j z x
H=
where
Pe =
(80)
E0 e z e j ( z + ) y
(81)
= e j
(82)
*
E02 2 z j
1
1
E
d
s
=
e
e z d s
2
2
S
S
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11/13/2001
(83)
12
Pd =
2
1
1
e E dv = E02 e 2 z dv
2 V
2 V
(84)
Wm =
2
1
1
H
dv = E02 e 2 z dv
4 V
4 V
(85)
We =
2
1
1
E
dv = E 02 e 2 z dv
4 V
4 V
(86)
As s , and become infinite, and the fields go to zero. The assumptions that
s 0 and = 0 do not yield any reduction of the equations.
Chris Bishop
11/13/2001