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Designing Organizational Structure: Specialization and Coordination
Designing Organizational Structure: Specialization and Coordination
CHAPTER SUMMARY
Company tasks are organized to provide customers with goods and services. The functional structure stands
as the foundation of horizontal differentiation by creating a division of labor that leads to core competences.
Functional structures face control problems as an organization grows and becomes more complex: lack of
communication, inability to measure performance, and lack of customer responsiveness. To resolve these
issues, a company adopts a more complex structure by increasing vertical differentiation, horizontal
differentiation, and integration. The source of control problems, the product, geography, or the customer,
determines the type of structure. Three product structures (product division, multidivisional, and product
team) are discussed, highlighting both advantages and disadvantages. The geographic structure and the
market structure are examined with their advantages and disadvantages.
The matrix structure is appropriate when a high level of coordination and a rapid development time are
necessary. The advantages and disadvantages of the matrix are reviewed, as well as the difference between
the matrix and the product team structures. The multidivisional matrix structure offers a high level of
coordination among divisions. Structures may need to be changed over time, so managers should
continually evaluate the cost/benefit ratio of company structure.
Trends in structure include network organizations, outsourcing, and the boundaryless organization, each
with advantages and disadvantages. A key issue in organizational design is how to group tasks and
coordinate activities to create a competitive advantage. Organizational structure fosters coordination,
motivation, and control. The appropriate structure depends on the complexity of activities, the amount of
coordination needed, the number of products marketed, the geographical location, and the customer served.
Reengineering an organization can increase performance.
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CHAPTER OUTLINE
6.1
Functional Structure
Functional structure is the bedrock of horizontal differentiation, which begins when one person assumes a
functional task. As others assume specialized roles, a functional structure emerges, with people placed in
groups based on common skills or common use of resources. The B.A.R. and Grille grouped waiters and
busboys into the dining area function and chefs and kitchen staff into the kitchen function.
Q. How does the functional structure help a company reach its goals?
A. A company organizes jobs into functional areas to offer consumers high-quality products at reasonable
prices. As functional abilities increase, a company can attain a core competence and competitive advantage.
Refer to the B.A.R. and Grille example above for a good working example of how and why an
organization would group by function.
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Focus on New Information Technology: Amazon.com, Part 4
Jeff Bezos achieved success due to the functional structure that effectively allowed Amazon.coms Internet
software to link employees to customers.
Q. Describe Amazons functional structure.
A. First, Bezos created R&D to develop and improve in-house software. Then he established the
information systems department to implement these systems and interact with customers. Finally, a
financial department and strategic planning department were added.
By focusing on the best way to divide the total task into functions and on recruiting experienced managers,
Bezos developed core competences that made Amazon.com competitive.
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Advantages of a Functional Structure
1. People with common skills share information for problem solving or accomplishing a task. Learning
from peers increases skills and abilities.
2.
People can supervise each other and meet work schedules. Peer supervision is key if work is complex
because supervision from above is difficult.
3.
Working closely, peers develop norms and values that increase their effectiveness and loyalty.
Control Problems in a Functional Structure
A functional structure controls people and resources and develops core competences. As a
company grows and becomes more complex, each function tries to maintain the companys
position. Increased demand may strain manufacturing to produce products fast enough or in
sufficient quantity. Control problems arise.
Q. What problems do functional structures face?
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Redesigning Functional Structures to Solve Control Problems
Before adopting a more complex and costly structure, a company may solve control problems through
integrating mechanisms. Marketing and sales have functional hierarchies. Some companies consolidate
departments to resolve coordination problems. (Fig. 6.2)
6.2
A functional structure best serves a company that produces a few, similar products at a few production sites
and markets to one type of customer. When production expands to more products at more locations and to
several types of customers, a company requires a complex structure.
This move entails three design choices:
Increasing vertical differentiation, increasing the levels in the hierarchy, centralizing decision making, and
increasing control with rules.
Increasing horizontal differentiation, product teams, or divisions to overlay a functional grouping.
Increasing integration, using integrating mechanisms, such as task forces and teams, to improve
coordination between subunits and motivation. (Fig. 6.3)
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Moving to a Divisional Structure
A divisional structure groups people from different functions to provide customers with goods or services.
This structure makes subunits easier to manage as a company grows. The type of divisional
structure depends on the source of control problems. If many, complex products cause problems, a
product structure fits best. If multiple locations cause problems, a geographic structure fits best. If
different customer types cause problems, a market structure fits best.
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Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
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6.3
As the number of products and/or services increases, tasks are grouped by product and function. A product
structure groups products into separate divisions. A company must determine the difference and complexity
of products and coordination methods between support functions and product divisions. Support functions
can be centralized at the top or grouped for each product division. These decisions determine a companys
product division, multidivision, or product team structure.
Product Division Structure
A product division structure with centralized support functions is appropriate when products are similar
and target the same market.
Q. What types of companies generally meet this criteria?
A. Food processors, furniture makers, and paper companies fit a product division structure. H. J. Heinz has
product divisions with manufacturing facilities and a manager who coordinates with support functions like
marketing. Vertical differentiation is increased and support functions centralized at the top. (Fig. 6.4)
Each support function is grouped into a product-oriented team. (Fig. 6.5) Sharing of skills and resources
increases a functions ability to create value across product divisions.
Multidivisional Structure
A multidivisional structure is appropriate if products are different and are sold in many markets. Divisions
are self-contained, each with their own support functions and control. Because products differ, centralized
support functions at the top are infeasible. An automaker doesnt know how to market a computer. The
multidivisional structure has a corporate headquarter, organized functionally and responsible for overseeing
division managers. Staff members facilitate integration to share information quickly among divisions.
Unlike a product division structure, a multidivisional structure can control many businesses. (Fig. 6.6)
Refer to Discussion question 2 here to distinguish between a product division and multidivisional
structure.
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and created strategic plans. In 1984 competition forced GM to consolidate divisions, but centralized control
resulted in look-alike cars, and layers of hierarchy slowed decision making. So GM returned design control
to the divisions, but kept R&D and purchasing centralized.
Q. How was GMs structure different from a product division structure? Evaluate GMs structure.
A. GMs structure had self-contained divisions and a corporate headquarters staff. GMs structure had
several benefits:
1.
The ability to measure each divisions performance and to allocate resources better
2.
Improvement in employee morale due to divisional decision making
3.
Sufficient time for corporate managers to focus on strategic issues
4.
Sharing of divisional information to compare profitability and product development time
Still, costs soared due to duplication of functions.
Disadvantages of a Multidivisional Structure
1.
Determining what authority to centralize or decentralize from the corporate to the divisional level
2.
Coordination problems from uncooperative divisions competing for resources
3.
Determining transfer pricing, the price of a product or service sold by one division to another
4.
Higher bureaucratic costs
5.
Distorted information, resulting in communication problems
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Product Team Structure
A hybrid of the product division and the multidivision structures, the product team structure customizes
products, speeds development time, and reduces costs. The poor communication leading to slow
development in the multidivisional structure is avoided. Functional specialists serve on self-contained,
product division teams. A team manager oversees design and manufacturing activities, and employees
become loyal to product, not function. Decentralization and integration facilitate rapid decision making.
(Fig. 6.8)
6.4
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As a company expands into different regions, it needs to organize its core competences to meet the needs of
different regional customers. The geographic divisional structure permits some functions to be centralized
and others to be decentralized. (Fig. 6.9)
This structure increases both horizontal and vertical differentiation. A regional hierarchy is added.
6.5
The customer is the focus in a market structure: commercial, consumer, corporate, and government
customers. Each division develops products for its customers but uses centralized support functions. This
structure permits a quick response to market changes. (Fig. 6.11)
6.6
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Matrix Structure
The matrix structure includes both functional and product responsibility. It is used for a high level of group
coordination to respond to changing conditions. The matrix structure is flat with decentralized authority.
Functional employees remain under a functional head, but work under a product manager. The product
manager leads the team whose members are responsible to both functional and product managers. (Fig.
6.12)
Role and authority relationships are ambiguous. Control is exerted horizontally via teams. A matrix is an
organic structure. Although both a product team and matrix structure use teams, matrix team members
have two bosses and team membership is not fixed.
Advantages of a Matrix Structure
1.
Functional barriers and subunit orientation are reduced.
2.
Cross-functional communication allows members to learn and develop skills.
3.
Employee skills are utilized.
4.
Employees are concerned about both cost and quality.
Q. What are the drawbacks of a matrix structure?
A. Disadvantages of a Matrix Structure
1.
Lack of bureaucratic structure leads to role ambiguity and role conflict.
2.
Teams may fight over resources.
3.
Members often refuse transfers to stay with peers.
4.
Informal hierarchies emerge in response to uncertainty.
5.
Unmet expectations lead managers to increase control resulting in a taller, bureaucratic structure.
The Multidivisional Matrix Structure
A matrix design can enhance a multidivisional structure when placed at the companys top to increase
integration between corporate and division managers. Corporate specialists analyze divisional performance
and design action plans. Division heads and corporate executives exchange information and coordinate
activities. (Fig. 6.13)
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Refer to Discussion question 3 here to compare the product structure and the matrix structure.
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Hybrid Structure
Many large organizations make use of many different structures. Figure 6.14 details how Target takes
advantage of several different structures in its various divisions. The onion analogy on page 169 shows
that each division should select a structure based upon the contingencies and challenges that it faces.
6.7
Companies are moving toward network structures, a group of organizations which coordinate activities via
contracts, not a hierarchy. Companies are using outsourcing, transferring activities to outside organizations
such as suppliers, manufacturers, and distributors. Network structures are becoming complex. Nike keeps
R&D in-house but outsources other functions to companies around the world.
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As organizations grow and differentiate, what problems can arise with a functional structure?
How do the product division structure and the multidivisional structure differ?
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Why might an organization prefer to use a product team structure rather than a matrix structure?
A product team structure allows employees to report to only one boss, the team manager, not two. This
reporting structure reduces role conflict and role ambiguity, making responsibilities clear. Because of a
clearly defined hierarchy, a product team structure avoids conflicts over resources. Established procedures
are used because team membership is fixed; in a matrix, people rotate and feel unstable. Employees may
create their own structure, which leads to more bureaucracy and a taller hierarchy.
4.
What are the principal differences between a functional structure and a multidivisional structure?
Why does a company change from a functional to a multidivisional structure?
A functional structure is simpler and is used for one business. A multidivisional structure has more
integration, more horizontal and vertical differentiation. Corporate headquarters is a level with a division of
labor between corporate and divisional managers. Control increases because corporate managers oversee
and measure divisional performance. An internal labor market allows for the promotion of divisional
managers to corporate positions. A company adopts a multidivisional structure because the number and
complexity of different products cause control issues.
5.
What are the advantages and disadvantages associated with network structures?
Advantages:
1.
Production costs reduced through partners with lower costs
2.
High bureaucratic costs avoided with a flat structure
3.
Organic organizational behavior
4.
Partners replaced for unmet performance expectations
5.
Access to low-cost foreign sources of inputs and expertise
Disadvantages:
1.
Coordination problems emerge, followed by lack of cost reduction and improved quality
2.
Difficulty in replacing partners and keeping proprietary information from competitors
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Its decision-making process was highly centralized; department heads, such as manufacturing, made
decisions and sent them down the hierarchy. Decisions were removed from those making the product, and
functional managers coordinated poorly. The result was higher costs, slow development time, and lower
productivity. These problems eroded Caterpillars market share.
2.
Fites created 4 centralized support divisions and 14 product divisions. Each was a profit center with
responsibility for profits and losses, and return-on-investment goals. Each division had cross-functional
product teams responsible for marketing, product design, and manufacturing to increase productivity.
Requiring marketing, engineering, and manufacturing to work together reduced product development time
by 50 percent. Marketing decisions were decentralized to the regional level for rapid response time.
Manufacturing upgraded its facilities, used product teams, and increased productivity 30 percent. These
changes made Caterpillar compete more effectively.
TEACHING SUGGESTIONS
1. To illustrate control problems with a functional structure, divide students into finance, production, and
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
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marketing functions of a company that manufactures ice cream. Marketing wants to offer many
flavors. Production says it can produce only three flavors, and finance is concerned with costs. This
exercise should show control problems associated with a functional structure. If the company also
offered yogurt, it could attract more customers. Management is too busy resolving coordination
problems to determine strategy. Students will suggest a more appropriate structure.
To make this even more realistic, separate the functions geographically by using several classrooms.
Students get a better flavor of how difficult it is to coordinate activities when they are not all in the
same room.
A role-play demonstrates the problems with a matrix structure. Ask for three students to volunteer. One
student will be a financial specialist who works on a certain product team and reports to the finance
manager and to the product manager. Show how role ambiguity and role conflict arise. The product
manager wants speed and low costs, and the functional manager wants quality.
A good discussion topic is how the matrix structure violates Webers bureaucratic principles. Ask
students what they think of this, and what their experiences are with working with multiple bosses.
In small groups, students are assigned a structure and will list its advantages and disadvantages and
give examples. Structures: functional, divisional (product, geographic, market), matrix, and network.
Look up General Motors on the Internet and report to the class about GMs structure.
To illustrate the value of a proper structure, have students design a really inefficient structure, such as
a restaurant that is organized by product instead of function. Show them how this would make the
restaurant very inefficient because it would need wait staff and cooks from multiple departments in
Copyright 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
order to serve the customer. Although this would be very costly and a poor dining experience for the
customer, it is a good example to show how important structure really is in an organization.
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