Professional Documents
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gnrh
HENRY W. SAGE
1891
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tbe librarian.
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TP 355.S56
Elements of
1921
fuel oil
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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924004256321
ELEMENTS
OF
Vl^ Qraw^JJillBook Gx 7m
PUBLISHERS OF BOOKS
Coal
Age
Electrical World
O R.^
Electric Railway
-^
Journal
Engineering News-Record
American Machinist
Engineering
"^
Ingenieria Intemacional
8 Mining Journal
-^
Power
Merchandising
ELEMENTS
OF
BY
ROBERT
SIBLEY,
B. S.
AND
H.
DELANY,
B.
S.,
M.M.E.
Second Edition
6*8 BOUVERIE
1921
ST., E. C. 4
P^^^bd^X
Copyright, 1921, by the
Inc.
THB
mafias:
prbss to be:
fa.
DEDICATION
To THE University of
WHATEVER
IS
We
University, to Prof.
C. R.
Weymouth,
Messrs. R.
J.
C.
W.
F.
Durand
Marks
Wood and
of
Harvard
Mr.
of Stanford University;
Moore
&
Co.;
Many of the
newer portions
of this
for
San Francisco,
Cai,.,
January, 1921.
vn
Delant.
as
its
oil
power
the efficiency of
ject
oil in
when
the
modern
oil fired.
set forth
suggestions for fuel oil tests largel.v suggestions recently presented personally by the authors at the invitation of the Power
Test Committee of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers
at a hearing of the
Committee
in
New York
ix
where
The many
& Company,
may
Green
which
sum
The
six beautiful
installed at the
in pointing out
Robert
C. H.
May
1,
1918.
of fuel oil
this work.
Sibley.
Delant.
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
...
hot-well
heaters^Feed-water
pumps EconomizersThe
Superheater The separator Reciprocating engines
The
steam
turbines
vacuum pumps.
or
Condenser Wet
CHAPTER
vacuum
pumps
Paoe
1
Dry-
II
14
useful work.
CHAPTER
III
.22
Theory of Pressures.
Relationship
of pressure units
Inches of
water and pounds pressure per square inch The thirty inch
vaccum The practical formula for conversion of pressures
To reduce barometer readings to the standard thirty inch
vacuum Corrections for the brass scale of a barometer Example
Measurement of Temperatures
IV
.
....
of metals
xi
.31
CONTENTS
xii
CHAPTER V
The Elementary Laws op Thermodynamics
The irrefutable experiments of Davy Joule's complete demon.
Page
42
The
law of
Boyle's law Charles' law The absolute
The composite law of gases A formula for gas density To
examples.
compute "R" for any gas Further
first
thermodynamics
scale
illustrative
CHAPTER
Water and Steam
VI
SO
heats.
CHAPTER
VII
Recapitulation of
57
density The
CHAPTER
How
VIII
The meaning
66
rating.
CHAPTER IX
Equivalent Evaporation and Factors op Evaporation.
The standard that has been adopted Dry saturated steam
saturated steam Superheated steam To compute the
horsepower.
Wet
boiler
73
CONTENTS
xiii
CHAPTER X
How
The
CHAPTER
The Steam Calorimeter and
Paos
78
Its
Use
The
XI
86
chemical calorimeter
throttling
calorimeter The
limitations of the throttling calorimeter
The electric calorimeter
The separating calorimeter Correction for steam used by calorimeter The sampling nipple Conclusions on moisture measuring
apparatus Latent heat of evaporation A second formula for heat
of evaporation
Relationship of specific volume for superheated
steam A simplified but limited formula Other relationships
exist.
CHAPTER
XII
95
CHAPTER
XIII
of
of the tea-kettle
tea-kettle
in
and the
operation
100
Efficiency
in
the
modem
CHAPTER XIV
The Boiler Shell and Its Accessories for Steam Generation
The laws of heat involved in steam generation The principle
107
of
CONTENTS
XIV
CHAPTER XV
Page
Boiler Classification.
115
....
The boiler drum and tubes Internally and externally fired boilers
The return tubular boiler The fire tube and the water tube
boiler
Vertical and horizontal types
Illustrations of principles
of construction and operation
The Babcock and Wilcox boiler
The Parker boiler The Stirling type The Heine type Marine
.
boilers.
CHAPTER XVI
Fuel Oil and Specifications for Purchase
124
chase of
oil.
CHAPTER XVII
Fuel Oil Prices and Oil Production
Price fluctuation
Decreasing
supply
CHAPTER
135
necessary development.
XVIII
141
oil
service.
CHAPTER XIX
How
The
The strength
147
of the net section
riveted section
Example
riveted.
CHAPTER XX
Furnaces in Fuel Oil Practice
Fuel oil furnace operation The commercial furnace
.
of burners
...
Location
155
Burner Classification
The
inside mixer
cal atomizer
in
The
home-made type
of burner.
166
CONTENTS
XV
CllAPTEll XXII
Page
174
CHAPTER
XXIII
189
Heat
scientifically.
CHAPTKR XXIV
Fuel Oil Burninq Appliances
Storage
Oil
The
tanks
of
202
oil
K<'\'ernor
oil
oil
fuel oil
CHAPTER XXV
Chanqinq from Coal to Oil
221
227
CHAPTER XXVI
The Gravity of Oils
in
....
The method
of the
CHAPTER XXVII
Moisture Content op Oils
235
methods employed in determining the moisture conThe approximate method of treatment Error in assuming
tent
percentage by weight is same as percentage by volume.
Summary
of
CHAPTER XXVIII
241
Determination op Heating Value of Oils
An approximate method based on the Baume' scale Dulong's
formula based on the ultimate analysis The fuel calorimeter The
.
CONTENTS
xvi
Page
CHAPTER XXIX
Theory op Chimney Draft
.....
251
The law
of pressures in
design at altitude.
CHAPTER XXX
Actual Draft Required for Fuel Oil
265
draft.
CHAPTER XXXI
Chimney Gas Analysis
271
The taking of the flue gas samples and analysis Orsat apparatus
To ascertain the carbon dioxide content of a flue gas To ascertain
the oxygen content of a flue gas To ascertain the carbon monoxide
content of a flue gas To ascertain the nitrogen content of a flue gas
.
CHAPTER XXXII
Analysis by Weight, and Air Theoretically Required in Fuel Oil
Furnace
279
for
burned.
CHAPTER XXXIII
Computation op Combustion Data from the Obsat Analysis.
286
Air actually supplied to furnace per pound of fuel burned An
illustrative
example
air actually
flue
of fuel
CONTENTS
xvii
CIIAPTKU XXXIV
Page
...
295
CHAPTER XXXV
Measurements of Steam Used
Mathematical expression
in measuring steam in
Numerical illustration.
...
Apparatus employed
in Atomization
for flow of
steam
atomization
302
....
307
Calibration
of
orifice
CHAPTER XXXVI
The Taking of Boiler Test Data
The
object
Tlic
The
Time of duration of test The beginning and stopping of a test The weighing of the water The heat
represented in the steam generated The oil, its measurement and
ciency under normal rating
analysis
sary
alysis
flue gas
an-
test
CHAPTER XXXVII
Preliminary Tabulation and Calculation of Test Data
The
to furnace
oil
314
fed
CHAPTER XXXVIII
The Heat Balance and Boiler Efficiency
air
Stray
Boiler
used.
losses
efficiency
efficiency
320
CONTENTS
xviii
CHAPTER XXXIX
Page
SuMMAHY
Fuel
for
Suggestions
Tabulation
OP
Tests
and Their
329
data
Oil
Tabluiition of
test.
CHAPTER XL
The Use of Evaporative Tests
.....
Fired Boilers
Furnace arrangement
sions
from
337
illustra-
test data.
CHAPTER XLI
Economies Obtained in Oil Burning Practice.
....
Economics in the New Cornelia Copper Company plant type
of
Boiler
Operation of
Maintaining economy Motor-generator
equipment
tors
efficiency
CHAPTER
3.51
automatic regulasets.
XLII
368
of
loss
test
oil
oil
of oil
in oil
oil
CHAPTER
XLIII
plant units
Automatic control.
APPENDIX
tions involved in
economy
of
steam
...
Illustrative Problems
Thirty-three examples solved
386
...
400
computa-
Miscellaneous
APPENDIX
Helpful Factors
in
II
4H
CONTENTS
APPENDIX
XIX
III
Page
Roles and Requirements of thk National Boabd op Fire Underwriters FOR THE Storage and Use of Fuel Oil and for
THE Construction and Installation of Oil Burning
lOijuiPMENTS, also Fuel Oil Rules for the City of New
York.
415
APPENDIX
IV
Useful Information
434
APPENDIX V
Brief Biblioouaphy on Fuel Oil
444
OIL CON-
HE
methods
of
power
gigantic
variation
in
flow
in
the
different
not always
possible to depend solely upon waterpower for the supply of electrical
energy.
In recent years the advent
of crude petroleum upon the Pacific
it is
made
it
possible
when
rainfall or
when
water supply
During
cer-
Southern California Edison Comnoted for its use of meters, for various sorts of economy
studies and for records obtained in daily operating practice.
Note the finish
and aesthetic beauty of the exterior.
Fig.
pany.
2.
This plant
is
OIL
CONSUMPTION
Especially
is
this true
Thus we
&
Electric
may be obtained.
A and Station C of
First,
of the
boiler
returned again to the boiler; secondly, we shall consider the circulating water which is necessary in large quantities to convert
the exhaust steam back again into water; and thirdly, we shall
also touch briefly upon the journey of the oil from the time it
('iirs at the sidetrack until it disappears from the chimney as a flue gas. Wc^ shall also touch briefly upon the general
size and functions of apparatus employed to accomphsh these
leaves the
results.
is
The supply
usually brought to a
make-up
of
-S
J<
5o.feS .|
oS
0*0
efl
tj
J,
Orssra Se
WtDOOOCmB
'3
II
II
II
II
II
II
a^o
agSg
"
ft
ag
S 3
o ft
g .S 3.3*1 3
d 3 Si ^ 01 ^ d
II
II
II
II
II
II
(ua
r^T
f*
P<Q<
II
II
II
<
II
II
-^-^
*H h
9
(3 V a>
II
II
CO
either
filled
by pumps,
OIL
CONSUMPTION
pump.
of
when
it becomes necessary to
handle dirty water, that is,
water containing sand, grit,
and dirt in suspension. This
supply pipe.
of
the well
The
casing
driven below
is
,n
the
lift
The
pipe.
lift
pipe
is
air
surrounding
it
between
lift
is
used directly
Fio. 4.
pipe.
It receives
especially
Fig.
5.-
oil
of the
Company
storage tanks.
boiler feed
Economizers.
Economizers
as feed-water heaters.
The
Boiler.
The
and
OIL
cnxSVMPTrOX
temperature.
Modern
boilei-s.
placed on the top and a mud drum placed below, the two being
connected by a series of tubes filled with water or steam. The
fire is below these tubes, and the heat from the furnace is made to
pass around
Fio.
(i.-
body
it
Wilcox Boiler
-oil-firod
with
Poa-
fvirnaco.
is
temperature.
raised to a point
much
higher than
its
saturated
remove all condensed steam that may be found in the pipes. One
form of- separator performs its function by quickly reversing the
direction of the flow of steam, thus depositing the water into
a drip which is drained off into the condenser. Another form gives
tacles.
flow
ticles
is
modern
Suffice it to say,
tion of power.
itnpulse turbines
as vertical
and
vertical shaft,
means
horizontal.
which
is
qf suitable bearings.
From the steam turbine, the steam, having expanded to its useful limit, is dropped into an incasement through
which oool water is being passed. Upon coming in contact with
Condenser.
apparatus performing
there being
steam
is
CONSUMPTION
The
OIL
this function is
two general
classes:
known
as a condenser,
condensers.
In the surface condenser the steam from the turbine and the
cooling water from a nearby source of supply do not
direct contact, but the cooling water
is
come
into
tubes around which the steam from the turbine or power unit is
made to pass. This type of condenser is used where large
quantities of water are available for cooUng purposes but not
for
steam purposes.
in the
form
of water, is pumped from the condenser back again into the hotThis
well by means of what is known as the wet vacuum pump.
pump may be
pump, but
in
general the rotary type seems to have the preference. Thus the
entire cycle for the water is traced from the make-up tank or
hot-well through the boiler and power unit, and back again to the
hot-well.
10
is
denser back again into the open. The water in its journey is
raised in temperature in the surface condenser system from 15
to 20F. above
entering condition.
its
modern power
plant.
Pig. 7.
pumps
oil
in
before
An
many
it
still
further heating
atomizer
is
by means
OIL
CONSUMPTION
11
p.
p,
S
s.
-A
12
the atmosphere.
An
interesting
system
of firing
detail
is
the automatic
effi-
..^L
Fig.
9.
Any
oil.
found that a simple straight line relationship exists between the amount of steam required for atomizing the oil and the
It is
he pressures in
h(> oil
OIL
CONSUMPTION
13
Any difference in oil pressure operates a rotary chronometer valve in the steam main through the medium of a fulcrum,
water motor and lever connecting rod. Likewise the variance
in oil pressure actuates a counterweighted rock shaft which moves
the dampers so as to vary the amount of air admitted for
combustion.
burners.
GENERAL SUMMARY
Thus
it is
oil
as fuel three
on in
as follows:
for
power generation.
CHAPTER
II
IN
STEAM
ENGINEERING
now
of Arabic
practically
uni-
civilized world,
Fig. 10.
Mechanical energy in
reciprocating units at Redondo.
Roman method
of
numerical rep-
was accompHshed,
And
tion
so
it is
engineering
scales, boiler
practice
is
still
it is
difficulty in
14
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS
15
Newton's Laws of Motion. Fable has it thiat Sir Isaac Newwhen a boy in England lying one day under an apple tree
and gazing upward, saw an apple fall to the ground. The conton,
is built.
Law
Newton
1.
motion in a straight
change that state.
may
uniform
be compelled by force to
the force
is
it is
the considera-
Law
in matter that
have
2, it is
makes
defined this
Inertia
is
of
it difficult
Length,
is
it
in motion.
Physicists
of its mass,
16
and
Acceleration,
Velocity,
Force Defined.
Having
now
Since
science
it
necessary that
is
we
Change
unit of time
locity
Fig. 11.
Electrical energy from steam
turbine in San Francisco.
and
which
is
of distance per
known
as ve-
expressed in feet
is
phenomenon
celeration,
is
is
known
as ac-
of velocity in feet
per second.
Since a force
P is fundamentally
M,
multiplied
When M is
by the
by the change
is
equal
in motion, or, in
acceleration, a.
follows
P = Ma
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS
17
W
necessary of course to divide W by giin
W
mass. Thus we have in this case P = a
in
(
^
Thus,
if
hour in
is
from a
seconds, we compute
lb.
fifteen
la)
accelerates
^3000
32.16
40
60
5280
60 X 15
Since this total force must be supplied from the engine cylinder
now gives us a prehminary clew as to how the total engine
cylinder area is to be proportioned.
this
may
The
which
inertia
be measured; hence we
to the diameter.
of mechanics.
Conception of
It is often convenient to
note quantitatively the product of the force and the distance
18
.s8
9 a
.2
"^
r.
3
p^
to
a s
2 5
o-i
ja
03
(D
0-2
d.S
s^
3 &
a
cog
" s
Ul
ft
S
S
""
!
8 2'
ft
W ,g
2:s
"p.
>
'3 *3
^
B^bo
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS
through which the force
This product
acts.
19
is
called
"work"
Thus,
in
if
the
mean
pounds per
sq. in.
of
measured
sq. in.,
it
its
stroke,
ft.,
is
IB
in
PLA
ft. lb.,
since this
is
acts.
If
per minute, the ft. lb. of 'work accomplished every minute are
now seen to be PLAN.
The mention of the words "per minute" in the last statement
now indicates to us that the time taken to perform a given
quantity of work in engineering practice is of vast importance.
Consequently this fact necessitates still another unit of measurement, namely that of power. Power is defined as the time rate
The horsepower is the basic unit. When 550
of doing work.
ft. lb. of work are performed per sec, or 33,000 ft. lb. per minute,
20
a horsepower
is
engine cyhnder
horsepower
PLAN
ft. lb.
computed
is
said to be developed.
as follows:
PLAN
H.P
(2)
33,000
H.P =
77.3
1.5
113.15
125
50.0
33,000
Various Types of Energy Employed for Useful Work. Another important consideration is
that of the physical character-
istic of
it
to perform work.
This physical
quaUty possessed by a body
which enables it to perform a
definite
quantity of work is
spoken of as its energy. Energy
then is the capacity for work.
In general we meet with two
One
is
the motion of a
changed,
Fig. 14.
The safety valve shows
the possibility of safety application,
when pressures become unbalanced.
of position.
nature of
a force
is
body be
required.
in
tion
energy.
possesses
kinetic
mo-
its kinetic
an impulse turbine.
heated so that
it
energy,
On
FUNDAMENTAL LAWS
21
CHAPTER
III
THEORY OF PRESSURES
N
the
preceding
discussions
we
are
such
that
the
body tends to be
changed in magnitude or direcIf two opposing forces are
tion.
velocity of a
is
simply
Pressures
above the atmosphere, are usually measured by means of an instrument known as a steam gage. This
gage consists of a piece of hollow metal bent into a circular shape
which, under pressure, tends to straighten out, see Fig. 16. This
straightening effect is proportional to the pressure under which
the boiler is working. A rack and pinion movement, placed on
the end of this curved piece of metal in the steam gage, causes
the needle of the gage to indicate pressure readings. By comparsures, that is pressures
its
accuracy
is
ascertained.
22
THEORY OF PRtJSSURES
23
such pressure readings arc known as pounds pressure per sq. in.
(gano) which means that one must add the absolute pressure of
the atmosphere, P, to the gage reading, P, in order to ascertain the true absolute pressure
erating steam.
Thus
P under
which the
boiler in gen-
P = P.+P,
Fio. 16.
Thus,
of
(1)
sq. in.
P =
186.4
14.6
201.0
lb.
per sq.
in.
The Column of Mercury. The most accurate method of measuring small pressures such
as the pressure of the atmosphere
vacuum
denser
vertical
pressure
and con-
by means
is
column of mercury.
In
its
of
simplest
form
at
shown
in Fig. 18.
Fig.
l". a hand
^^^
'
the long tube until the height of enclosed mercury above that
in
the
vessel
is
sufficient
24
FlQ. IS.
-The
vacuum
now measure
exactly
29.921
conditions.
Vacuum
Pressures.
It
ilAl
of the
And
so in the
operating
tract the
FiG. 19.
eter for
P
Thus
if
a condenser
is
and steam
still
Pa
P.
(2)
vacuum and
we mean that the actual
it is
vacuum
is
29.92
in.,
THEORY OF PRESSURES
25
source of confusion.
Relationship of Pressure Units.
By careful
measurement
of
weighs 14.696
by which we may
pressure
p<<r
lb.
transfer inches of
Thus
square inch P.
Im
^ 29^21
14.696
^"^^
Very
by the formula
_ 1728
P The
Thirty Inch
inch mercury
zero in pressure.
is
(^)
This
vacuum
Vacuum.
vacuum
"62^
pressure of 29.921
meremy
in.
of mercury.
The reading
of the
column
of
in this case
is
26
CQ
18
to
r?'3
a
-^
3
ai
o 3
a
S
H
S'2
sti
I?
"
13^
s
1*
So
a a
S
0-g
'?.S
2 " 6
a 2
"
THEORY OF PRESSURES
27
We
shall, however, bear in mind tliat the same colwould stand at 29.921 in.
The Practical Formula for Conversion of Pressures. 8iiu
we have thus established an even unit for the standard vacuum,
urcment.
umn
at 32F.
we may
instead of the
cumbersome figure
its
equivalent
Our formula
for reduction
is
This
negli-
becomes
7
30
P =
,,<
^'^
14:7
of this problem is to
would
have read had
columns
ascertain what the two mercury
Scientific
58.1F.
columns
been
at
their respective mercury
mercury
is
accordof
expansion
that
the
investigation indicates
in
inches
the
height
which
is
equation
in
/(
ing to the following
58.4''F.
and
I
at
of mercury at tF.
= /
It
[1.0026
.000104
it
58.4)]
(6)
we
find
by
substitution
28.56
-./,
Similarly to
day,
we
=
=
/,
[1.0O26
-1-
.000104 (82
.")8.4)]
28.415.
30.08
.-./
=
=
/.
[1.0026
29.942.
.000104 (78
58.4)]
of the
28
The net
now be
Since
all
29.942
28.415
1.527
in. of
mercury.
measured on a 30
vacuum reading
/
.-.
I^ for
a condenser
= 30-7^
= 30 - 1.527 =
lev
is
(7)
28.473
in.
(vacuum).
This corrected
is
barometer.
still
scientific
further refinements
essential.
Marks
Professor
THEORY OF PRESSURES
29
Ueduction of Babometkic Hekjiit to Standard Tbmpebatukb CorrecTioNH FDH Relative Expanbihn dk Mehcuky and Brass Scale
Height of
Correction in
Height of
Correction in
Barometer
Indies per
Baronacter
inclies per
in inches
deg. F.
in inches
deg. F.
20.0
30
By
substitution
y
Ua
32.17 3
.082
;24 19
32373
g^ X
28.473
.00015
^
X
oc t^q
28.74d
28.464.
Such refinements as the one for brass scale correction and espeand altitude readjustments are not necessary
It is well, however, to bear in
in most steam engineering tests.
mind such computation in case investigations of extreme detail
cially for latitude
should
arise.
C:HAPTER IV
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES
is
of
tists
they called "caloric" whose entrance into our bodies caused the
sensation of warmth and whose
egress therefrom gave the sensation of cold.
But
heat,
if
suli-
cannot be similar to
those substances with which we are
famihar, since a hot body weighs
no more than one which is cold.
stance at
The
Fio. 21.
temperature.
ture
is
From
an indicator
all,
discussion
in
this
article
the above
it is
than a
31
32
freezing point
X2-
xi
2/2-
2/1
'
wherein x and y represent any simultaneous temperatures expressed in different scale readings and the subscripts 1 and 2
represent definitely known points in correspondence.
In order
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES
Fio. 22.
Gas and
33
Electric
Com-
34
grade
we
scale,
if
find that xi
2/2 is
100.
C -
F -32
32
- 32
100 180
100
212
F -
32
.F -
32
''
=^C
(2)
Fig. 23.
of
temperature
scales.
As an example,
this value
is
F -
9^
32
o
or
^{F -
=~
32)
(84
- 32) =
Reaumur
and Reaumur
28.9
Values.
rela-
scales is similarly
established.
.-.F
Thus
32
= jR
(3)
Reaumur
32
84
.-.
= jR
R =
23.r
formula a tem-
scale as follows:
yfEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES
35
= \r
.-.C
Thus
mur
(4)
scale,
R =
or
Jf?
28.9
23.1
to another
chart
Methods
of
Temperature Measurement.
of correct temperatures
is
of
The
extreme importance.
may
be
ascertaining
Due
to the
mating temperatures:
is
esti-
36
400
Colors
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES
Mean
Specific
Heats
Ordinary-
Substance
Platinum..
.
Iron (cast)
Nickel
38
The Expansion Pyrometer. For the estimating of temperanumber of types of instruments are
employed. The expansion pyrometer, which acts upon the printures higher than 900 a
ever, the
upon
principles.
the
for
steam engineering
thermometers
Electrical
practice.
two
One
principle
distinct
that
upon
junction
when heated
force
is
perature
the
an electromotive
generates
which
physical
class operates
rise.
readings are
Consequently
if
made by means
the
of a
is
at once
26.
Thermo-couple ready
for insertion in the furnace.
FiG.
made
rhodium.
is
enclosed
is
is
employed.
This instrument
is
fo-
back
is
MEASUREMENT
OF TEMPERATURES
is
39
thus ascer-
tained.
Tyroaeter
tcrj
-=^
A.
FiQ. 27.
Principle of
()[>oriition of
the thcmio-couplo.
ing practice
is
dicating device.
40
of
being ascertained.
Correction.
The Stem
in the substance
In
whose temperature
of steam and water are usually ascertained by setting the thermometer into a well which is sunk into the pipe conveying the
steam or water. This well is filled with
mercury or oil and the heat transferred to
the thermometer by conduction. As a con-
sequence,
so-called
stem correction
is
29. Well
the^mometer
for
inser-
is
large
if
the
number
of
at 750F.
The stem
correction
may
formula:
Stem
K =
correction
Kn{ti
ti)
(6)
mercury
in glass;
0.000083 to 0.000089 for Fahrenheit thermometers, at ordinary temperatures, depending upon the glass of
which the stem is made.
n
ti
<2
=-
number
of degrees
emergent stem.
Thus suppose that the observed temperature was 100C. and the
thermometer was immersed to the 20 mark on the scale, so that
80 of the mercury column projected out into the air and the
MEASUREMENT OF TEMPERATURES
mean temperature
of the
41
then
80
(100
25)
0.9.
CHAPTER V
THE ELEMENTARY LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
pointed out in the discussion on
scientists in former
temperatures,
phenomena
plained
by the
existence of a fluid
But these
scientists or calorists,
hitherto
had to give a
unknown property
to their
substance
erty of
filling
out and
The
made
Davy, however, exploded this theory in 1799, when by rubbing two pieces of ice
together, he actually caused the ice to melt.
This evidently
would be impossible under the caloric theory above stated,
according to which friction caused capacity for caloric to be decreased.
Yet here was evidenced the reverse. From time
immemorial, men have considered that the force of truth is almighty, and yet
how slow
the
human
42
race
is
to overthrow
an
ELEMENTARY
LA}yS OF
THERMODYNAMICS
43
For instance, so powerwas Sir Isaac Newton's grip on the scientific world that because he announced that no successful correction could ever be
made for the uneven refraction of light rays in lenses, the whole
world for fifty years thoroughly abandoned the idea of ever being
able to use refractive telescopes, and consequently, during that
ful
period
we
Fio. 31.
fronts at
air
obey
rigid
of the
And so
it
was
Not-
same.
Should
Joule conceived the idea that heat was one form of energy.
One of
this be true, it should be mutually convertible.
is
the well
known
pile
44
He
relationship
W = HJ
(1)
In the chapter on units, we have defundamental unit of energy, namely the foot-pound.
mechanical energy.
fined the
one pound of water from 32F. to 212F. under standard atmosThis is the unit which has been
adopted by Marks and Davis, in their "Steam Tables and Diagrams" and although differing from other previously existing
pheric conditions of pressure.
units
is
Boyle's
Law.Early
fact that a perfect gas, such as air, follows very closely the
known as Boyle's law, that the product of its pressure and volume is always constant provided the temperature is kept constant.
Expressing this in mathematical symbols,
pressure in
lb.,
lb.
per sq.
we have the
ft.
is
ft.
the absolute
occupied by
relationship
pv
Steam
if
v,
poVo
(2)
not a perfect gas and hence does not obey this law with
exactness, still the formula may be used with a fair degree of
is
accuracy when considering superheated steam. Accurate formube given later for steam variation. As an instance, how-
las will
45
The steam
2.26 cu.
ft.
per
lb.
kefx-
is
by
seen to work
Fio. 32.
Superheated steam approximately obeys simple
laws.
(Superheated steam ducts of station C of the Pacific
Company
in
thermodynamic
Gas & Electric
Oakland.)
Charles' Law.
Law, sets forth the fact that when the pressure is kept constant the
volume of a gas increases proportionately to the increase in temperature.
this
Thus
is
illustration,
if
if
As an
lb. of air
would occupy
12.39 (l
we wish
to
in a furnace at 2100F.,
ft.
+ - ^^Q^/^ =
69.8 cu.
ft.
46
The Absolute
Scale.
The establishment of this law indicates
temperatures should naturally be measured from
a point other than that of the freezing temperature of water.
Thus it is seen from the above that a point of 459.6 below the
ordinary Fahrenheit scale would be known as an absolute zero.
all
r =
The Composite Law
<
of Gases.
we
shall
459.6
Since
is
scale
(4)
it is
now
most useful
47
the weight of
temperature.
We may
formula,
Ry =-?r
(6)
To Compute "R"
there
is
ular weights of
Rm ^-^jr
For oxygen y = 0.089222
= 32.
and 32F. and
sure
lb.
per cu.
ft.
at atmospheric pres-
//;
u
'^"'
Since this product
14.7 X 144 X 32 _ ,,
" ^^"*
0.089222"xX91.6~
Rm
is
R = -^^-
(7)
in
As an example let us assume that the temperature of an escaping chimney gas is 40,0F. What would be the density of the
nitrogen content of the escaping flue gases?
for
which
28.
../i;=^=
54.98
48
Hence
since
Ry =
We have
E.
= 14.7X144
54.98t
459.6+400
:.y
.04475
cu.
per
ft.
Mv = V
= R X T, therefore
pV = M XRT
(8)
or since pv
(9)
Thus
we have given 18.805 lb. of dry flue gas we can easily
compute the volume it would occupy when leaving the chimney
at 400F., if it is known that the value of R for the chimney gas
if
Thus
is 51.4.
14.7
X 1447 =
.-.V
18.805
51.4
393.5 cu.
(400
459.6)
ft.
In order to
still
further
illus-
1.
100
lbs.
From
Law:
Boyle's
at 32''F., Vo for
"
2.
From
pv = PoVo
ft. and po
is
, .
14.7X144X12.39
=^-^^ '=^=
100X144
Charles'
12.39 cu.
of air
1 lb.
Law
find the
volume
14.7
.^
144
'^"'-
^*-
flask
"
(i
^2-3^
-^iri) =
( ^
+ 5if)
^"^-
=1
=
gal.
or 8 gals.
1 lb.
1.068 cu.
ft.
10,000X144X1.068
Tl,
men T~Pli ^
765.88
.-.T
or
2050
459.6
= 3200 X
T =
r=
144,
pv=RT
X
" 3200X144
52 9.6
54.98
5.
Ten
lbs. of air at
1 lb.
49
459.6
+ 70
_,
,.
=-"631cu.ft.
529.6,
R =
54.98
Ans.
ft.
What must be
the pres-
sure?
V =
=
R =
T =
M
.
6.
.p
MRT
y
120
10
53.33
659.6
10X53.3X659.6 =
2950
yin
of air does
it
take to
fill
,,
lb per sq.
5600 cu.
,^
ft.
,
Ans.
ft.
pV =
V =
5600
7J
15
^=
.
,.
MRT
T = 459.6 + 60 =
._
15X144X5600
-='^''^^^'^-
144
R =
53.3
53.3X519.6
519.6
CHAPTER
VI
that
inanimate creation
all
physical
tinct
Certain
states.
instance,
for
bodies,
of
them-
force
of
gravitation,
level attainable
must as a
rule
the
lowest
and consequently
be held in a con-
ical
tually
of
In the
class
room
or in the
power plant,
it is
easy to find
il-
Thus, chalk,
and are
Crude petroleum, water, and kerosene are
instances of the second division, and are called liquids. Finally,
air, steam, and producer gas illustrate the third division, and
iron pipe,
known
and
as sohds.
to all Bodies.
The most
interest-
ing thing about these socalled states of matter, and indeed the
itself
is
that
by varying the
any one of
60
then into a
51
liquid
solid.
The Fundamental
in Steam Engineering.
It is
makes the operation of the steam
engine possible. For if we were not able to heat water and convert it into steam, it would be impossible to make use of this
liquid for steam engineering purposes, although it is the most
Principle
Steam Engineering
Supreme.
it
in
face of a mountain lake and the night was getting cooler, the
surface water would sink to the lake bottom and allow warmer
rise
and
is
see later.
to a
a strange thing happens. Something
internal structure that now makes the water ex-
of 39.4F.,
develops in its
A unit volume of
as the temperature is further lowered.
water now becoming Hghter than formerly, no longer will it
pand
52
when a
surface.
is
is
Hence
lowered to
water
is
Coming back from the mountain lake, however, to the formawhen the temperature has reached
now
cold weather.
of
water
off heat.
while
its
volume
The Formation
of
Steam.
^Let
us
now
proceed to a considera-
53
heated to make way for more water from the top to be heated
along the portion exposed to the heat appUcation. Thus the
water becomes warmer and warmer and the transference from
54
is
water.
have been added to the pound of water at 212F. will the, pound
This
of water become entirely converted into steam at 212F.
quantity of heat necessary is important in steam engineering
and is known as the latent heat of evaporation for water under
atmospheric pressure conditions. To be succinct, in steam engineering practice the quantity of heat necessary to convert one
pound of water at a given temperature and pressure into dry
steam at the same temperature and pressure is known as the
latent heat of evaporation for that temperature and pressure and
is usually expressed by the symbol Lf
Steam boilers seldom operInate at a pressure so low as that of atmospheric conditions.
deed, while such a pressure is but 14.7 lb. per sq. in., the modern
boiler in the central station operates at something Hke ten to
fifteen
computation in steam engineering, for it is found that at pressures different than that of standard atmospheric conditions the
latent heat of evaporation is wholly different.
Indeed, so complex is this law of variation that no one as yet has been able to
give an exact formula for its determination, although in. subsequent chapters approximate equations will be set forth. Hence,
it has become necessary to refer to carefully compiled steam tables
for such information and a later chapter will set forth the manner
of their use.
ture
less
is
heat
is
is
required to convert a
increased.
pound
of
55
problems
arise in
temperature.
this
steam at 212F.
Ht=^h,+Lt
of
Ht = 180
970.4
(1)
is
1150.4 B.t.u.
between
.46
and
.60
superheat attained.
of
steam
tables.
56
The
first
instance
is
one in which the steam exists in a dry state and at the temperaSuch
ture and pressure at which it is generated from the water.
steam is known as dry saturated steam. The second instance
is that in which the steam is not completely dry, but holds in suspension small particles or globules of water, and in this instance
The third instance is of
is known as wet steam.
the mixture
importance in modern central station practice and inIn this case the
is known as superheated steam.
steam is first formed by evaporation from water into dry saturated steam, after which it is conveyed through pipes that are
exposed to high temperatures, thus causing the temperature of
the steam to be still further raised, although the pressure practically remains constant.
The complete solution of these three instances for computation of total heats will be found in the chapter on Quality of
Steam as stated above. Meanwhile' the thorough mastery of
the fundamentals of the physical properties of water as herein
set forth will be of vast assistance in a clear understanding of
especial
volves what
Examples
1. The water entering a feed-water heater is at a temperature of 75F.
and leaves the heater at 190F., what is the heat absorbed per lb. of water?
From the steam tables the heat of liquid at 75F. is 43.05 B.t.u. and at
190F. it is 157.91 B.t.u. Hence the heat absorbed per lb. of water is
157.91
43.05
114.86 B.t.u.Ans.
Each lb. of water entering at 64F. has a heat of liquid of 32.07 B.t.u.
Water evaporating into steam at 212F. has a heat of liquid of 180 and a
latent heat of evaporation of 970.4 B.t.u., making a total heat of evaporation
of 1150.4 B.t.u. for every lb. of water so evaporated.
Hence the net heat
required
is
1150.40
32.07
1128.33 B.t.n.Ans.
CHAPTER
VII
i|T
we must
resort
lines of
in
The three most important of these arc the zero point of the
absolute temperature scale, the proper value for a constant employed in the conversion of mechanical energy into heat energy,
58
is
given.
The
lutely exhausted.
if
over 18 miles.
this compilation
based on temperatures represented in the Fahrenheit scale instead of the Centigrade system, the temperatures are
here listed in the Fahrenheit units.
Pressures in Absolute Notation. This column means that the
pressures here given represent the pressure in pounds per sq. in. at
computation
is
which water will boil when the temperature is that as listed in the
column. Further on in the steam tables an exactly similar
table may be found to the one cited except in this latter instance
the pressures are made to vary pound by pound and the corresponding boiling temperature of water given.
In this instance, then, we read that a pressure of 21.16 lb.
first
59
of
Table
Fihr.
Temperatures
60
is
Pressures in Atmospheres.
pressures are given as so
lb.
per sq.
in.
Hence
in the preceding
in this instance is
mended
if
reader.
still
exists in the
mind
of the
Specific Volume.
The cubic feet occupied by one pound of
dry saturated steam at a given temperature and pressure is
known as the specific volume of the steam for that temperature
and pressure.
This
tations.
is
a factor often necessary in steam engineering compuYet no known means has ever been invented whereby
task
is
The
sci-
61
is
expressed thus:
^ = r(^f )(.-.:)
(1)
From the steam tables we will take our values for Ap and M
immediately below corresponding to 230F. and immediately
above corresponding to 232F. Hence
- 230) = 2.
(21.56 - 20.77)144 =
(232
Ap =
T =
L =
vi =
231 + 459.6
958.1
0.79
144
.016)
114.
690.6.
777.5.
.016 cu.
ft.
we have
Sul)Htituting,
958.1
The value
777.5
690.6 (^^'^^
.-.v
18.98
in the table
is
19.05 which
(y
is
This difference
is
probably due
made use
by the comp ler of the steam tables, and then too the small
pressure and temperature variations were probably taken nearer
to the fact that decimals neglected in computation were
of
together than
steam
is
tables.
Specific Density.
The weight
in fractions of a
is
known
as
pound
its specific
of
one
density.
if
umns necessary
in
steam engineering
raise
one pound of
practice.
of liquid technically
62
consideration,
this
column
it
it is
THE
t<rE.\M
TABLES
63
The
total quantity of
=
=
Thus
199.1
(2)
958.1
1157.2.
Internal
disappears
boiling
not increase.
Upon
ner
is
known
On
pressure to
make room
external work.
result
Work = p
B.t.u., we have
External
To
External
Work =
{v
this
Vi)
^^^~^
777.5
(3)
64
21.16
144,
.-.Internal
Entropy of Water.
In
engineering, engineers
to invent fictitious
e=
Wherein
end
at the
d is
(4)
log.^-J
and
is
on the absolute
tempera^
Thus
scale.
in this instance
+
= log.^= W.(
32^^59 6 )
= 2.306 logio-pp|- = .3399.
r^
459.6 ,
The Entropy
231
,
of Evaporation.
by taking
is
by a shghtly
is
added.
65
Entropy
of evaporation
(5)
or in this instance,
Entropy
of evaporation
958.1
=
231
+ 459.6
1.3875
SCO
"51
600
ir
400
^/4rka
o.
/'^rea
of 970.^
C/ni^^^
xoo
J2^pVZ
/'
FiQ. 40.
1.0
I.e
1.4
IC
1.7565
By the invention of a fictitious quality of water and steam, Itnown as entropy, the plotis made possible, so that an area represents heat added.
Thus, in the dingram_ above, the abscissae are entropy and the ordinates absolute temperatures. Tliearca
abcj is exactly 180 units, which is the heat required to raise water from 32F. to 212F.
Similarly, the area jcde is 070.4 units, which is the heat required to evaporate one pound of
water at 212F. into steam at 212r.
ting of a diagram
Total Entropy.
The sum
is
of the
CHAPTER
HOW
VIII
HAT
energy
destroyed
is
is
never created or
a fundamental postu-
of
All
tice.
into another
form to
generator
energy
Thus an
elec-
not create
merely a device
does
but is
whereby energy existing in the
waterfall or in the steam turbine
may
energy.
41. -How
James Watt
have standardized a mechanical horsepower at the Pan-
Fig.
exist
of the
of
66
HOW
67
utmost to accomplish the same task. By close inspection, howit will be found that the small boy has by means of intervening pulleys been able to take from thirty to forty times longer
to accomplish what the horses did in a comparatively short time.
Hence power, the basis of comparative effort, is the time rate of
doing work.
The Development of the Word "Horsepower." After his
invention' of the steam engine, James Watt soon found that
ever,
oloao up view of the filling pipes for the oil storage reservoirs of
FiQ. 42.
the Southern California Edison Company's Long Bearh Plant. These valves
are under control of the oil company from whom the oil is purchased.
68
the blocks the horse could raise a greater load but it took more
time to do it. He found that the average dray horse was able
to raise a load of 550 lbs. at the rate of 60 ft. per minute, or to do
33,000 ft. lbs. of work per minute. This unit Watt called a horse-
Fig. 43.
Steam flow meter, recording pressure gage and indicating pressure
gage, Station C, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Oakland, California.
Hence, since the energy latent in steam was not then known to
be the underlying reason for the power driving action of the steam
engine, the first rating of the boiler was made on the basis of
power development in the engine which received its supply of
steam from the boiler in question. Thus a boiler that could
supply steam to operate a steam engine developing 50 indicated
Later it became evident,
h.p. was said to be a 50 h.p. boiler.
due to the rapidly increasing efficiencies of the steam engine that
such a rating was wholly variable. It was found, however, that
under ordinary working conditions a boiler which could evaporate
HOW
69
The unit
of
power
in
modern steam
engineering.
THE KILOWATT
Flo. 45.
The
is
The unit
of
power
in boiler practice,
which
is
me-
chanical horsepower.
THE MYRIAWATT
Fia. 47.
70
30
lb. of
steam per
hr. at
70
lb.
mode
of boiler rating
became popular.
that 33,000
ft. lb.
of
ft. lb.
may
of
work
HOW
71
expressed in kilowatts,
readily convertible
still
in units
without
Mynawatts =
is
evidently
-^^^
(1)
Simi-
one boiler horsepower is equivalent to heat absorption of 33,479 B.t.u. per hour and a myriawatt to 34,150 B.t.u.
per hour, then we may convert a rating in Myriawatts to a rating
in boiler horsepower or vice versa 1)}' the relationship:
larly, since
_
~
34,1 50
33,479
'
It
has become of
common
parison as equivalent to one boiler horsepower. Hence to compute the builder's rating of a boiler wo must compute the area
By dividin square feet of the surface exposed to the furnace.
ing this area
A by
.-.
As a
ten
we
(3)
Company
in
Oakland, California.
72
This boiler
is
made up
in.
ft.
ft.
of three
In detail
banks
of tubes with
we compute
diameter, circumference
long = 18 X 1.0472
long = 20 X 1.0472
=
=
20.94 sq.
two drums
as follows:
ft.
of
H.
S.
Heating area
20
sq. ft.
37.700
100
2094.00
80
1675.20 sq.
1675.20 sq.
259.00 sq.
sq.ft.
20.94
20.94
80
ft.
ft.
Drums:
2 drums 54
6080.40 sq.
Total
ft.
ft.
To Compute Actual
= ^'"^"^ =
Since
608.04.
fundamental definition
Boiler Rating.
of the boiler
CHAPTER IX
EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION AND FACTOR OF EVAPORATION IN FUEL OIL PRACTICE
it
was seen
upon a
fictitious boiler
is
based
that receives
some
factor
with
in
standard.
In
order also
to
compare the
Piping
in
whoro superhoal
ling
luroa are taken.
boiler sel-
generation,
lemporu-
standard of
it is
comparison be adopted.
under its normal
boiler
Thus a
evaporate
to
13.61 lb.
found
condition of operation may be
taking
when
its feed
hour
per
of water per lb. of oil fired
superheated
steam
at
it
into
converting
water at 169. 1F. and
the
of
gage.
On
185.3
pressure
and
a
a temperature of 627F.
other hand, the identical boiler, when steaming under overload
conditions of a feedwater temperature of 174. 1F., a superheat
temperature of 536.9F. and gage pressure of 194.1 lb. per sq. in.
may be found to evaporate only 13.17 lb. of water per lb. of oil
fired, even though the same quahty of oil be used in each inIt is evident then from sight that to compare these
stance.
two evaporative quantities without taking account of the actual
heat transferred from the fuel to the steam in the boiler would be
a
iM)s.sihlo
source of error.
74
and
to
The Standard
encies
engineers have found it convenient and accurate to reduce all evaporative quantities of a boiler to a definite standard.
In order to follow out this standardized comparison, aU steam
generating performances of boilers read as if the boiler took its
feed water at 212F. and atmospheric pressure, and converted
it into dry saturated steam at 212F. and atmospheric pressure,
as set forth in the standard definition of the boiler horepower in
the last chapter. It is clearly evident that no such theoretical
EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION
75
may
in
known
is
would evidently
lie
Mw
"^,i
urated steam
F, (dry saturated steam)
-'
j-^
(3)
of a boiler
1196.4
^"
Wet Steam.
In the case
970:4
69.8
^-^^
required
to raise the temperature
is
hf)
tain portion of heat {he
t/
to the temperature of
temperature
entrance
of the water from
11).
are then evaporated
of
a
parts
if
only
A'
evaporation te and
into steam, only XeL^ B.t.u. are required to accomplish this result.
Hence, the total heat required per lb. of water so evaporated is
+ XJ.. -hf).
As a consequence the
(he
may
f ,(wet
steam)
^i^^^
(4j
76
F.
345.6
.95
850.8
69.8
^^-^
_
-
-.-.^
1.117
To
follow
'
(5)
illustration let us
it
appears superheated
in the
_
~
1254.3
^TOii
69.8
is
_
-
^-22
formula
tion of
Meh
in
lb. of
water evapo-
EQUIVALENT EVAPORATION
rated per hour, the boiler
Hence
to
rompute the
is
if
its
horsepower
Bl. hp.
We
of
we
^1
77
boiler horsepower,
Bl. hp.
Thus
is
(6)
lb. of
found to be
=676.7
=^|#f5_
34.5
boiler
absorbed by the generation of steam per hour. For in oiu discussion in the previous chapter it was shown that one boiler horse-
power
is
atmospheric pressure. The formulas deduced above for equivalent evaporation and factor of evaporation enable us to do this.
CHAPTER X
HOW
TEAM
used
as
practice
engineering
superheated,
or
saturated
in
is
de-
generation.
Wet
impUes,
which
globules
or
particles
of
water.
good
steam as
all
steam
it
is
boilers
free
generation
is
the function of
to
generate
from water as
possible.
H, =
This
is
ht
heat units.
On
(1)
of original water
+ XLt
78
IfOW TO
79
equal to A' luis actually gone into steam, the heat required in
the latent heat of evaporation i.s but XLt.
Dry Saturated Steam. A.s one may infer from the heading,
saturated steam that contains no moisture is called dry saturated
steam. In the chapter on properties of water the determination
of its total heat was illustrated quite fully.
We may, however,
derive the equation for total heat of dry saturated steam from the
equation above for wet steam. For in this latter instance since
no water is present, evidently A' becomes equal to unity. Hence
for dry saturated steam
H, = hi+ Lt
(2)
when water
generated.
It has, however, been found of immense economic value in
steam engineering practice to actually use steam that is heated
over a hundred decrees in (ixcess of the temperature at which
saturated steam may be gcmu-ated under the existing i)ressure
conditions.
It is seen that such steam must, of course, first
become absolutely dry and then any additional heat that may be
added goes toward raising its temperature if the pressure be kept
constant.
.46 to .60
it is
impossible lo do
so.
FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING
80
Hence
superheat,
we must
refer to
steam tables
and degree
of
And, indeed,
this too is necessary to find all the other constants that relate to
superheated steam.
raise the
Hs =
As an example
let
h,
Lt
Cp
{ts
t)
(3)
is
being
=
=
Hs =
=
ht
.-.
It is
Lt
180.
212.
970.4
C,
180
-I-
970.4
180
970.4
U =
312.
0.46
although the value Ha may betaken directly from the steam tables,
still it is based on the several steps above taken.
In many steam
engineering problems this separate analysis or dissecting must be
done so it is well to clinch this matter without delay.
Steam Calorimeters.
practice.
At
this
is
known
in later pages.
point,
several
types
and yet
is
accomplished.
of
HOW
81
The steam calorimeter is an instrument used in steam engineering practice to determine the exact quality of steam, whether it
be wet, dry saturated, or superheated, and to what extent.
Since the thermometer and the carefully calibrated pressure gage
constitute the easiest and most direct method of ascertaining
superheat, the uses of the steam calorimeter are usually limited
to determination of moisture in wet steam.
The method
of ascertain-
""'faV't/-
FiQ. 51.
Tti,
Temperature determination
0.000086
6
300
(529
141)
10F.
FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING
82
The
10
539F.
If
now
is
therefore 529
is
lb.
per sq.
we proceed
+
in.
as
follows:
193.2
lb.
per sq.
consideration
is
in.
Hence, the superheat of the steam under
the difference of 539 and 379, which is 160F.
test.
let
conditions
in
the barrel;
and
us
1
will
represent
let
subfinal
the weights
involved.
The
HOW
to heat gained
83
that
losses,
Wo
.
{ho
Xo =
XoLo
h,)
W,{h2
hi)
=
-
TFi (h2
Woiho
- hi)
- hi)
WoLo
(4)
As an example,
90
lb.
Fio. 52.
Auxiliary steam apparatus at left with boiler at right showing soot
blower and auxiliary steam piping, Long Beach Plant, Southern California
Edison Company.
main as
=
Wi =
Po
90
27
follows:
lb.
lb.,
per sq
M'o
in.
(gage)
lb.
FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING
84
tables
Lo = 885.4, ho
27(142.9
^
^=
.'
Xo =
301.8, hi
30.1)
30.1,
/12
142.9
- 3(301^8-142^ _
"^''^
885.4
Side view of oil fired Stirling boilers showing the steam piping,
Fig. 53.
soot blower, piping and explosion doors, station A, Pacific Gas and Electric
Company, San Francisco.
HOW
85
condensed steam discharged through the coil. It is also necessary to take the pressure of the steam under observation and
to note the temperature of the tank of water before and after
application as well as the temperature of the water discharged
from the coils.
Proceeding by similar reasoning as set forth in the former instance, the heat lost by each pound of steam is sure to be (^o
XoLo hi), wherein the subscript 3 is to denote the condition
of the steam condensed into water as it emerges from the coil.
The heat gained by each pound of water in the tank is also seen
to be {hi hi) heat units.
Hence if Wo lb. of condensed steam
are discharged and T^i lb. of water are found in the tank, since
the heat lost by the steam is equal to that gained by the water,
neglecting radiation and other minor losses, we have
WoiXoLo
To
+ ho-
Wijhi
,,
-^
"
illustrate, let
hs)
fe,)
= Wiihi - h,)
- Wojh , - h,)
...
^^^
WoLo
coils immersed
water at an initial temperaAt the conclusion of the condensation the
ture of 100r.
water in the tank is found to be at a temperature of 204.5F.,
while that emerging from the coils is 210^. The quality of
the steam is at once found by substitution in the formula as
sure of 100
in a
lb.
per sq.
in.
absolute
is
passed through
of
follows:
From
h =
100F.,
we have
lb.,
we
<2
find
po
204.5F.,
hi
68,
100
lb.,
Wi =
10
lb..
and U = 210F.
h=
172.5, h,
Wo
From
178, ho
888.0.
^ =
10 (172.5
- 1 (298.3 0^888
68)
178)
, .
^-"^
CHAPTER XI
THE STEAM CALORIMETER AND
We
come now
ITS USE
of accuracy.
it
is
Hence by passing
The
Throttling Calorimeter.
is
ascertained.
it is feeen
per sq.
that
in.,
which was at but 14.7 lb. per sq. in. From the steam tables it
is seen that saturated steam existing under such a pressure holds
What then becomes of the differin storage but 1160.4 B.t.u.
ence between 1197.6 B.t.u. and 1150 B.t.u. represented by the
heat held in storage in the two instances? Evidently if the main
at the lower temperature be well hooded so that no heat escapes,
the heat given out must go toward superheating the steam at the
lower pressure. Since the specific heat of superheated steam at
the lower pressure is about 0.47, the 47.2 B.t.u.. that are liberated
86
87
in superheating
FiQ. 54.
In the tj^pioal throttling calorimeter, steam is drawn from a vertical main through the
sampling nipple, then passed around the first thermometer cup, then through a one-eighth
inch orifice in a disk between two flanges, and lastly around the second thermometer cup
and to the atmosphere. Thermometers am inserted in the wells, which should be filled
Due to the fact that the heat content in the steam
with mercury or heavy cylinder oil.
under the expanded condition with which it reaches the second thermometer, is much less,
the heat thus liberated superheats the steam at this point and thus a means is given for
ascertaining the moisture originally in the steam sample.
88
steam
of
the
in
lower
chamber holds
pressure
in storage
+ Ao
XoLo
= Hi
+ Cpm{ts
is)
Cpm
+ 0.47
^ H,
Ao
in
which
i?, is
jt^-ts)
J
-he _
we have
H,-K
,,,
u;
pressure chamber.
from the steam tables when the pressure and degree of superheat
are known.
As an illustration, let us assume that the pressure in the steam
main is 153.6 lb. per sq. in. abs. and that its temperature is found
to be 362. 9F., thus indicating at once that the steam is saturated
and not superheated. After it has expanded into the low pressure chamber it is found to have a temperature of 261. 3F. and
a pressure of 14.8 lb. per sq. in. absolute.
From the steam tables we find Lo = 859.6; ho = 334.8; Hz
= 1150.5; U = 261.3; t, = 2]2.4F.
^ = 1150.5-334.8 + 0.47(261.3-212.4)
X
=
859.6
'
Normal Reading
is
necessary to
is
of the Calorimeter.
make
,^
-^^^^
This may be done by taking readings on the instrument when absolutely dry saturated steam is passing through
This reading is called the Normal Reading of the calorimeter.
it.
calorimeter.
A boiler that
standing by without a fire under it but with presdry steam. It is, therefore, possible to secure the normal reading of the calorimeter right in
place, by shutting off the oil burners and allowing the circulation
sure
up
is
rest.
is
shown
of
on page
In this arrangement the calorimeter is supplied from near
89.
the top of a horizontal pipe containing quiescent steam, a drain
being provided to remove the moisture from the bottom.
By
V Here
when
in reality the
is
(i)
H^jj-_0A7{t
in equation (1)
h)
89
we have
steam
is
dry.
is
Bteam GAoge
Tbermoixiecer
Drain VaWe
Valte Cracked
suggestiou for a steam calorimeter attachment for determinine normal reading of calorimeter.
(See page 88.)
steam under
lost,
as indicated
"//,
0.47(<n
h)
ho
we have
_ Hi +
.47(tn
0.47
((.
h)
- K
^o
Lio
By
ts)
Lo
Thus
was 290F.
normal read-
Then the
The steam
0.47 (290
261.3)
0.0157
859.6
true
90
It will
fulness.
fails
to
become
(Xo888
is
-|-
(XaLo
Hi, or 1163.9,
if it
Z888
if
-I-
298.3
..X
there
is
1163.9
?^ = 0.9748
fail to
lb.
absolute per
square inch, the steam in the calorimeter had been throttled down
to 14.7 lb. the value of Hz would have been 1150.4 instead of
1163.9 so that A'o would become 0.9597 and the limit of the calorimeter in this case would be 4.03 per cent, of moisture.
Again if instead of steam at 100 lb. absolute pressure we had
steam at 200 lb. and allowed the sample in the calorimeter to be
throttled down to 14.7 lb. it may be found in the same way that
is
It is
thus seen that the greater the difference in pressure between the
high pressure and the low pressure in the calorimeter, the greater
is
The
Electric Calorimeter.
It is
now evident
that
if
a definitely
of
91
escapt'H
XJ.a
..Ji:
Ik
E = H,
= ^l-Z_J^^U^
(2)
and vice
versa,
a ready means is
its work by
843.2;
354.9; U
'^
Y
.
116Q-1
233.0; hence,
H,=
- J54.9^__40
1160.1
g^g
843.2
we have by
inspection
^" =
wT+V^
^^)
^~_
1 0,000
10,000 -h 285
_
'^^''^
92
There are many principles upon which the separating calorimeter may operate. There are two forms, however, which are
more usual than others. In one instance the steam mixture is
given a rotary motion in its journey and consequently the water
particles are thrown off by centrifugal force and collect in a drip
In the other instance the stream flow receives a sudden
below.
As dry steam easily performs this feat
reversal in direction.
and water insists upon continuing its former direction of flow
a separation is thus mechanically effected.
Fig. 5j.
In this type of separating calorimeter the steam, with ita moisture enters from the steam
main at 6 and is forced to travel downward toward 3 at a high velocity. At 1'4, however,
the direction is suddenly reversed upward toward 7 and later passed downward through 4
and out into the atmosphere at 8. When the sudden reversal takes place at 14, the moisture
in the steam collects at 3 and its content is measured on the gage 12.
The steam content,
on the other hand, is calculated by means of Napier's formula as it passes through the orifice at 8 as illustrated in the text.
Correction for
In a great many
instances the total weight of steam passing per hour through the
prime importance.
test is of
93
of calorimeter operate
Many
the flow of steam into the atmosphere from a high pressure source.
= ^~
(4)'
70
less
steam
is
first
The
clrillcd in irregular
failure to
determinations.
calorimeter
termination.
If,
calorimeter.
throttling calorimeter
may
be used up to
94
city
is
possible to
make up a
by providing a
fittings
it is
throttling calorimeter
by means
It
of pipe
having a
shown
throttling
may
56.
Fig.
calorimeter
of
this
should
type
mometer well, C, so that the thermometer bulb will come well below
the steam inlet A, thus giving the
taken.
is
steam jacket
is
In this design a
provided to pre-
Fig. 56.
A suggestion for a convenient and compact type of throt-
tling calorimeter.
losses
many
For
steam the
is
we
much
M.
CHAPTER
XII
to
set
simple
forth
mathematical
equations
for
their
representation.
of reasoning based
the equation
said to
is
\h\
rational.
If,
be empirical.
Most of the equations used to set forth steam variables are
partly rational and partly empirical.
Any
equation, unless
it
be comparatively simple,
may
is
of little
these properties.
In certain
in Steam Engineering.
formula
setting
forth
these
however,
a
theoretical reasoning,
inestimable
value
and
indeed
at
often
of
relationships becomes
impossible
to
compute.
otherwise
attain
data
times leads one to
Such is the case of the formula from which the specific volume
of saturated steam is obtained by computation and set forth in
Chapter VII. Here it is found impossible to obtain by experi-
The Value
of
Formulas
insight only into such compHcated formulas that arise in attempting a mathematical expression for these data.
95
96
is
in
Relation
200p*
101
(1)
For a pressure of 10 lb. per sq. in. the error is but 0.28 per
cent., while for 300 lb. per sq. in., it becomes but 0.32 per cent.
Ht = 1091.7
0.305(<
32)
its results
(2)
Regnault's Formula
^235
1091.7
From Steam
^236
0.305(235
32)
1153.6 B.t.u.
tables:
1158.7 B.t.u.
,. Error
='^^^^^Xm = OM%
97
Hence we see that for low temperatures the error involved byusing the classic equation of Regnault is less than one-half of one
per cent.
Henning's Formula. Marks and Davis have in the rear of
steam tables set forth a formula of Henning, which though
somewhat more complicated than Regnault's is, however, veryaccurate.
This formula may be expressed as follows:
their
Ht = 1150.3
0.3745
it
{t
212)
0.000550
212)2
(3)
1150.3
(235
From steam
^236
212)2
tables:
1158.7.
Error
..
.
Hence the
extremely
slight.
is
seen to be
evaporation of water:
Lt
138.81
(689
i)"'"
(4)
Let us compare this with the steam table data for a temperature
of 235F.
Thiesen 's formula:
L236
Steam
138.81(689
235) "'"'^
953.7.
tables:
L236
=
.
955.4
.
Error
^^t^-|^
955.4
is
100
= 0.178%
classes of
98
and temperature
as follows
U
of
1209423
1289.5i
(5)
to 350F.
of
The
Volume
method
of Least Squares.
Superheated Steam.^ In
the chapter on The Elementary Laws of Thermodynamics,
it was shown that the pressure, volume, and absolute temperature
of a perfect gas are connected by a very simple relationship as
set forth in the composite formula given in equation (5) on page
46.
Indeed, it was shown that while superheated steam is not
a perfect gas, still for approximate results this equation may be
Relationship of Specific
for
used.
although
satisfactory
exceedingly
of
Linde
is
cumbersome
found
in
its
pv
To
(6)
endeavor
steam at 526. 8F.
when the steam was under a pressure of
volume
of superheated
steam was
T =
and
526.8
have by substitution
From steam
in the
459.6
986.4
p was 187.2
lb.
per sq.
in.,
we
formula
V
3.05
3.05
tables:
in.,
99
convenient formula
2.67
0.00377<,
(7)
Wherein
of this
and
is
is
often so tedious
had
all
CHAPTER
XIII
[ANY
of
vapors.
The
eyes
of
~w, '~
MWiiiCS
"^
I
i"~
I****""!!'
,,-*
'~
forth
object
of the
kitchen,
homely
but in
its
100
OIL PRACTICE
101
and,
importance.
FiG. 58.
Company under
lows
this familiar
the modern
is
is
the
tea-kettle.
fol-
For
in
generated in a furnace.
This heat
drum
or
tubes
through
which
metallic
water
imparted
to
a
then
When sufficient heat is thus imparted to raise the
passed.
boiler heat
is first
102
Fig. 59.
Same view
of boiler plant
auxiliary appa-
Modern Steam
Boiler a Necessity.
In the
however, efficiency is the cry
of the day.
For with competition on all sides and regulating
commissions to limit the prices charged for the power supply,
the utmost in economic steam generation is essential.
case of the
modern
cent'-al station,
its
OIL PRACTICE
103
mechanisms
Furnace Construction of Utmost Importance. To
accompUsh this efficiency an enclosed compartment beneath the
ing
Efficient
Fio. 60.
In this illustration may be seen the fuel oil atomizer in the ash pit entrance, the covered
steam pipes for supplying steam used in atomization, the fuel oil supply pipes, the damper
control, the draft gage and other accessories for fuel oil operation.
and sulphur, upon coming in contact with heated oxygen undergo a chemical reaction and in doing so give out enormous quanIt is the generation of this heat and its ultimate
tities of heat.
absorption by the water in the boiler that makes the modern
steam engine and steam turbine the giants in commercial entertoday they represent.
Fuels Defined. In nature, substances such as coal, wood and
crude petroleum are found in vast quantities and since these
contain large amounts of free carbon and hydrogen, they make
prise that
of
oxygen
is
and are
called fuels.
It
104
may
take place and thus liberate the heat held in suspense in the
fuel.
The air about us is made up of about 20 per cent, oxygen
and 80 per cent, nitrogen. The nitrogen is an inert, valueless
ingredient that must pass into the furnace, absorb some of its
heat and go out through the chimney, thus conducting away into
the outer atmosphere some of the heat generated. The oxygen,
however, upon coming in contact with the heated carbon, hydrogen and sulphur of the fuel, readily chemically reacts with them.
Enormous quantities of heat are thus liberated, later to be ab-
oil
up in more detail.
The Fuel Oil Burner and Its Function.
into the furnace by means of an atomizer
The
and
delivers
it
in a gaseous
Air
and as soon
air, the
carbon dioxide or carbon monoxide formed by the burning of
the carbon, water vapor formed by the burning of the hydrogen,
sulphur dioxide formed by the burning of the sulphur content,
which latter ingredient is always small, and a considerable
quantity of free oxygen depending on the amount of excess air
Its
OIL PRACTICE
105
is
still
further in
function.
must be
test the
Fig. 61.
The
In order to exaggerate the readings of the draft in inches of water, the measuring tube
rests on a slope of ten to one in this type of instrument, and thus readings to another decimal
point are ascertained which would otherwise be impossible.
106
Draft Regulating Devices. In fuel oil practice the proper supmay be determined to a nicety. Hence some means
must be provided to regulate the air supply with the same preThis is done by varying the amount of opening of either
cision.
ply of air
regulated
by partly
damper
or both.
If
the air
is
damper wide open a strong draft may occur inside the boiler
draw air in through the brick walls. As
this is a detriment it is preferable to regulate the air by means of
setting which tends to
the damper.
In a general way, the reader now has a grasp of the fundamentals involved in modern furnace operation for the steam
boiler.
We shall next consider the container or shell for steam
generation and
its accessories.
CHAPTER XIV
THE BOILER SHELL AND
us
now
consider
some
of the
tainer
for
usually consists of a
Fio.
62. The
clean,
appearance of the
'
oil
clear cut
fired boiler
flat
bottomed
where water
may
less irregular
in physical configuration
is
transference.
107
108
as a solid screen,
fire
Fig. 63.
Front view
of
new
boiler installation.
may be
seen the pit and foundation setting for oil furnace in the new additional installation recently put in by the Pacific Gas 'and Electric Company, San Francisco.
Note the clean trim appearance extending to the older fuel oil installation on the extreme
left, which is quite characteristic of boiler rooms where oil is used as fuel.
In this view
And
finally
it
should
air
109
may
be driven out into the room and around tlie screen to the
observer's face, thus illustrating the transference of heat by
convection.
see
is
now
trans-
ferred to the outer surface of the boiler shell and tubes containing
it is
water in the
and due to
boiler.
by conduction where
it is
The
heat,
metalli(t
convey
it
transferred to the
is forced to go to the
top of the water surface to make way for cooler, heavier water
which in turn absorbs heat and disappears to make way for other
This last activity is evidently again transference by
water.
its lighter
movement
of water is called
which this circulation takes
place has much to do with the economic operation of the boiler.
Mathematical Equation for Heat Transfer. In 1909 Dr.
Wilhelm Nusselt of Germany devised a formula whereby the
circulation.
The
efficient
manner
in
quantitatively.
=0.0255^.,
-T?xr
^'^
Wherein a
no
Mathematical Law for Total Heat Absorption. The applicais cumbersome and indeed upon careful
analysis it is seen to be largely empirical in its nature. Let us
then cast about for another equation.
Stefan's law sets forth that the heai absorbed per hour by
radiation is proportional to the difference of the fourth powers of
the absolute temperature of the furnace gases T and the absolute
tion of this formula
^ =
In which
per hour,
1600
(3^)*-
S^
WCiT. -
T.)
(2)
B.t.u.
S'- is
(J^)'
is
leaving the furnace and passing through the setting per hour, and
is
Relationship of Rate of
Heat Transfer.
By
means
of the
may now
it
above equation
found to reduce to the simple relationship:
stituting these constants the
no. 64.-A
safety
water column.
fl
2.00
+ 0.0014 J
Since
is
(4)
111
instances, while
it is
lb.
pres-
is
obtainable to meet
The type of pump most frequently met with for boiler feed
purposes is the ordinary duplex double acting pump in which
the steam cylinder is made larger than the water cylinder to
enable the water to be forced into the boiler at a pressure greater
than that of the steam itself. Pumps of this type are very reliable
and
if
it
pump
is
coming into
amount
of
FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING
112
as to
enter as
The
may
be needed.
injector
is
limited in
its field of
operation
by the
fact that
only suitable
its
greatest usefulness.
Many
Fig. 65.
In
Siphon
Fig. 6 6.
for keeping
gage cool.
to
it
steam
the
is
The
use of high pressures and inclosed boiler shells makes it imperative in steam engineering to have some means of ascertainthe pressure under which the boiler is operating and to
determine the height of the water in the boiler shell. The
steam gage meets the former requirement. This type of instrument was described in the chapter on pressures.
To ascertain the water level in the boiler shell, the installaing
is
boiler.
the water in the column always rises to the same height as the
water in the
boiler.
The bottom
of the glass
it is
little
must be a
sheets or tubes,
little
water
and the
water would begin to be lifted and carried out with the steam.
Pet-cocks are provided so that the water column may be cleaned
113
and accurate
Since the ascertaining of the exact water height in
the boiler is of such vast importance, three additional pet-cocks
called Gage Cocks are usually installed near the water glass.
One
of these is located above the proper water level, the second at
operation.
the boiler
level,
is
it.
first
Hence, upon
trial
diy saturated steam, the second water vapor and the third hot
water.
results
are
provided
for
amount
known
as the
makes
contains a
mud
definite periods
drum.
This
is
cleansed at
boiler,
is
Safety Valve.
All
Fia.
steam generation must not exceed a certain pressure development. To prevent this excessive generation of pressure a safety
valve is always installed. These are in general of two types, the
one having its outlet to the outside air controlled by a spring
sot for the pressure desired, the other controlled by a weight and
114
lever
arm
pressure required to open the valve equals its area in square inches
for
to heat transfer,
CHAPTER XV
BOILER CLASSIFICATION
by the
is
quite
simple.
The heat
its
As this heat is
absorbed the water is raised in toniperature and due to its immediate
expansion becomes lighter than the
heat application.
battery of fifteen
u
V' ou-firod,
^-fr^ requiring but two
boilers
men
water above
it
and consequently
j.i
x
n
paSSeS to the top to allow cooler
115
the boiler
itself
resem-
116
bled in the early days of the steam engine but sHght variations
from the
tea-kettle.
shell.
Fig. 69.
fired boiler.
Later the boiler compartment was hollowed out and the fire
kindled inside this hollow space, thus introducing the internally
The locomotive boiler is today an illustration of this
fired type.
type of
boiler.
Boiler.
Another type soon developed
wherein the fire was kindled beneath and the fiue gases returned
to the front part of the boiler through a series of flutings or tubes
passing through the main part of the boiler shell. Such a boiler
The
Fire
BOILER CLASSIFICATION
117
some
following
1.
2.
and tubes.
3.
4.
Tubular boilers still have their field in small one man plants,
where owing to the large quantity of water contained in the
shell they maintain a uniform pressure with but httle attention.
Tubular boilers of the Scotch marine type are still extensiviily
employed in marine work whore owing to the steadiness of the
load they have met with great success.
Still other classifications are
Vertical and Horizontal Types.
made based upon whether the tubes and boiler shell be in a
type
appeared which
could neither be called horizontal nor vertical but an intermediate
of boiler.
classification
Let us
boilers
became necessary.
and
more
principles of operation.
the reader must bear in mind that these particular two are
picked as best setting forth principles of construction and operation, and not necessarily as a preference for commercial installaMany types of boiler are today upon the market and in
tion.
their separate and distinctive features such possess characteristics
boiler,
two
118
7,
By a close examination of
the Babcock and Wilcox boiler
Boiler.
and the
The heated
oil
burner
is
located in the
toward the
front.
Water
is
Circulation.
The water
for
It
then passes to the rear of the drum, downward through the rear
circulating tubes to the sections.
Then it courses upward through
the tubes of the sections to the front headers and through these
headers and front circulating tubes again to the drum where such
water as has not been formed into steam retraces its course. The
ingly interesting, as its operating principles are almost diametrically opposite to the foregoing
is
The heated
is
shot from
gases in their
journey toward the rear come in contact with the lower set of
tubes and at the rear they pass up through the superheater.
They are then deflected back horizontally toward the front, passing parallel along the water tubes. At the front they return again
to the rear along the third set of tubes and also along the lower
half of the boiler drum above.
Water Circulation. Water enters the upper set of horizontal
At the rear
it is
first
drum
BOILER CLASSIFICATION
119
a
o
sa
aa
OS
a
a
3
.3
Mo
a
O
120
of
steam generation
the
oil
The
first
fires
flame from the back toward the front, while the latter
the
upward; the latter takes the water first through the top
and winds up at the lower. The first sets forth the
theory of right angle impingement of heated gases against the
water tube surface while the latter takes the paralleling flow
theory.
The remarkable thing about the whole comparison is
that both have produced wonderfully efficient steam generating
achievements in carefully conducted fuel oil tests on the Pacific
sections
sections
Coast.
known
With
this
arrangement which is
two or three rows
of tubes are exposed to the furnace, the gases passing down the
remaining tubes of the front bank, up the midde bank, down a
stack.
BOILER CLASSIFICATION
121
Owing
water
described above.
Fig. 71.
The Heine
boiler
is
front view.
of boiler
marine service are built as modifications of both the B. & W. and
Heine type, the tubes being shorter and smaller in diameter than is the case in stationary
boilers.
These boilers are encased in steel, lined with liffht insulating material inside, instead of being set in brick. They are constructed of the highest grade of forged steel.
Marine boilers frequently carry pressures as high as 300 lb. per sq. in.
Water tube
boilers for
among
first
to
122
Marine
boiler for
Boilers.
many
is
fire
Fig. 72.
rear view.
of boiler
In the navy water tube boilers are used exclusively and these
more or less in the mercantile marine as
BOILER CLASSIFICATION
123
For torpedo boat destroyers and other small high speed craft
Thornycroft type are used, which consist of a large
number of very small diameter tubes expanded into upper and
boilers of the
speed boats.
CHAPTER XVI
FUEL OIL AND SPECIFICATIONS FOR PURCHASE
ETROLEUM
United
times.
States
It
is
from
prehistoric
mound
in
still
existence
equipment
for flash
elec-
and
name
fire
distilling it
tests.
it
oils,
Enormous Consumption
The
Especially
is
in 1919
world's output.
124
of the
125
was thought that the probable producwould be limited to but a few years.
Due to this fmtor many power plants on the Pacific Coast were
constructed so that an easy change over to operation by coal
could be made should this time ever arrive. It is now recognized
by many that the probable yield of oil will last as long as the coal
fields of the world.
Hence this uncertainty is largely dispelled in
its first
incipiency
it
Advantages
of
Oil
Due
to the simple
oil is
has
many
mechanisms
By
and freedom from dust and ashes results in a saving in wear and
tear in machinery. Hence it is clearly evident that the efficiency
and the steaming capacity of a boiler, oil fired, is increased in a
marked manner.
126
To
is
prooils
to dis-
Low
Distillates will be
much
lighter.
Densities of Oils
Origin of crude
Specific gravity
0.777
0.821
0.818
0.960
0.850
852
0. 836
0.955
0.970
Persia
East Indies
Kyouk-Phyon (Burma)
California
Pennsylvania
South America
Russia
India
Terra-di-Lavors (Italy)
We
shall
now
con-
127
an important
the ratio of the weight of an oil sample
as compared with the weight of an equal volume of water. The
average oil sample is found to have a specific gravity of 0.9645,
which on the Baume scale at 60F. is 15.16. Hence, the average gallon of fuel oil weighs 8.03 lbs.
The determination of the gravity of fuel oil and the relationfactor to be
known and
is
The
Value of Fuel
the heat producing value of the
Calorific
and
Oil.
analysis.
In
fuel per
128
130-150 B.t.u. per pound under atmospheric pressure, as compared with 970.4 for the latent heat of evaporation of water as
Hence, the actual heat given
set forth in previous discussions.
out by the average sample above referred to is approximately
18,700 B.t.u. per pound, but since we must gasify the oil to make
use of its heat generating characteristics in the furnace the net
value of 18,553 is solely of commercial importance.
The determination of the calorific value of fuel oil and the
many
an
oil is
vapors.
it
not give
of
ture
is
California oils
The burning
gredients
will
The
point of
oil is
permanently
Kern River
test to
oil
its in-
This is determined by
after the flash point has been
ignite.
average
108C. or 226.4F.
is
is,
until
be 130C. or 266F.
Viscosity.
Some
oils
are
more
fluid or
known
is determined by
measuring the time it takes oil to flow through a standard sized
On the so-called Engler
tube under standard conditions.
scale the average viscosity of Kern River oil at 20C. is found to
be 915.6. The viscosity is very materially lessened as the
temperature is increased. Hence at once is seen the advantages
of oil heating both for efflciency in transmission through long
pipe lines, and for feeding the oil to the burners.
In power
plants the oil is heated to a temperature of 160F. before reaching
to one another
the burners.
is
as viscosity.
Viscosity
129
chapter.
per
cent,
moisture.
is
above 212F.
Hence
is
negligible
from
oil it is
Mines
Fuel."
in the
The
handbook
Use
of Oil
130
oil
in all
them
in
fuel offered
obtained.
Whether the
(c)
late, or
(d)
refined at
The
3.
crude
oil is
oil,
a refinery residuum, a
distil-
a blend.
location of the refinery,
if
the
oil
has been
all.
3a.
should be specified.
4.
make
fail to
comply with
buy oil in the open market and charge against the conany excessive price, above the contract price, of the fuel
liberty to
tractor
oil
so purchased.
5. It
oil
delivered during
The
into
Fuel
two general
oil,
classes,
as regards viscosity,
namely:
may
be divided
1.
oils
131
which
may
Class
equipment unnecessary.
In general, an oil of Class
maximum
Method
is
the approximate
viscosity permissible.
upon
viscosity re-
Gravity.
Specifications
for
specific
gravity are
essential.
Method of determination By specific gravity balance, pycnometer, or hydrometer. If conversion of Baume readings to
specific gravity is necessary it is essential that the Baume hydro:
meter be accurate and that the proper modulus for this instrument be used. Specific gravities should be reported at 60F.
compared to water at 60F. If they are determined at other
temperatures the temperature corrections given in Bureau of
Standards Circular 57 should be used.
132
cent,
An
fuged.
and
centri-
commonly used
is
is
oil in
oil in
making
may
and impurities.
10.
oil is
objectionable.
oil
133
effects
oil.)
Value.
pound
is
Method
of determination:
Any bomb
calorinictcT of recognized
accuracy.
12.
Methods
The
of Sampling.-
two hatches.
at least
viscous oils
it
is
This
such
is
oils.
settle
out of
134
CHAPTER XVII
FUEL OIL PRICES AND OIL PRODUCTION
By October 1920, as this Second Edition of "Fuel Oil and Steam
Engineering" is about to go to press, the authors have come to
the realization of the fact that the price of California fuel
oil
has more than doubled since the first edition of this book appeared
just two years ago.
Since, then, the constantly depleting storage
of oil
by the
is
is
oil in
making marked
in-
Water softening plant at the Sierra and San Francisco Power ComFiQ. 75.
pany's 27,000 kw. oil burning station. The use of pure water free from scale
forming matter is the first requisite toward keeping boilers clean.
in that
directly
136
The
exercise of
as has been
five years.
prophecy in the
field of prices is
PRICE FLUCTUATION
Except
oil
in California has
advanced during the last five years from approximately 60fS to approximately $1.85 per barrel, the two approximations covering slight variaThe figure which directly influences the production
tions with locality.
of oil in California, and constitutes the basic element of all prices to
consumers is the market price offered by the large distributing organizations
to
Standard Oil
Company
oil
fields.
The
oil,
price offered
that
is oil
by the
having a
has gone
June
7,
1915
Nov.
20, 1915
1917
1917
May 1, 1918
Mar. 17, 1920
June
June
7,
28,
$0.32^
0.3714
0.40
0.43
0.48
0.53
0.68
0. 63
0.68
0.73
0.78
0.88
0.98
1.23
1.48
The price doldrums of 1915 were due to the large number of gushers
brought in during the years 1913 and 1914, which resulted in a production so much in excess of consumption that a stock of approximately
60,000,000 barrels of oil (nearly a year's consumption) was accumulated
The price advances during the subsequent three years
were largely due to war demands and the depreciation of our currency,
early in 1915.
FUEL OIL
which made
I'
RIVES
AND
OIL
PRODUCTION
137
jump
the lurge
of
May
little
prospect.
DECREASING SUPPLY
On the occasion of the last price change of March, 1920, the California
Railroad Commission criticized the Standard Oil Company of California,
in response to
part as follows:
"The
Pacific
Coast supply
of fuel oil
Since
May
1,
1915, crude
oil
is
stocks
in California
barrels
13,000,000 barrels.
"The balance
up
barrrels,
which
the
"Added
demands
of the
138
Thus
markets.
will
California will be
market
is
in competition.
"The
drained of
last
of all gravities in
seven years.
Year
is
obtainable from
and consumption
fields
of crude
during the
139
at
of
years of
life in
1st
is
fairly
The following
California oil wells by
life.
year
first
year.
100
68
2nd year
3rd year
4th year
5th year
51
41
33
future utilize
oil fuel
for propulsion.
A NECESSARY DEVELOPMENT
The
point
we wish
development, as
to
in the
make from
140
efficiency of 185 to
alone
at least one cent per kw-hr. with fuel prices of $1.85 upwards.
figure,
makes the
charges,
In other words, the cost of the fuel oil alone used in the steam
locomotives in California and neighboring states, based on its
value at the market (amounting to approximately $50,000,000
annum which will increase year by year until this fuel can
with difiiculty be obtained at all) will in time compel the steam
railroads to seek other methods of operation, chief and most
promising of which is electrical. Disregarding all other reasons
and arguments for electrification, the cost of fuel is going to force
per
it.
Coal
is,
cost basis,
Much
coal
is
we
man
mistrusts
electrification,
use of
Utah
believe he
means
of
overcoming these
Pulverization offers a
diflSculties
but involves
many
oil.
program involved
in
followed
The
solution,
particularly
CHAPTER
XVIII
Code Committee
neers, entitled
142
maximum
Thus
is
160
if
lbs.
the
per sq.
Fig. 76.
in.
outfit.
a typical outfit for boiler and power plant inspectors. It consists of a standard
test gage, a screw test pump, a gage hand puller, a hand set and other useful conveniences.
Here
is
department of the Hartford Steam Boiler Inspection and InCompany are especially good, and largely the ideas appearing in the following lines come from this source
Preliminary Precautions. Whenever going on duty in the
boiler room, find out, first of all, where the water level is in the
boilers.
Never lower nor replenish the fires until this is done.
surance
and
all
143
the con-
Do
not
upon the glass altogether, but use the gage cocks also, and
try them all, several times a day.
Before starting up the fires, open each door about the setting
and look car(>fully for leaks. If leaks are discovered, either then
or at any other time, they should be located and repaired; but
cool the boiler off first.
If leaking occurs at the fore and aft
joints, the inspecting company should be notified at once.
This
rely
is
or not and
;
bottom
it is
especially important
sheet, or
is
when the
FiQ. 77.
pump.
After tho maximum allowable working steam preasuro for the boiler has been computed,
the boiler is then submitted to a hydrostatic test of one and one-half times this allowable
pressure.
The above apparatus is especially adapted for those having frequent occasion
to make hydrostatic tests of boilers.
When
until
it
fill it
again
service,
Do
Vent the
fuel
first
144
else.
necessary.
If
145
because
it
off,
of the
is
open
emptying
it, first
leave the
let
the
damper open
which
it is
work
valve.
fire
die out,
and then
and
Clean the furnace and let the bricktwo hours before opening the blowoff
desired to blow.
If it is desired
it
has been
actual service the fire doors, front connection doors, and cleaning doors being closed, and the damper and ash-pit doors open.
First cool the boiler as explained in the last paragraph.
Never
when
water be-
while
may
boilers
are
It
is
boiler in
146
time, shut
down
CHAPTER XIX
SHELLS
pressure
j'.
^
n
^*
V^
Lrf
ParalM Secihn.
nor lea fha n 9^
-^1
T^-
iU-('i
Fig. 78.
Standard form
of test specimen.
In order to thoroughly tGst out plate material for boilers^ a form of standard specimen
has been catablished Dy the Boiler Code Committee of the American Society of Mechanical
Engineers. The above illustration shows the standard form for the' tension, cold-bend, and
quonch-bend test to be made from each boiler plate as rolled.
the steam gage at which the bursting will take place while the
latter indicates the unit internal pressure in the boiler material
is
that
is,
a gage pressure
considered
:is
often used
bursting pressure
is
the boiler.
3^)
that of the
It
147
148
known as a standard form is put to test. Experimenthas been found that whether a piece of material is subjected to rupture by tension, compression, or shear, the unit force
required to rupture a square inch section, is equal to the total
force observed in rupturing the specimen in each particular case
divided by the cross-sectional area. This fundamental law enters
Let us then proceed
largely in computation of boiler strength.
a sample
ally
it
to this analysis.
The Strength
vapors
it
HOW
As an
TO
149
plate
is
A =
tpSt
0.25 X 1.625
Section.
55,000
As
22,343
lb.
weakest
for
is
rupture
is
now no
The
it
now becomes
B =
Rule
II (o).
{pi
From
dl)S,
d)tS,
(2)
and again by
(p
by the thickness
of the plate
This result
I,
is
in other
B =
{p
d)tSi
between
(1.625
rivet holes
0.6875) 0.25
is
55,000
12,890
lb.
an action would
iron rivets will shear at 38,000 lb. per sq. in. in single shear and
76,000 lbs. in double shear; steel rivets at 44,000 lbs. in single
150
lb. in
resistance to shear
C =
Rule II
38,000
If
(3)
(6).
per sq.
lb.
is
.7854d2n/S,
sq. in.
double shear.
in. of section,
the resistance
or
if
in double shear
is
allow
cent, to
C =
nX
of
.7854:d^S,
.7854
is
.6875^
=
may
44,000
16,332
lb.
be forced
D =
Rule II
(c).
dtSo
(4)
by the
thick-
stress for
is
then
D =
The
dtSc
0.6875
0.25
95,000
16,328
We now
lb.
p.
@66ooo
Fig. 80.
In the
dr^^?^
By taking into consideration the stresses involved in a sectional distance equal to the
pitch of the rivets, P, as shown, we are enabled to deduce the safe working gage pressure
for boiler operation.
now
thing to do then
factors
is
151
Rule
III.
Thus
in the
12,890
lb.,
example
is
22,343
cited
lb.,
that
its
the strength of
is
16,332
lb.
16,328
lb.
= 22:343-=
^'^-
152
of
steam exerts
equally in
itself
all directions,
we
shall
compute
the boiler
of
steam pressure
P,
lb.
per sq.
be P Dl
boiler
lb.
critical
of length 1 in.
is
in.,
To
is
now
Since
Dl.
the area
is
sistance offered
D in.
by the metal
2U.
is
St
is
is
and thickness
lb.
If
now
per sq.
in.,
t.
is
a strip of
Hence the
we have, when
P,Dl
orP,
2USt
2tSi
tSi
=-^-=-^2
.^
(6)
Thus we formulate.
Rule IV. Multiply the thickness of the plate by the tensile
strength of the plate and divide by the radius (one-half of the
diameter). Thei result is equal to the bursting pressure of the
solid plate.
^'
JS^ _
~ D/2 ~
0.25
55,000
36/2
_
~
^^^ ^^
This means that a gage pressure of 764 lb. per sq. in. would
rupture the given boiler if it existed without a riveted seam.
Bursting Pressure of the Seam. But our boiler under consideration would evidently burst before the bursting pressure
of
the solid plate were reached for the riveted section has
In Rule IV we found that the
its total strength.
weakened
is
P =
PsEi
(7)
153
P =
I'lo.
82.
P.Ej
is
764
.578
442
lb.
joint.
In general the butt joint doubles the shearing strength of the joint while the net tensile
strength and the crushing strength of the joint remain the same as in the lap joint discussion.
upon a factor
holes,
P. =
(8)
The
rule
inspectors
is
advised by the
as follows:
is
to operate.
The American
new
boilers.
154
Thus
P =
^/ =
^=
4-4.9
105
lb.
4.2
pressure (gage).
of a boiler
^6
in-,
is
stamped 55,000
pitch of rivets
2%
lb.
in.
rules:
A =
B =
2.875
C =
Z) =
(2.875
..i;,.
36^
49,414
0.739
CHAPTER XX
FURNACES IN FUEL OIL PRACTICE
ET
us
now
of
crude petroleum as an
economic factor
The
of steam.
in the production
oil
in a heated state
its particles
are in fine
an operation is known as
atomization and this must be acSuch
complished
in an efficient and
thorough
manner.
Three methshowing brickwork and air-spac
ing.
ods are utilized in practice toaccomphsh this. In the first instance
steam under pressure is mixed with the oil and the ingredients
thus shot into the furnace.
In the second instance compressed
air is used to accomphsh this result, and in the third instance,
some mechanical device or physical characteristic of the oil is
Fio. 83.
made
Interior
of a furnace,
oil
hundreds of inventions
have been made to effect the atomization of oil. It is to be
remembered, however, that in the consideration of fuel oil
economy, the furnace and its efficient construction arc after all
the real factors that go toward economic fuel consumption.
Fuel Oil Furnace Operation.^When the oil is atomized, it
must be brought into contact with the requisite quantity of air
for its combustion, and this quantity of air must be at the same
time a minimum to avoid undue heat losses that may be carried
verized or atomized state.
away
in
Literally
To
the checker work under the burners that control the admission
The proper quantity of air
of air must be properly designed.
admission as a whole
is
controlled b.v
155
means
of draft regulation.
156
An
Fig. 84.
Theoretical display
for
In the nine illustrations shown above are graphically displayed the behavior of the furnace flame and the formation of carbon for various arrangements of air spacings below the
flame.
In the ninth instance a theoretically perfect flame is obtained.
conditions are there will be an excess of air and the boiler cannot
since it costs as much to heat air as it does to
Figure 2 shows two large openings under the middle
work economically
heat water.
of the flame; such a flame will burn hot in the center and deposit
carbon in the corners as shown. In Fig. 3 we have a large opening
under the flame flow; this arrangement will cause the flame to tear
and burn intensely at the center while depositing carbon around
The
rise
and
escape over the flame; intense combustion will take place close to
the burner, thereby over-heating
will
it,
It will
FURNACES IN FUEL
OIL PRACTICE
157
k\\\\\\\\\\\^\\\\\\\\\\^\^
FiQ. 85.
Arrangoment
The dotails of furnaoo construction have more to do with efficient operation in the burning of fuel oil than anything else.
In each particular installation this matter should receive careful attention.
In the illustrations are shown the plan and elevation of the air
spaces and grate bars for the Parker boiler installation for the Fruitvule Station of the
Southern Pacific Co. This boiler developed an evaporative efficiency of 83.69 per cent,
under
trial tost.
Fig. 86.
A former type
of furnace.
In this view the floor plan of a back shot furnace arrangement is shown. The burner is
This design has proven of high order in central station
set in a recess in the bridge wall.
installations of the West, but has now been replaced by the more recent type shown on the
following page.
158
the
tips.
The
all
The
longitudinal slots in
To Ze
'Plan
Stcr/cfv
r^tevtM
a^^
s
Yszmizim.
i^^zzzzzzz^s^ j),J))fiMj'j7
om iGnmrr B^mM
vwi^i
Elevation
Fig. 87.
Here is an excellent furnace arrangement designed for a 524 hp. boiler with standard
low setting. The checker work on the grate bars shown in shaded area represents openings
2M by 3 in. through the brickwork. The free area through the checker work is 2.44 sq. in.
per hp., around the burner 0.62 sq. in. per hp., making a total free area of 3.06 sq. in, per'hp!
enough for the removal of the burner and piers of fire brick are
built on the furnace floor in front of the recess so that there is an
opening about 12 in. by 9 in. through which the mixture of oil
and steam enters the furnace from the burner. A certain
FURNACES IN FUEL
OIL PRACTICE
159
The amount
of stack
draft necessary to
made
to
hug
Illustrations
are
shown
in this
article that set forth the check-board of brick work for air admission in the commercial practice of boiler economy. Let us now
160
consider
all
The furnace must be constructed of such heat tested brickwork that it will stand up under the high temperatures developed
and the refractory material of which it is composed must be so
installed aa to radiate heat to assist the
(lsa=tJ=(>E
Fig. 8S.
Plan
of
brickwork
and air-spacings
in
marine practice.
In thn practical application of the theoretical deductions for proper air spacings, commercial designers differ somewhat from the theoretical reasoning involved.
In this illustration
is shown the brickwork and air-spacings for Scotch marine boilers recommended by a promi-
nent company.
Finally, there
certain
This
had to be overcome
is
in the earlier
localization activity.
FURNACES IN FUEL
OIL PRACTICE
161
of
With
this furnace
n/9
Fig. 90.
B. & W.
boiler with
Peabody furnace.
this furnace arrangement the gases have ample volume in which to burn,
distribute themselves over the entire first pass, resulting in efficient operation.
With
and they
162
Fig. 91.
burner in front.
arrangement the tubes are swept by the hot gasea for their full length,
but this advantage is gained at the expense of furnace efficiency owing to the smaller volume
available as combustion chamber.
With
this furnace
with the burner in the front wall the gases are forced back close
to the front baffle and do not have any tendency to fill the front
pass of the boiler.
Figs. 89
and
90.
This condition
is illustrated in
the adjoining
surface
is
by-passed
FURNACES IN FUEL
OIL PRACTICE
163
With the
latter
Fio. 92.
Peabody-Hammel
Stirling
furnace.
This furnace arrangement gives a splendid furnace with large volume. The gases come
in contact with about one-third of the tubes in the front bank, the remainder absorbing
radiant heat direct from the furnace.
boiler
still
absorption.
164
many
With
this
is
shut
off
arrangement
fractional loads
and
is
it is
still
Fig. 93. Babcook & Wilcox boilers, station C, Pacific Gas and Electric Company, Oakland. Boiler is set three feet higher than the standard height so as
to provide large combustion chambers for the oil furnace.
Furnace, which
is
similar in
many
respects to the
Peabody
Furnace.
Large Furnaces.- ^In order to operate oil burning boilers at
high capacity it is necessary to provided ample furnace volume.
FURNACES IN FUEL
OIL PRACTICE
165
There arc two ways by which the furnace volume can be inone by lengthening the furnace and the other by raising
the boilers. In Babcock and Wilcox boilers, a larger furnace
can often be obtained by moving the bridgewall back to the mud
drum, and placing the burners there. This gives a furnace the
creased
FiG.
to give large
combustion chamber.
;i
is
shown
in Fig. 94.
CHAPTER XXI
BURNER CLASSIFICATION IN FUEL OIL PRACTICE
In 1902 and 1903 the U. S. Naval Fuel Oil Board made an
exhaustive inquiry into burners of various types. In their report
a classification of burners was set forth which comprehensively
details the fundamentals of various types of burners known as the
drooling, the atomizer, the chamber, the injector,
tor types.
In the drooling type the burner allows the oil to drool from an
upper opening down to a lower opening from which the steam is
issuing.
An atomizer burner allows the oil to drop directly on
the steam. The chamber or inside mixer atomizes the oil within
the burner after which it issues from an orifice of the desired
form. An injector burner is designed primarily to operate without a pump as it is presumed that the oil will be sucked from the
reservoir by the siphoning or injector-Uke action of the steam jet
inside.
In the projector burners the steam blows the oil from
the tip of the burner.
Two
The
flat
tail
and the
rose.
known
oil
itself,
bustion at once.
issues
is
tip
of this type.
Oil enters at
166
OIL PRACTICE
167
boiler.
of the
LONGITUOIMAL
Fig. 95.
In burners of this type the steam and oil come into contact and the oil is atomized inside
the burner itself. The mixture then issues from the burner tip ready for combustion. The
Hammel burner shown in the illustration above is of this type.
oil are atomized, the light hydrocarbons are vaporized, and the
completed mixture issues from the burner and ignites like a gas
Fio. 96.
flame.
the only
for installation.
168
AU
oil is
some part
burner
filled
with
oil
instead of blow-
of the burner.
class
row
of small holes in
''OllConnKtIori
Fig. 97.
of burner.
In this type of burner the steam flows through a narrow slot or horizontal row of small
The oil flows through a similar slot or hole above the steam oriholes in the burner nozzle.
The Peabody
fice and is picked up by the steam outside of the burner and thus atomized.
illustration is a typical burner of this type.
shown
in
this
which
is
burner
An Example
of one of the
of the
many
Mechanical Atomizer.As an
moment
illustration
Company. The
mechanism that accomplishes the atomization is operated by a
small electric motor as shown of 3^^ to }i hp. The motor
the rotary burner of the Pess System
operates a rotary
the crude
which
is
oil
pump through
worm gear.
This
fire
box.
it
pump brings
to the burner,
The burner
rotates
OIL PRACTICE
fugal force
is
and
oil
by
169
centri-
^fflE
Fia.
!IS.
Tho Leahy
oil
burner.
an outside mixer and is made either for the back tiring (Fig. 99} or
front firing (Fig. 98). The burner equipment includes a bypass valve, two quick action
unions, special oil regulation valve and oil strainer.
is
Fig. 99.
170
Fig.
Fig. 101.
Here
is
shown a Witt
Fig. 102.
tip.
The above
illustration
shows
The Tate-Jones
oil
burner.
a steam atomizing burner, the oil being controlled by a needle valve in the burner
head and the steam by a separate valve in the steam pipe near the burner. The length of
burner and size of opening are arranged to suit each particular installation.
This
is
OIL PRACTICE
171
somewhat depending upon the ideas of the maker and the quahty
of oil burned.
The general principle of the burner is illustrated
in Fig. 107.
No oil pumps are used, the oil being supplied bygravity from a tank set from 6 to 10
ft.
OJL REGULATING
COCK
FiQ.
is
An
oil
oil
burner.
important peculiarity of the burner is that it is self-regulatThe impact of the jet of steam issuing
from the inner pipe produces a back pressure on the oil issuing
from the annular space between the pipes. If the steam valve
ing to a great extent.
OIRtC TION
*
Of
/>IR
172
If,
be increased.
Fig. 105.
The Wilgus
oil
burner.
is
being cut
down
oil
tip
Fig. 106.
The Lockett
flat
flame
oil
burner.
This is an outside mixing burner with renewable tip. A feature of this burner is the combined regulating valve and strainer through which the oil must pass to enter the burner.
This regulating valve lets the oil out through a slot instead of the annular ring that occurs
in an ordinary globe valve when partly open.
The slot gives an opening larger than the
holes in the strainer, so clogging of the oil burner is prevented.
The strainer can be readily
removed
for cleaning.
OIL PRACTICE
173
m>/
fi'^'^^
=^
Fig. 107.
Thia ingenioua type of homemade burner is a product of the oil fields. The impact of
the jet of steam which issues from the inner pipe produces a back pressure on the oil issuing
from the annular apace between the pipes, thus making the burner self-regulating to a great
extent.
Another peculiarity
of the burner
pressure
is less
CHAPTER XXII
MECHANICAL ATOMIZING OIL BURNERS
While steam atomizing oil burners are used almost exclusively
in stationary power plant work at the present time, the mechanical atomizing oil burner has found great favor in marine work,
and is the standard method of firing oil burning marine boilers.
There is a good deal of interest shown at present in the use of
the mechanical atomizing burner in stationary plants, and it is
possible that it may eventually entirely displace the steam atomizing burner. The mechanical atomizing burner, sometimes called
Fig. 108.
oil
burning system on a
stationary boiler.
is
made
in a
number
principle.
of different
forms
It consists essentially
force as soon as
it
is
174
MECHANICAL ATOMIZING
OIL
BURNERS
175
different
will
a few of
of interest.
in the disc.
With
as the
this
oil.
The
rotary motion to the air entering close to the burner, and the
cone gives a rotary motion to the air entering around the edge
In operation, the impeller plate and the
of the impeller plate.
burner may be moved in and out together, being fixed in relation to each other but adjustable in relation to the truncated
cone.
Moore
is
Shipbuilding
Company Burner.
In
this
burner the
oil
176
a plug, the slots being curved at the end to give the necessaryrotary motion to the oil as it enters the conical chamber in the
burner tip. The position of the slotted plug in relation to the
burner tip may be adjusted while the burner is in operation by
Fig. 109
of small
means
by
of
pressure.
The main
supply
air
is
by a
controlled
sliding
and a
chamber
but
if
much above
it is
necessary to equip
them
The
pressure
must be at
least
creased up to 200
lb.
,,
25
and
lb.
it
in order
may
be
in-
necessary to shut
off
some
A temperature of at least
The atomization
lb.
pressure
it
of the burners.
150F.
is
improved by increasing the temperature up to about 200. Above this temperature no change is
made in the atomization but the flame becomes shorter and the
the
oil.
is
MECHANICAL ATOMIZING
OIL
BURNERS
reduce
As the
oil is
heated the
oil is
177
heated to a
first effect is
to
reduced.
The following table gives the quantity of oil that will flow
through a burner having a j^e in. diameter orifice at a pressure
of 200 lb., the oil having a gravity of 20 Baume and a flash
point of 220''F.
Tcmp.F.
178
MECHANICAL ATOMIZING
OIL
BURNERS
179
up
to high capacities, and any method of combustion that prevents this occurring tends to improve the efficiency of the boiler.
While
steam returns to the feed water heater so that the quantity utilized is not great.
The loss of the steam used by the steam atomizing burner is of much greater importance for marine boilers
than for stationary boilers, because it means a loss of fresh water
It is for this reason that mechanical
atomizing burners have already largely displaced steam atomizing burners on board ship.
Disadvantages of Mechanical Atomizing. The principal disadvantage of the mechanical atomizing burner is that there is
aways a tendency for the small orifice in the burner to choke
up. This is sometimes due to grit and other soUds in the oil
which pass through the strainers and sometimes due to carbon-
atomizing burners.
Another objection to mechanical atomizing burners for stationary power plant work is the fact that the air supply for each
burner must be adjusted separately every time there is a change in
the quantity of oil burned. This is not objectionable where there
180
is
is
amount
of
atomizing burners.
Until recently the use of mechanical atomizing burners in sta-
MECHANICAL ATOMIZING
OIL
BURNERS
181
than with the steam atomizing burners. The results of comparative tests on Babcock & Wilcox boilere are shown by the
curves in Fig. Ill, where the lower curve represents the net efficiencies obtainable at different ratings with steam atomizing
burners and the upper curve the corresponding efficiencies with
ere
^70
182
less
likely
There
is less
less
time
is
atomizing burner.
Where a change is made from coal to oil firing the mechanical
atomizing oil burners are especially adapted as in many cases
the stokers can be protected with brickwork and the
oil burned
above the stokers without removing the stokers. By
keeping the stokers in place the boilers can readily be converted
back to coal firing if desired. The same blast that is used for
forced draft stokers may be employed for the mechanical atomiz-
directly
oil
burning equipment.
The reason that higher capacities are available with mechanical
atomizing burners than with steam atomizing burners isonaccoimt
in
fine
MECHANICAL ATOMIZIXG
being consumed
ing burners the
in siiort
OIL
cone-shaped flames.
BURNERS
183
volume may be
occupied by the flames with steam atomizing burners and that
much of the furnace volume may be ineffective. With the
mechanical atomizing burners there are, therefore, two effects
ciated that only, say, one-half of the total furnace
make
may be run at a considerably highIn land work where every cu. ft. of space occupied
need not be considered as carefully as in marine work, it is obvious that a furnace can be installed to advantage of a larger size
than in marine work. Again, in stationary work poor feed water
that in an emergency the boiler
er capacity.
oil firing,
over rating.
To run at the higher capacities great care must be exercised
An entirely different field is entered when
in the operation.
capacities are carried of 300 per cent, or over,
and
it
would be
184
folly to
petent operators, clean feed water and the strictest attention to all
details.
is
distilled.
The
some stationary plants is now distilled, and
can be done without any material loss of heat to the sys-
make-up water
as this
in
it is
shut
they
will close
may be standing
To the front of
who
is
(6),
MECHANICAL ATOMIZING
OIL
BURNERS
main
185
register
casting and holding in place the radiation guard (19) and the
spider casting (7). In case a double front is used for forced
blast the radiation guard is replaced by the outer front plate of
Jlrc Drick
MouIJcJ TI1
Air DoorB
Cover Plate
G Auton'.atlc
Non-Pnrell
B.f. Block
FlO. 112.-
10
11
12 MflCbaulcal Atomizer
13 Bolt for Setting up Ground Joint
14
Hinge
15
16
Center Impeller
Wing
Sot Screw
Headless Set Screw
Connection
20 Sadjation Guard
I'l
IS flexible Oil
oil
shaped impeller plate (15) for regulating the distribution of air at the nozzle of the burner. Passing through the
distance piece (9) is the mechanical atomizer (12), this atomizer
being held in place and connected to the fuel oil supply line
through the quick detachable coupHng (10) and yoke (11), thus
making the atomizer (12), the distance piece (9), and the center
steel conical
when
in operation.
186
The
along
distance piece
its axis,
is
Boiler Front
Plate.
Lighting
Fire Brick
Moulded Tile
DiBtance Piece
Fig. 113.-
10
11
12
13
Id
15
16
17
18
20
oil
&
ObeervatioD Boor
Hinge
Center Impeller
'Wing Set Screw
HeadlesB Set Screw
Flexible Oil Connection
Spaclue Collar
distance piece
may
tion desired.
The
is
driven home.
In Fig. 113 a spacing collar (20) is shown which is used when the
number of burners is such that the outer front plate must be
MECHANICAL ATOMIZING
The curve
in P^ig.
187
cfiicii-iu
is
& W.
& Power Company.
14-high B.
BURNERS
y secured at different
based on tests that were
boiler in 1907 at the Redondo plant
made on a
OIL
about 14 Baume was burned which has a heat of combustion of approximately 18,000 B.t.u. per pound.
The curve for mechanical atomizing oil burners shown in
Fig. Ill is based on tests made on a 14-high B. & W. boiler at the
Bayonne works of the Babcock & Wilcox Company with Mexican
oil 14 to 16 Baume, having a heat of combustion of approximately 18,300 B.t.u. per pound. The conditions existing in the
tests of the mechanical atomizing burners were as follows:
The oil pressure at the burner varied from 100 to 200 lbs. per
sq. in., depending on the capacity at which the boiler was operated and upon the size of the sprayer or orifice plates which are
The best atus(^d inside the tip of the mechanical atomizers.
omization was obtained when the oil was heated to give a vis(iosity of from 3 to 5 Engler, which required a temperature of
from 220 to 250F. Live steam was used for heating the oil
from about 110 to the temperature specified, the amount approximating one half of one per cent, of the total steam generated.
In the tests the amount of steam required for driving a rotary
pump which was used for pumping the oil amounted to from 1
to 1,'2 per cent, of the total steam generated. The pump was
considerably larger than required and therefore wasteful. In a
large plant the amount of steam required for pumping the oil
would be in the neighborhood of J 2 of 1 per cent, of the total
steam generated and the exhaust steam from the pump could be
oil of
The number
oil.
boUer
may
be de-
termined on the basis of one burner per 120 to 130 rated boiler
This capacity may be exceeded in certain instances.
h.p.
The variation in load is taken care of by adjusting the oil
pressure at the pump between the limits of 100 to 200 lb. per sq.
188
the air
is
adjustment of the
air blast.
draft the
amount
& W.
damper
of a
boiler for
come the
damper
to over-
respectively,
is
and when
CHAPTER XXIII
RULES FOR EFFICIENT OPERATION OF OIL FIRED
BOILERS
Since the advent of steam turbines the relative importance
crew as a factor in economical operation has incompared with the engine-room crew.
This is because the steam turbine, after it has once been properly
set up, operates continuously at a fixed steam consumption for a
given load and nothing can be done to improve its ec^onomy other
than to keep the turbine, condenser and auxiliaries clean and in
good operative condition. In the boiler room, on the other hand,
of the fireroom
creased
considerably
continual watchfulness
at good efficiency,
is
and the
if
is
much
fuel
best conditions
Many
it is
necessary for this, and in such cases the air may be regulated with
a fair degree of accuracy by an observation of the smoke dis-
mean
amount
189
190
Qlk
^ o *
o " S
^H O
19
ft
EFFHIESr
191
To
by the damper
If
the air
is
will
The
strong draft also tends to pull the gases through the setting by
the shortest paths, so that some of the heating surface is not
by means
of the
It
is,
therefore,
much
In the case of very light loads, however, it is best to use both the
damper and the ash-pit doors because if the damper alone is
used there may be a positive pressure produced in the upper
part of the setting, causing gas and smoke to leak out into the
room.
Analyze Flue Gases Frequently. The exact position of the
damper to suit different loads can only be determined by fluegas analysis. The CO2 should be kept as high as possible without
producing CO. If it is found impossible to secure 133^^ or 14
per cent, of CO2 without a trace of CO, then there is something
wrong with the furnace or the burners and an investigation should
fire
3.
192
steam
steam.
cal-pressure jets
lurgical
and
air jets.
The
jets,
jet,
flame,
is
Keep
Oil
hand, so that as soon as any burner gives trouble it can be removed, taken apart and cleaned. All burners should be cleaned
at regular intervals and adjusted so that the flame will not -be projected directly against the boiler tubes or against the boiler set-
and maintained
in
good condition.
or stopped
up by
The
air
off.
Unless they are cleaned out occasionally and kept open for their
193
o
2^
2
l.S
U-o
ca
-g
3a-"a
OS
s o
o
a-o
CQ
S.-s
iUV
0.
'C.
o o
W.2
"2
"
C3
t4
0.2
u3 a
3
c
di
. S9
o
9
S -^
s* <*
o
ID
'3
11
&s
o"~
3
*
a
3
.a
o-
j:
B:S
.s
>
a s
a '3
"!
"
?S
o
13
194
full area,
both the
efficiency
and capacity
be
The regulation
of
reduced.
6.
Oil.
oil is
a matter of
The quantity
of
200 lb. (14 kg.) steam pressure a hole ^e in- (7-9 mm.) in diameter has been found large enough to supply all the atomizing
boiler.
195
open or shut.
Superheated steam should be used for atomizing wherever it
is available, as the higher the temperature of the steam the more
complete the atomization will be. The steam to the burner
should always be cut down whenever the oil is cut down. Too
often, however, the firemen leave the steam flowing full blast
even after the oil has been reduced or shut off altogether. This
is an absolutely unnecessary waste, though it is often necessary
to keep a little steam flowing through a burner that is not in
use, to keep it cool enough to prevent damage resulting from
the heat of the furnace.
7.
Heat Oil
to
The
196
Shutting
Avoided.
it
is
maximum
temperature, so
it is
desirable to keep
them
in opera-
Fire.
In operating
.^
it
will
be too
cold, thus
results
in
197
9 o.S <
goo
4^
ot
S V
ID
d V o
i?
a)
fl.^,'3
11 il
^
ffi
a>
<n
01
oe o H
5Js
FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING
198
For best
It is better to
Keep
fires.
Boilers Clean
and
in
Good
Repair.
The importance
to 55C.), which
means an increase
cent.
The
The
boilers should
if
199
" 2 Si?
So*
|3^|
rt
>,a
'
Q)
a"
a a d ^
.= 3-0-
la
caC4
nil
3
ej
|.S-2
EC
^|
V 0.5.5
g-e
AN 3
ft"ciS
a b*' S
h
Si's:
p a
3 S
a
b S
og^H
" S'^'O a
SjSioa
200
by the replacing
and any
is
Use
Recording
Instruments
Wherever
Practicable.
aid to
operation.
the
show
information.
steam-to-burner
pound
By
boilers
By
The
line.
is
greater
the net
evaporation
per
trying
different
methods
of
operation,
different
furnace
201
Fio. 122.
Five outlets
for
management
is
becoming increasingly
new equipment
is
If
in order to
advantages.
improve
its
CHAPTER XXIV
FUEL OIL BURNING APPLIANCES
In
its
burners the
oil
which
burning
journey
of appliances,
any
oil
Fig. 123.
The cars are shown on the unloading track of the Redondo Steam
Plant of the Southern California Edison Company and the oil is emptied from
them into the flume which runs beside the tank; thence it goes into a small
underground tank from which it is pumped into the main storage tank.
Oil
or
may
by water
the purpose.
which
may
From
these
it is
pumped
202
203
outside the plant, and are built in any desired size up to 50,000
bbl. capacity.
They are built up of riveted steel plates, the
thickness of plate and strength of riveted joint being proportioned in accordance with the usual safety rules based on the
internal pressure due to the head of oil inside the tank. Thus
the tank
30
ft.
Fia. 124.
Main oil storage tanks at Station C, Pacific Gas and Electric
Company, Oakland, (iilifornia. Tank in foreground is set low for fire protection purposes, while tank in rear
is
surrounding country.
The
size of storage
1.
Quantity of
2.
Availability of
oil
oil
supply.
oil
on hand.
204
The
One of the pumps which handle the oil from the main storage
Fig. 125.
tank to the auxiliary tank. This pump was originally arranged for belt drive
but was found unsatisfactory. The gearing is now direct.
Appendix
III,
several cities.
oil
205
attachmeuts:
Filling pipe
Suction pipe
Vent pipe
Smothering pipe
Overflow pipe
Measuring rod or chain
For tanks less than 1000 gal. capacity the filling pipe and
vent pipe may be on the same connection. For larger tanks
separate connections are required. The vent pipe must extend
from the top of the tank to a point outside the building at least
above the top
ft.
tank
may
be
filled.
of the highest
All outlets
oil.
Many power
located
burners.
206
tank on a suitably
may also be
determined by an indicating or recording pressure gage, which
depends for its operation on the hydrostatic pressure produced by
calibrated scale.
the
The
height of
oil
in the
oil in
the tank
oil.
it is
ing into
or
ever,
somewhat complicated.
The
table in
zontal
a tank
correction
it
for
is
its
necessary to
oil
make
temperature,
for,
like
FiG. 126.
Gage to measure
height of oil in 30,000 barrel
tank at North Beach Steam
Francisco.
The rod inside the
pipe is calibrated in feet and
inches, passes down into the
tank and rests on a float supported by the oil. An electric
lamp attached to counter
weight enables it to be seen at
night.
its
volume
for
The
coefficient of expansion.
different oils,
^ Cm^neifj
in.
Fio. 127.
Above
is
station C, Oakland.
pumps.
207
pumps and
Below
208
ture,
used:
is
V.
=
!
where Feo
the volume of
Vt
the volume of
oil
at 60F.
oil
Fig. 129.
temperature of the
One unit
oil
when measured,
may
be.
in degrees F.
oil
Thus
pump
of the
in the fore-
Feo
960
=
1
+ (20 X
952 bbl.
0.0004)
oil
209
true
go
960
[-10x0.0004]
= 964
bbl.
Oy Pumps. The oil is taken from the supply tank by the oil
pump. The type of pump usually used for this purpose is the
ordinary duplex steam driven reciprocating pump. The piunp
The
Fio. 130.-
Witt
will
pump and
will
pump.
in duplicate so that
one
may
210
not
The pump must not be set too high above the oil tank, for oil
cannot be raised by suction as high as water. The maximum
suction
The
lift
oil
permissible
is
about 16
ft.
is
the Witt
pump
oil
pressure.
for
An example
Fig. 131.
Fuel oil pumps for turbine No. 3 at the liOng Beach Plant of the
Southern California Edison Company. Note the neat and attractive appearance throughout in this interesting installation, quite typical where oil is used
as fuel.
line
the
oil
is
actuated by the
attached to a
oil
pressure.
If
down the pump. If the oil pressure drops the valve opens wider
and the pump is speeded up. Any predetermined pressure may
thus be maintained by adjusting the spring.
Every oil burning plant must be provided with
Strainers.
some form of strainer to remove the dirt and foreign matter
which would be liable to cause stoppage of the burners. The
strainer may be placed either in the suction line between the
supply tank and the pump, or in the discharge line after leaving
211
The
Staples
s<p
Vm.
132.
Staples and
and
illustration,
is
basket.
rirfwyiwjwwwww'/
^^
212
the
pump and
the
Fig. 135.
1.
Staples
2.
Pump
3.
presBure regulator
Steam by-pass valve
4.
Steam valves
and
Pop
line
7.
Exhaust steam
Pop
in heater
valve
for
heater
Exhaust
trap or
oil
pump and
drain
and
cone
8.
9,
PfeifFer
Heater oil
blow-out
from ooil
atmosphere
to
to
as the heating
exhaust
5.
safety
shown
6.
haust
and
10.
governor
heater, as
Steam to pumps
method being
burners, a convenient
oil
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
medium.
heater unit.
Oil discharge valve
Gas
relief
valves
Cold
oil
by-pasB valve
ways
in
may
213
S = Hk
=
=
=
=
where S
H
k
(t.
to)
feet.
difference in temperature.
= mean
= mean
t,
to
'*''
J
per hour,
is
formula
H
where
W
<i
<2
=
=
=
=
{ti
i,)c
The quantity k, coefficient of heat transfer varies with the difference in temperature between the steam and the oil, and with the
velocity of oil in passing through or around the tubes. This
velocity is of great importance, as the greater the velocity the
better is the oil scraped from the side of the tube, thus allowing
It is evident
colder oil to come in contact with the hot surface.
214
There is a
therefore that a high velocity of oil is desirable.
limit, however, to the velocity attainable, as the higher the
FiQ. 137,
of tubes
through
first
If
one group
the heater
is
bulent
designed
flow.
If
and
the
the
oil
is
baffles
flow
known
are
is
as tur-
properly
sufficiently
as good
138. The heat transfer for a given drop in pressure by
Koerting fuel oil
oil through the
agitated
it
is
possible to
obtain
FiQ.
this
heater.
means
as
by passing the
tubes.
While
oil
of tubes or
of these
in Fig.
215
is
137.
ammonia
of double pipes, one inside the other, connected together bystandard ammonia fittings. This heater may be constructed in
any length
or
number
two pipes.
Another heater
illustrated
pair
spiral
of
is
in the
of unusual design
Heater,
The
of legs as desired.
in
Fig.
corrugated
138.
oil
passes through
This
heater
consists
of
tubes,
heater the
oil is
ferent types of
found
in
The
139. G. E. Witt
proved
oil
oil
to burners.
size
216
regulation
has
success
and
is
used
quite
extensively.
On the left may be observed oil-to-burner Moore regulator controlsteam pressure and the oil pressure while on the right may be seen the
damper controller that works by hydraulic cylinder actuation at the Arizona
Fig. 140.
ling the
provided with pilot valves which prevent the fire going out
load is light, and with maximum valves which prevent
when the
the
fires
two extremes.
The Moore automatic fuel oil regulator, which is illustrated in Figs.
9, 140, 141 and 142 regulates not only the oil and steam but also
217
the air required for combustion, thus controlling the three esThis apparatus consists
of three separate regulators, one for the oil, one for the atomizing
FiQ. 141.
Moore steam
the Arizona
steam at
Power Company's
the boiler steam pressure, and the power lever is used to control
a regulating valve in the main oil pipe supplying the burners.
By this means a slight change in the boiler pressure is made
to cause considerable change in the oil pressure, and as the
quantity of oil suppUed to the burners varies with the oil pressure, the fires in all boilers are increased or diminished gradually
and simultaneously.
This variable
oil
pressure
is
then
made
to
oil
218
FiG. 142.
Damper regulator
for Moore automatic oil firing system at the Arizona Power Company's Plant, Phoenix, Arizona.
ship
The
219
communicated by means
of a controlling valve
a hydraulic cylinder, which in turn operates the rock shaft connected to the dampers.
A more complete description of the Moore Automatic Regu-
and
is
differential lever to
in Figs.
the
fires in
FiQ. 143.
for the
of control.
the ashpit and the damper:
Damper weights
Interlocking damper
K. Special brackets
oil.
I.
J.
is
fluid,
returning to the
oil
FUEL
220
OIL
used.
If
full
steam pressure
up they
fixed
will
by adjustable
auxiliary valves.
If
Fig. 144.
At the Bush Street Station of the Great Western Power Company
San Francisco, oil under pressure is used to operate the regulators and the
interlocking damper devices as directed by the master controller shown in the
illustration.
This master controller controls the flow of oil for the automatic
opening and closing of dampers and burners.
in
remaining
oil
maximum
fire in
operation.
the steam pressure rises sufficiently to shut off the maximum fire,
when the boilers will return to the intermediate fire, and the
operation will be repeated.
('H AFTER
XXV
first
it is
thing to be considered
is
This does not mean merely the cost of a ton of coal compared to the cost of a ton of oil, because oil has a far greater heating value than an equal weight of coal.
Again, while oil has a
fairly uniform heating value, there are great differences in the
heating values of different kinds of coal. Consequently in
making the comparison it is necessary to know the kind of coal
under consideration, and its heating value per jround. ]']\('ii
then we have not gone quite far enough, for the boiler (>fficipnc>'
is not the same for all grades of coal, and is higher for oil than for
Thus, with a good grade of semi-bituminous coal an
coal.
efficiency of 75 per cent, is readily obtainable, whereas with a
low grade bituminous coal or lignite it is difficult to obtain more
than 60 per cent, efficiency under ordinary rnethods of firing.
With oil on the other hand, tests have shown net efficiencies of
over 80 per cent, and with careful operation it is readily possible
to maintain 78 per cent, efficiency in regular plant operation.
Knowing the relative prices and heating values, and the probable boiler efficiency, it is a simple matter to calculate the saving
that may be effected by changing from coal to oil. Suppose,
for example, that the owner of a plant is purchasing coal at !?().00
fuels.
lb. and that this coal contains 6 per cent, moisand has a heating value of 13,000 B.t.u. per pound dry.
He
is
The
and
its
heating value
lb.
oil
per bbl.;
when
free
oil
it
contains
from water
is
pound.
Since the coal contains 6 per cent, moisture
and 1 ton of coal contains
it is
94 per cent,
dry,
2000
Similarly
0.94
13,000
24,440,000 B.t.u.
336
0.99
18500
221
6,153,840 B.t.u.
222
dividing 24,440,000
0.69
24,440,000
in 1 bbl. of oil
6,153,840
is
16,863,600 B.t.u.
is
4,800,000 B.t.u.
to
16,863,600
a*
'
-1
223
make
to
of coal,
extremes.
the
coals
moisture.
is
The apparatus
fuel.
all
If
that
necessary
is
is
air,
and
install
the burners
A furnace
similar
may
the furnace
floor,
instead of grates.
may
224
225
Oil fired steam heating station, Pacific Gas and Electric Company,
Fio. 147.
station S, San Francisco. B. & W. boilers are to the left, fuel oil pumps and
heaters in the center background, feed water pumps and heater to the right.
16
226
cases to leave the stokers in place, placing the oil burner at the
means
dead
of firebrick supported
air
by
The
prac-
ticability of this
kind of
boiler,
In special
may
be used to advantage.
draft apparatus.
Number
of
The number
much
Men
of
men
by
oil is
plant.
pumps,
oil
tures, etc.
records of
oil
consumption, tempera-
CHAPTER XXVI
THE GRAVITY OF OILS
oil
by what
is
known
as
liquids lighter
the scale
is
laps 10 degrees.
The use of the Baum6 scale should be abandoned as it is not only unscientific, but conHowever, as its use is universal in the
fusing.
oil industry, and it has obtained such a firm
foothold among both producers and users of
fuel oil, it is described and used freely throughout this book.
Antoine Baum6, a French chemist of the
eighteenth century, distinguished for his success in the practical application of the science,
was the inventor of the so-called Baum6 scale
now universally adopted in fuel oil practice for
denoting the gravity of crude petroleum.
The Scale for Liquids Heavier Than Water.
Baum6 hit upon a unique plan for the establishment of his scale. Certain fixed points were
of the instrument.
The
first of
in pure water,
Fig. 148.
Baumg
hydrometers.
first
determined
228
Baum^
degree
becomes for
heavier than water
liquids
gravity
reading
S,
the
^ -
145
^^>
145-B
all
grades
of
crude
petroleum
we are
method of
most interested
in the
gravity denotation.
The
eter
Fig.
149.
Hydrometer for obtaining gravity of fuel oil.
original
Baum^ hydrom-
less
principle
to
that
for
the
Readings.^
This fact
THE GRAVITY OF
229
The formula in general use since 1851, and which has been
adopted as the "American Standard" by the U. S. Bureau of
Standards is as follows
^ -
m+B
^2)
_ 141,5_
~ 131.5 + B
full
^"^^
two
formulsis
is
"At
is
taken:
Baum
scales used
by them.
modulus
145 for liquids heavier than water, and 140 for liquids lighter
than water. These scales, the "American standard," were therefore adopted
by the Bureau
of
in use
ever since.
There having been no objection or protest from any manuBaum6 hydrometers at the time the scales
were adopted by the Bureau, it was assumed that they were entirely satisfactory to the American trade and were in universal
Such, in fact, appears to be the case with the scale for
use.
liquids heavier than water, but in the case of the scale for liquids
lighter than water a disturbing element has arisen which threatens to some extent the uniform practice that has heretofore
facturer or user of
existed.
230
It
Baum6
J.
and that great confusion may result from its use. That such is
by no means the case has been shown by the foregoing references
and historical matter.
There can be little doubt that when the United States Petroleum Association adopted as standard the hydrometers made
by Jarvis Amaboldi, who was later succeeded by C. J. Taghabue,
it was believed by all concerned that the instruments were based
on the American Standard Baum6 scale."
The Limitations of the Hydrometer. The hydrometer method
approximate,
as one
may
readily surmise.
is at best only
In order then to
accuracy, a more
refined
231
moisture free
Baum^
oil.
232
hung a
the balance
arm
Along
hook supporting the glass
bulb being in the position of the tenth notch. The glass bulb has
a displacement of exactly five grams of pure water at 4C., which
is the point of maximum density of water, the density for which
Hence if the bulb above
scientific gravity comparisons are made.
described were so immersed in water at 4C. a five gram weight
would establish equilibrium if hung' from the hook. This would
indicate a specific gravity of 1.0000.
The
is
adjusted by turning a
thumb
screw, which forms one point of the three point support shown in
the figure, until the pointers are opposite each other before the
is
immersed.
gram
For
is
hung
in a
also ascertained
oil
sample.
by means
of the
thermometer inserted
oil
are
it is
in the
by common
now
necessary
To
oil.
TKE
(SUA
Computations Involved.
Let us next
illustrate the
233
computa-
ture change of [h
ti)
rvh)
r -
J^UlA)
now
The
coefficient
is
(A^
find that
thus seen in this case to represent an intermediwe find that in different oils Ce varies
now
S =
Si
C.(60
(5)
fi)
we
of this oil
S =
0.9644
-I-
is
0.000322
8.9)]
0.9673
'''
'^-''^
following relationship
<s.
So (
Yoo
^) +
^^ (10^)
^^^
234
we
From
scientific tables
Consequently So
may now
0.9673
^"
find that
be computed numerically.
0.00484
1.00
0.9990
0.00484
the
If it is desirable to ascertain
oil,
(7)
Baum6
._,
^-^^^1
we next
specific gravity
5 =
^140
According to formula
be computed as follows:
14.1
130
(3) this
131.5
from equation
-g^ -
*!
B='-^-
scale
140
130
Baum^
141
^i
o;y67i
(2).
14.8
131.5
14.8
to carry the
two formulas
will
magnitude.
upon
prior to a purchase of
any
CHAPTER XXVII
MOISTURE CONTENTS OF OILS
From our previous discussion of steam generation in the modern central station it was found that something over a thousand
heat units are necessary to convert one pound of water at ordinary temperatures into saturated steam.
For, not only must this moisture be converted into saturated steam, but this
gases,
,.
,
tanks accomphsh much
drawing off
,
m
.
Fio. 151.
An electrically
driven oU centrifuge,
gate
oils
it
from the
Since, then,
oil.
contain a certain
amount
an important problem
-J.
all fuel
of moisture,
its
as follows:
of
236
By
above methods.
method
is
and
its
accuracy
The
sample, too,
may
if
is
approximately
care
is
observed.
approximate, as
oil in
the
is
is
also the
distillate.
The most
is
is filled
to the 100
mark with gasohne, and the remaining 100 divisions with the oil,
which should be sUghtly warmed before mixing. The two are
then shaken together and any shrinkage below the 200 mark
filled up with the oil.
The mixture should then be allowed to
stand in a
warm
will settle to
the bottom.
and
silt
237
by-
method
above all others, we shall now proceed to the details of its accomplishment. Stated in simple words, the method consists in
heating a sample slightly above the boiHng point of water but
not so high as to cause the vaporizing of other ingredients of the
oil.
As a consequence, the water passes over and leaves waterfree oil in the sample.
FiQ. 152.
A Goetz attachment
for
water dotermination.
By
attaching the pipe shown in the lower part of the figure to a faucet, sufficient power iB
obtained from the city main to cause the rapid rotation of the two arms shown in the figure.
This highrotative''Bpeed, due to the centrifugal force developed, causes the separation of the
moisture from the oil.
To
238
collects
oil
definite
meniscus.
The
jar
is
The washings
cc. of
still.
Since toluene
has a tendency to absorb small quantities of water, accurate
results may be interfered with if the toluene is not previously
toluene.
Fig. 153.
Still
Many methods
saturated.
bottom
of the bottle
The presence
is
239
still
its contents may be well mixed, and then placed in the asbestos
hood and connected with the condenser. A hood and cover are
provided, as shown in the illustration, to surround the still with
plete.
thermometer
hood
is
seen at the
in the illustration.
interesting.
bottle.
filter
240
It then follows
by volume is 0.484.
Error in Assuming Percentage by Weight is Same as Percentage by Volume. The percentage of water by weight is not
exactly equal to its percentage by volume, but may be taken equal
directly that the percentage of water
shown
CHAPTER XXVIII
DETERMINATION OF HEATING VALUE OF OILS
to
boiler operation
of the oil
used
oil
it is
necessary
in firing.
in
Soumt.
:::::::::
3
Again,
is
z:"::::__
242
oil is
the
The
number of
out when it is
Bamne
Scale.
heat units per unit of mass that the oil will give
completely burned in a furnace. In engineering practice this
usually expressed in B.t.u. per pound of oil so burned.
is
oil
in degrees
17680
Baum4:
605
(1)
17680
60
14.78
lb.
OILS
243
be
14,600C
62,000i/
40005
14,600C
Fio. 155.
+ 62,000 (^H -
The Emerson
~)
4000S
(2)
fuel calorimeter.
In thia type of calorimeter the fuel sample is placed in the bomb, the bomb inverted, aa
shown in the sketch, and filled with oxygen which is accomplished by means of the spindle
valve at the top of the bomb. After filling the calorinieter with distilled water and firing
the sample by means of an electric circuit, the rise in temperature of the water in the calorimeter is ascertained, and the calorific value of the fuel thus determined.
calorific tests
B.t.u. per
is
about 18,500
244
The Fuel Calorimeter. The most accurate method of determining the heating value of a sample of oil is by the employment
of some form of calorimeter, wherein a sample of definite mass
The fuel caloriis burned and the heat given out ascertained.
meter is an entirely different instrument from the steam colorimeter used for measuring the moisture of steam, which was
described in an earlier chapter. The
fuel calorimeter is a true instrument
for measuring heat as its name impUes.
Calorimeters in general may be divided
into two classes, the one known as the
continuous method and the other as
In the
the discontinuous method.
former instance a sample is continually
burned, and the average results ascertained over a considerable period.
This method is only applicable for
gases and some unusual types of oils.
The discontinuous process is on the
other hand the most advantageous for
Fio.
156.
The
and
sible
amount
Types
245
the Mahler, the Hempel, the Atwater, the Emerson, and the
Carpenter.
FiQ. 157.
This type of oalonmeter represents one of the most accurate for the determination of the
calorific value of fuel oil.
The bomb is of enameled steel. The burning of the oil sample
IS accomplished by supplying an outside source of oxygen as in the
Emerson Calorimeter.
Fig. 158.
In this type of calorimeter a carefully weighed oil sample is burned with a chemical
agent without the use of free oxygen. The ease with which it may be manipulated commends its use for commercial application. For scientific work, however, a type of the bomb
calorimeter is to be preferred.
In
246
is
This
mass
the cartridge,
measure
potassium
of
The
peroxide.
potassium
peroxide
the
accelerator,
potassium
the fuel
which
chloride,
may
that
insures
be burned.
and
usually
is
The
all
ignition
As shown
in
in
After causing
an explosion by means of an
electrical
means
of the pulley
which is
due to the burning of the ingredients
is
rapidly absorbed by the water in
the vessel A
If then we know the mass of the sample burned,
and the mass and temperature of the water before and after the
Fig. 15 9.
Cross-sectional
view of the Parr calorimeter.
explosion,
now go
well lighted
247
of heat as 135
avoid parallax.
is
in
Consequently as the
is
rise in
it is
tempera-
bottom
reaction
and
thus
and
electrical terminals,
introduces
considerable
in the
chemi-
error.
The
of accel-
stiff
wire.
With
care no
oil
and very
248
looped
on-
135 grams
2000 grams
3765 grams
0.5%
oil
Weight of accelerator
1500 grams
Room
temperature
Temperature of mixture when
70F.
fired,
73.665F.
Combustion Period
1
3
4
5
min
min
min
min
min
77 45
78.15
78.42
78.44
78.45
.
249
Radiation Period
6 min
78.44
78,42
78.40
78.385
78.370
7 min
8 min
i>
min
10 min
The Correction
above
reading,
it is
Since
falls off
from
th,
from the
its
highest
it is
evident
furnished
and
for the
0.043).
or
furnished data indicating a correction for the chemicals and wire
employed, amounting to <, or ( 0.373). Hence the true maxi-
mum
are ascertained
minimum temperature
ti
ti
+
t^ +
th
(3)
toi
(4)
we have
=
=
ti
ti
by the formulas:
78.450
73.665
0.053
0.080
0.373
0.043
=
=
78.104
73.622
most
Since a careful comparison
laboratory
has
shown
in
the
known
accurate type of calorimeter
that the heating value per pound of oil is 0.73 of the total heat
of this calorimeter with the
hberated,
we have
H=
We now
have
~^.^\t, -
in this instance
^ 0.73X2135(78.104)
-73^^
0-3765
from moisture,
age of dry
oil
^^^^2
oil
as fired.
If it is desired to ascertain
free
(5)
t,)
it is
250
dry
oil
by
calorimeter test
is
18,652
is
18,562 B.t.u.
0.12
X 8730 =
efficiencies of
gas engines.
CHAPTER XXIX
THEORY OF CHIMNEY DRAFT
It is a well known fact that transference of heat by convection
currents accomplishes the freezing of lakes in the mountains
and the boiling of the teakettle in the kitchen. In the latter
instance
it will
make way
above.
for the
h.
heavier water
cooler,
/fM:*^
this
and
travels
upward
becomes
make way
to
for other
heated and
is
This circulation or
I.,
,1
...
_Li
.1
liy
rl'
the luel in
xT_*
'
j_
J-
chimney by
still
T.
continues.
fij-</
force due
to-cig^t of cylinder
FiQ. 160.
An analogy
which the chimney is
considered as a vertical
cylinder
immersed in
water.
in
The
Buch
comparable
And
so the process
The Law
of
251
252
h.
We may
Let
w
=
pi =
Wi
Let
evidently pi = whi
unit pressure of atmosphere at
Then
Also Pi
= The
Then
p2
b.
whi
Hence
Total downward pressure at a
Total upward pressure at
b
Total down pressure due to
weight of air in chimney
Total
Net upward
= wA
But
.'.
Let
hi
WiAh.
hi)
WiAh
=
h
Total net upward press.
chimney =
hi
= wAh wiAh
air of
dimensions of
wA
Wi =
chimney =
.'.
press.
(hi
= piA = whiA
= piA = wh^A
WiAh
Wi
(2)
Hence the total pressure that tends to force the heated gases
out of a chimney is computed by subtracting the weight of the
chimney gases in the chimney from the weight of an outside
volume of air equal to the volume of the chimney.
The Theoretical Draft. In thermodynamics, we find that the
weight of a so-called perfect gas, in which classification chimney
gases are placed, may be computed from the formula
pV =
in
which p
is
WRT
is
53.3)
and
(3)
V the volume
R a constant
253
We now
is
have that
^ _vy
is
(459.6
62)F.
1 cu. ft.
14.7
14 4
,,
p7^ 14.7X144X1^
IIT
53.3
959.6
itself
(chimney.
In engineering practice this draft pressure is not usually recorded in pounds pressure per square foot of chimney area. Instead of this unit, the engineer measures the height to which a
column of water would be forced under this pressure. In other
words, since water, one square foot in cross-sectional area, at
tht; boiler room usually weighs 62.0
every foot in height, to bring about a pressure of 3.47
square foot, the water would have to rise to a height of
the temperature of
-^
ft.,
or^^T;
12
in.
lb.,
for
lb.
per
254
Net
force in lb.
RT
Net
we have,
would be TTTH
1444
is
that p
sq. in.,
and
ft.
and
its
TJ
area of cross-section
V = AH,
= ^-^ (^^ -
^)
force
over one
of the above,
'
sq. in. of
which
_ 1 ..p^H/l
U4A ^ R \T
J,
Since p
is
since
force in lb.
R\T
RTi
sq. ft.
A sq. ft. is
=
'
If
is
l\_vHll
l\
U4R \T
T, I
tJ
144P, wherein
also, since
R =
144gP
is
lb.
per sq.
ft.,
we have
53.3
/I
chimney cross-section
lb.
per
we have
1 \
HP
/ 1
1 \
\T
tJ 53.3 \T tJ
Converting F from pounds pressure per sq. in. to inches of
water by substituting the weight of water at the boiler room
temperature which is 62.0 pounds per cubic foot, we proceed
exactly as in the numerical example of the last discussion and
144
63.3
find that
D=
0.52
HP if - v)
(1)
255
above
10
lb.
ft.
per sq.
in.
draft of
0.52
100
10
^,^^
(,-^,-^ -
Fig. 161.
draft.
stack 100 feet high situated 10,000 feet above sea level, with entering air at fi2F. and
exit gaaes at SOOT, with ash pit door closed and no perceptible leakage through the boiler
setting, should register 0.46 inches of draft.
were no
losses.
tion in draft
on account
is
that
The
the friction.
is
is,
if
the
there
a considerable reduc-
up
By
reduced, and
ney
for the
it is
velocity of gases
is
its
base.
The
calculated by means
of formulae based
on the flow
of
water
256
=
W=
H=
Ti =
d =
where Dc
weight of
is
For
mean
the value k
water
The constant k
3.0,
in. of
The formula,
practical purposes
of the
it is
suf-
2.3.
therefore, becomes:
D =
2.3-!^'
(2)
draft,
n =
Do
The
. .. 20'
2.3
100
chimney
(500
461)
wr^
0.11
0.56
in. of
0.11
chimney
m.
is
of water.
therefore 0.67
water.
p. 289,
257
In the table in Fig. 162 the available draft is given for chimneys of various diameters all 100 ft. high, with given quantities
500F.
100
Feet High
in Inches op
of
chimney
in inches
.500F.
Water
258
vided the quantity of flue gas passing per hour can be approxi-
mately estimated.
The weight of flue gas passing per second or per hour depends,
for practical purposes, on just two things:
(1) The weight of fuel burned.
(2) The per cent, excess air used in burning it.
00
10
20
Sioo
o
.S
80
00
p
g
^o
20
"200
259
Oil can be burned with no more than 15 per cent, excess air,
corresponding to 14 per cent. CO2, but as extreme care is required
to attain this result the
is 50 per cent, excess air, corresponding to 10 per cent. CO2. The theoretical amount of air
required runs from 13 to 14 lb. per pound of oil, depending on
the chemical constituents of the oil. Taking 14 lb. as the theo-
liberal basis.
amount
of air,
60.
it is customary to overload boilers up to 150 per
200 per cent, and sometimes as high as 300 per cent, of
their rated capacity.
The actual horsepower may, therefore, be
very different from the installed capacity. In designing the
chimney it is essential to know what capacity is expected from
the boilers, and be guided accordingly.
An Example of Chimney Design for Sea-level Installation.
Let us from this data ascertain the diameter of a 100-ft. chimney
capable of properly creating a draft for a 1000 h.p. boiler instal-
In practice
cent.,
is
of suSicient size to
accommodate a
260
be 0.36 X ^^%oo = 0.50 in., which is the same draft for which the
60 in. X 100 ft. stack was figured in the previous example. A
number of other combinations of height and diameter can be made
that will give the same draft. The choice of the actual chimney
must therefore depend on other considerations beand in practice this point is settled by selecting
the chimney that will be the cheapest to build. The cost of a
to be used
oil
available draft
261
oil-fired boilers
lb.
it
chimney to
build for this capacity will be be-
in.
conditions
stack, 100
the
ft.
draft
for a 66-in.
is
in.
only 0.5
chimney
problem
ft.
66
in.
diameter and 90
high.
ney
is
indicated
by
tained from the proper size of chimney for each given capacity.
Fig. 165.
The power plant in
the Woolworth Building, New
York, has the tallest chimney in
the world. The height of the
stack is determined by that of
the building, but in some cases
the stack must be built extra
high in order to discharge well
a lower stack. In tall office buildings the height of the stack is determined by the height of the
building itself. It is not generally known that the tallest chimney
in the world is the one provided for the power plant of the
in proportion
to their
262
At the
of the draft.
a 54
in.
stack.
140
At
ft.
full
much
we have
140
in.
ft.
seen,
90
ft.
stack will
give a
friction loss is
much
less.
to be
proposed chimneys in their relation to altitude above the
sea.
All chimney dimensions and tables
have been computed on the basis of sealevel pressures.
From our equation of
consider
made
the
necessary
corrections
in the dimensions of
it
is
seen
upon the
Pi above sea
level is as follows:
Hi_Po
Pi
or
Fig. 166.
Atmoa-
of installation.
pheric barometer.
Hi = rH
This reasoning
measured
is
in inches of
An
how
THEORY OF CHIMNEY DRAFT
263
bustion of the fuel, for the same weight of air is needed for proper
fuel combustion, no matter what the altitude may be.
In the flow of gases through pipes, it has been found that the
weight passing any given section per minute is
W
Where
'
tity
(iH
to
cases,
the quantity
and p
W = K(^/)\n^W.
But
Hence
must equal Wi
for the
is
(^^f^Y
same economy
_
L becomes equal
of fuel burning.
264
the stack at the higher altitude should have the same frictional
This new diameter is de-
An Example
of
Chimney Design
at Altitude.
Since
it is
now
at altitude enters as a
ated 8000
We
is
74.5
in.
CHAPTER XXX
ACTUAL DRAFT REQUIRED FOR FUEL OIL
For every kind of fuel and rate of combustion tlu'ie is a certain
with which the best general results are obtained. A
draft
is
as the thickness of
in the grates
fires,
Numerous other
factors such
266
gases
which
it
is
The arrangement
of
It is well,
be the
seem that
in order to insure
maximum
number
Consequently
would
it
This
is
true
up to
certain
stack.
With
this
is
operating at
its
rated capacity.
per second.
ft.
per second
when the
boiler
of
30
hand used
in
OIL
267
It
is
desirable in all cases to design the stack for a greater draft than
it is a simple matter to reduce the draft by closing
on the damper, whereas if the draft is insufficient nothing can
be done to increase it. Again, it may be desired at some futiu-e
time to increase the number of passes in the boiler, or otherwise
modify the baffles in such a way as to require more draft. This
would be impracticable unless the stack is large enough to produce a surplus of draft.
In order to give the reader some general ideas of computations
involved in ascertaining draft losses assumed in design we shall
now pass to a brief consideration of this problem.
Loss of Draft in Boilers.^ ^The loss of draft through a boiler
proper will depend upon its type and baffling, and will increase
with the per cent, of rating at which it is iTin. For design purposes, it may be assumetl that the loss through an oil fired boiler
between the furnace and the damper will be 0.15 in. when it is
run at its rating, 0.35 in. at 150 per cent, of its rating and 0.60
in. at 200 per cent, of its rating.
Loss in Flues and Turns. With circular steel flues of approximately the same size as the stack or when reduced proportionally to the volume of gases they are to handle, a convenient rule
is to allow 0.1 in. draft loss per 100 ft. of flue length and 0.05 in
These figures are also good for square
for each right angle turn.
is
expected, for
in
Thus the
a
flue
100
should be doubled.
and turns for an installation having
ft.
Loss for
Turns 2
flues,
per 100
ft.
0.05
is
0.1 in.
0.1 in.
We
are
now enabled
to
its
ft.
268
and
long
containing
turns,
we have the
following
Draft in furnace
Draft loss in boiler
Draft loss in flue
Draft required at base of chimney
25
60
20
05
in.
in.
in.
in.
We may
diameter.
in.
ft.
draft required
100
05
TTro
is
181
ft.
This
is
chimney must be
14
ft.
known
as Artificial Draft.
the stack.
OIL
269
Sinco Forced Draft produces a pressure greater than iitmospheric, its use
is
steam atomized oil fired boilers, because there being no fuel bed
on the grates to offer resistance, the positive pressure from the
fan discharge would be carried up into the boiler setting. This
would cause the gases to leak out into the boiler room, and in
some cases would result in excessive furnace temperature and
FiQ.
Exterior
167.
pumping
lliro
ia
station at San B'rancisco. The chimney stack as shown illustrates the best and most permanent typo of design for fuel oil practice. No artificial means of producing a draft is
employed in this installation. It is a plant kept in eternal readiness, should disaster ever
again \Tait San Francisco as happened during April, 1906, in the days of the great fire.
of
should not extend beyond the ash pit. Forced draft is used
extensively with Mechanical Atomizing oil burnere, where owing
to the small area for air admission it is impossible to get into
270
by means
of natural
draft.
desired.
makes
it
is
of especial
Power
60
ft.
high,
and supplementing
was overcome.
this difficulty
it
CHAPTER XXXI
CHIMNEY GAS ANALYSIS
We
have found
composed
of
and
constituents
those
Since
nitrogen.
by the symbols
respectively.
Vi,
Wo
V2, V3,
shall
them
and
Vt,
now proceed
employed
in
determining the
flue
gas
flue
gas sample
washed
may
be successively
in these solutions, a
means
is
Fig. 169.
carbon dioxide
recorder.
Orsat Apparatus (see Fig. 171) cona wooden ease with removable sliding doors which contain a measuring tube or burette B, three absorbing bottles or
sists of
271
272
ABSORPTION CHAMBER
FILTER
WATE
JAR
Fig. 170.
A recorder
for
combustion operation.
the diBcuasion in the text it may be inferred that a knowledge of the carbon dioxide
component of the flue gas enables us to judge concerning the combustion taking place in
the furnace. The principle involved in the type of carbon dioxide recorder as shown is that
a change of volume in a gas produces a change of pressure. 4- continuous sample of the
flue gas enters at A and in passing through the absorption chamber the carbon dioxide is
absorbed and consequently a reduction in pressure takes place. By the calibration of suitable manometer tubes the instrument may be made to read the carbon dioxide component
From
direct.
By
lowering the
leveling
and
d being open.
of the gas is
This preliminary sample is then
/,
bottle A,
g,
e,
a sample
CHIMNEY a AS ANALYSTS
273
sample
A
to
is
its
lias
By
zero marit.
coc'k e
the water
is
again
and the gas sample expelled through stopinto the pipette P', in which there is a chemical solution
Fio. 171.
(li.4fussi(>n.
that absorbs carbon dioxide, but will not absorb oxygen, carbon
monoxide or nitrogen.
To Ascertain the Carbon Dioxide Content of a Flue Gas.
Exactly 100 cc. of gas were originally drawn into the burette
B. If now the leveling bottle A is again lowered to draw the
gas back through stop-cock e, the volume in the burette will be
found to have lessened in quantity so that instead of reading
zero it now reads Ni which indicates directly the volume of car-
is
274
= Ny
V^
(1)
is
By
means
F3
To
that
iVs
(Fi
V,)
(3)
V, = 100
is
(Fi
is
We assume
nitrogen.
Con-
V,
F3)
(4)
CHIMNEY
(!AS
AXALYSIS
in the air
This
is
9.5
5.2
+^-~:
75.1
20.91
79.09
limit of ex-
perimental accuracy.
As California crude
usually about
hydrogen,
above
11
the
oil
contains
per cent,
ready
of
checking
proves of no
hydrogen content
is not taken account of in the
Orsat or flue ^as analysis. As
indicated
bear it in mind.
In boilers fired by coal containlittle hydrogen the CO does
Fig. 172. Hays gas analyzer, connot usually exceed 1 or 2 per lenient for carrying from place to
cent, and the sum of the Orsat
-|- CO is usually beween 20 and 21 per cent.
readings CO2-IWhen burning oil, on the other hand, the sum of these readings
may be as low as 16 or 17 per cent, due to the large proportion
ing
which means an apparent nitrogen conThe reason for this is that the water
\'apor formed by the burning of hydrogen condenses in the Orsat
apparatus and occupies practically no volume, but the oxygen
which unites with the hydrogen brings with it the same proportion of nitrogen as does the oxygen that unites with the carbon.
Consequently the Orsat indicates a larger proportion of nitrogen
than would occur if the fuel were pure carbon.
Chemical Formulas for Preparing the Absorption Solutions.
The bottle ^i and the measuring tube or burette B contain pure
of
hydrogen
t(Mit of
<S.3
in the fuel,
or 84 per cent.
276
water only, while the first pipette P' in which carbon dioxide is
absorbed contains sodium hydrate dissolved in three times its
weight of water. The second pipette P" in which oxygen is
absorbed contains Pyrogallic acid dissolved in sodium hydrate
in the proportion of five grams of the acid to 100 cc. of the
hydrate, and in the third pipette wherein carbon monoxide is
absorbed cuprous chloride is contained. These chemicals are
sold
in
is
works on
however, available in
who
all
chemical
sufficient
operating conditions.
Gas Analysis
is
in the
Power Plant.
many power
plants.
It is reliable
and
277
a determination of the
simple instrument by
can be done has a useful
place in power plant work.
One of these instruments which
fore,
the
which
this
illustrated in Fig.
is
as the
173
is
instrument
vessel,
into
charge of the
consists
which
of
is
known
This
a metallic
pumped
be analyzed.
The vessel contains a small quantity
of Caustic Potash solution for the
purpose of absorbing the CO2 in the
sample.
As soon as the gas is
taken into the receiver the cocks are
closed, and the instrument is shaken
to thoroughly mix the gas with the
Fio. 17 3.
COj indicator.
absorbent solution, thus removing Dwight Mfg. Co., Chicago, Pat.
flue gas to
CO2
the
content.
applied for.
small
amount
CO2
The reduction
Law
(page
in pressure is
Conclusion on the Orsat Analysis. By care and a little pathe experimenter will find that the Orsat analysis as
tience,
278
above
set forth
then be
We
made
in the furnace
and
its accessories.
Fig. 174.
COa
indicator
CHAPTER XXXII
ANALYSIS BY WEIGHT, AND AIR THEORETICALLY
REQUIRED IN FUEL OIL FURNACE
In the last discussion it was found that Oisnt analyses of
chimney gases arc always made voluinctriLally. In computing
combustion data from these analyses, howevi-r, it is often necessary to have the proportions or percentages by weight instead
Fio. 175.
Carbon dioxide
of the
by
280
of
the
Fig. 176.
weights
involved.
Electric
Company,
Stirling boilers.
Pacific
pV = MRT
Hence, we
may
AXALYS/S BY WEIGHT
281
we may
p and temperature T,
p\\ = M^R^T
pV, =
or
.1/1
^pV
M^R.T or Ah = f^
pV,
pi, = M,R,T OT M,
pV, =
and
MMaT
pV =
or
R,T
Mt
RT,
we have
MRT or M
|^
was
also
perfect gas
is
for
it
any
page 47).
chemistry we find the molecular
weight m of carbon dioxide (CO2) is 44, that of oxygen (O2) is
32, that of carbon monoxide (CO) is 28, and that of nitrogen
of the gas in question (see
(N2)
is
28.
Relationship of a
this in mind,
that, since
it is
R =
Component Weight
>
Tr
R,T
-''^2
Whole.
Bearing
we have
mipVl
pVl
,,
to the
w^
T^TT^'
= Km2V2
-r
T-
V
1544r
282
But Mi
+ Mi + Ms + Mi = M
= KmiVi + KniiVi + KmsV^ + KnuVi
K{m.iVi + rtiiVi + m^Vz + miV^
Let Cs = miFi + rriiVi + msFa + miVi
.-.M = KCs
Ml = KmiVi
Also
Ml _ KmiVi _ miVi
M ~ KC. ' Cs
Hence
(1)
Fig. 177.
View of the float arrangements, showing the valves which control
the inlet and outlet of oil from storage tanks of Long Beach Plant, Southern
California Edison Company.
this rule
AXALYSIS
and
its
that component
An
liY
Illustrative
is
WEIGHT
tlic
283
proportion hy weight of
at once asccrlaincd.
following proportions
oxygen
0.793
such transformations
C'on.stitucnts
284
perfect combustion
is
necessary.
This
is
it
is
mate contact with the heated carbon, hydrogen, and other combustible ingredients of the fuel; consequently, unless an excess
of air is admitted some of these ingredients will pass out of the
chimney unconsumed. Good practice dictates from 15 to 20
per cent, excess of air as the proper ratio for economic fuel oil
consumption in the furnace.
In order then to know when this ratio is properly established
we must have some means of ascertaining the air theoretically
required for perfect combustion as well as that actually used in
reduced in value to
is
the proportion
by
fuel.
is
required.
now
by weight
by weight
of carbon,
parts
J.V.lLr,S7,S'
BY WEIGHT
285
Air Required per Pound of Fuel Burned. Since air is composed of 0.2315 parts by weight of oxygen, the theoretical weight
of air il/( necessary to supply the oxygen above required for
I)crfect
combustion
M, j2
\M,a =
An
^ ^
0:2315
11.52C
Illustrative
is
+ ^("
34.56
Example.
(^ ~
Fuel
s) 0:2315
l)
^ ^ 0.2315
+ ^"^^'^
^^^
Mta = 11.52
0.8152
-|-
- ^^5|^) -1-4.32X0.0055 =
12.92 lb.
CHAPTER XXXIII
COMPUTATION OF COMBUSTION DATA FROM THE
ORSAT ANALYSIS
shown
in detail
how
Orsat
analysis
by volume
analysis
to convert the
by weight.
to
an
We now
as-
accurately
components
respectively.
ascertained
these
nomic
Fig.
fired;
178.
Boiler front^oil
showing gage for measur-
conclusions
287
we learn that Vi
oxygen form Vi units by volmne of carbon
dioxide, thereby burning Fi imits by volume of carbon in the
fuel.
The unit volume of carbon is, of course, to be considered
as a gas and not in its solid state as ordinarily encovmtered.
Since carbon does not exist in a gaseous state at ordinaiy pressures
and temperature, the reasoning involved is, of course, incorrect
in that particular.
However, for purposes of deriving the
formula there is no inaccuracy introduced by the assumption
that carbon in a gaseous state acts according to all well known
units
by volume
of
laws of chemistry.
On the other hand, volumetric experiments
V3
us that
"s"
units
by volume
of
oxygen form
T'.,
in chemistrj' tell
units
by volume
Summing
of
up,
we
find that (1
V3
"k
V3) units
'
2)
units by volume
by volume
of
carbon
shown
Fi
F3
3,
12
r.+p + F.
^ T'l + F3
units
FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING
288
air
Mc
burned
is
-^^
12
0.2315^
Fi
.-.M,
11.52
Vi
+-^+
F2
T/
^ ^
Fa
C'
(1)
We
gas only.
can, however,
make a
if
indicates
tion
(if
is
it
units of hydrogen
c) units by weight.
its
\H - gj pounds
of
hydrogen
is
023^5
\H - g) or
34. 56
Ma
burned
An
11.52
is
+-^+
-r
V2
XC+
T^
V i
34.56
(h
\
^^^
8/
Illustrative
analysis
is
Vi
M, =
(^-^) pounds.
hydrogen; 0.55 per cent, sulphur; and 6.92 per cent, oxygen.
289
The
Alio gas of a boiler under test using this oil was found by
Orsat analysis to contain 8.6 per cent, carbon dioxide; 9.0 per
nitrogen.
M
A
11 52
-0055+009
x"^^^ +"
34.56
Second Formula
the Furnace.
^Let
(O.IIOI
--^^)
21.1 lb.
Admitted
to
American Society
of
of carbon
consumed
in the furnace
-)
units
by volume
of
nitrogen enter with the oxygen into the furnace. Since one
unit of carbon by volume weighs ^^^gths of the weight of one
unit
by volume
carbon burned
of nitrogen,
we have that
for every
pound
of
in the furnace
28
12
y
^
V,
Fi
_
V,
12(Ti
..ilf.
An
Illustrative
3.032
Example.
Fs)
0.7685
(^_^^-^)c
first
(3)
set
290
we have by
^ =
^-^^^
(-
0.086
0.01l)
"-^^^^
'''
substitutiag
^'-
Weight of Dry Flue Gas per Pound of Fuel. Since the entering
above computed combines with one pound of fuel, we may
ascertain the weight of flue gas per pound of fuel oil consumed by
air
prove to be
^p;
'
'
miVi
p ana
,
-^9
'
consumed
in the fuel
Hence
44.
it is
this
evident that
quantity becomes
formation requires
(28
is
~h/
zV z
^
171
formation of
But mi
oil.
i^g
pound
lb- of
^b. of
Hence to form
oil.
{-rj^
of
>>") lb.
lb.
carbon are
is
127i
p^
But mt
for carbon
28.
this
^^' ^ '^^''bon.
Hence
of
quantity becomes
monoxide (CO)
291
The free oxygen and the free nitrogen in the flue gas have of
course required no carbon of the fuel. Therefore, for
lb.
of chimney gas there will be required
12r3_
12Fi
12
(J
form
.y
'
units
pound
by weight
of carbon will, of
of
parts of carbon
which
may
M
it is
32, for
12(7:
therefore for C,
lb. of flue
gas
F,)
carbon monoxide
gas and
= C
flue
it is
28,
and
is
44, for
for nitrogen
oxygen
it is
28,
we have
^'-^
3(7,
,,.
^*)
73)
An Illustrative Example. ^Let us now use the same experimental data as in the previous examples and compute the pounds
of dry flue gas that were formed, as indicated by the data from
the Orsat analysis.
It is to be noted in passing that all of these computations based
simply upon the Orsat analysis give the weight of dry flue gas
only.
If the moisture present in the flue gas is to be taken into
consideration, a correction should be made by noting the hydrogen
present in the fuel, the moisture in the entering air, and the steam
used in atomization. In ordinary practice these factors are not
used, for, as we shall see in the discussion of the heat balance
in a later chapter, the moisture content is properly cared for
under separate headings. Returning to our example, then, we
find that the weight of dry flue gas M per pound of fuel burned
is
^r
'""
il
n
o,
0.15J
3(0.086
Ratio of Air
We
ratio of air
drawn
0.01 iT
suflicient relationships to
compute the
292
Let
US,
rriiVi
that for;
lbs. of air
is
formed
lb. of
Similarly,
in.
^^^ lb.
e
mto the furnace
nitrogen drawn
^ X
q ^ggg
oxygen appearing in
lb. of
q 23]^5
no carbon monoxide
if
of free
mtVi
excess air
must
have been drawn into the furnace. Hence we have that the
Ma drawn in is expressed by the formula
total air
While the
air
"
0.7685
C.
Mm
theoretically required
M,
= m,Vt
C.
Ta
is
m-iVz
0.7685
C.
0.2315
fa of
may
mtVi
C.
0.7685
= Ma
Mia
rriiVi
miVi
C.
0.7685
C,
0.2315
^^"^^0:7^5
'"0.2315
0.7685
Since
nii
28 and ma
32,
we have
74
y.
''"
3272
'28
An
-Using
we have
0-813
The
"
0.813
3.782X0.09
we
0.2315
Illustrative Example.-
in previous examples,
74-3.7827,
0.7685
lb.
Hence
Va'.
Ma was
(2)
From formula
(3)
''-
Ma was
.r
293
found to be 21.1.
12.92
=1-^^
found to be 20.7.
20.7
a.60
12.92
19.8
(4)
Mg was
foimd to be
20.8.
Hence Ma
and
'^"
16
14
Fio. 179.-
If
"
^-^'^
given instance.
12.92
294
CO2
when burning
oil
with
it
is
eb'minating
03
1.53
3.00
0.99
0.5
15.22
21.24
3.06
3.00
0.99
0.5
20.30
27.85
34.3
24.3
0.
Nitrogen supplied
Total weight of gases
Lbs.
at
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
32
Cu.
Cu.
Cu.
Cu.
Cu.
32
H2OVol. at 32
at
Nitrogen Vol. at 32
Total Vol at 32
26.42
6.12
20.30
3.06
Lbs.
Lbs.
^ CO
19.81
4.59
15.22
3.06
free
Lbs.
CO2 produced
H2O from combustion
H2O from atomizing steam
OxygenVol.
^O
air
3.06
CO2Vol.
air
Lbs.
lb. oil
air
Lbs.
100%
excess
lb. oil
lb. oil
Oxygen
50%
excess
13.21
3.06
10.15
Lbs.
lb. oil
No
excess
3.00
0.99
0.5
10.15
14.64
ft.
0.
ft.
24.3
17.1
24.3
129.2
153.5
194.1
235.5
Negligible
ft.
ft.
ft.
0.
. .
15.8
84.2
7.26
10.32
82.42
268.5
317.1
10.81
7.66
81.53
CHAPTER XXXIV
WEIGHING THE WATER AND OIL
IN BOILER TESTS
for certain
'
tt/'Jbo^O'rr
An excellent design
investigations.
For
^O l^ii'K/S
for a
measuring tank.
boiler performance,
however,
296
poured into the cylinder ports when the piston head is at its
dead end and the water afterwards drained out and weighed.
From the weight of the water so used the volume of the clearance
is computed.
In rough measurements of engine and boiler performance the water is sometimes measured by fiUing a tank or
barrel of known volumetric proportions, and by keeping account
of the number of barrels so filled and dumped into the sump,
sufficient data is obtained to compute the weight.
Fig. 181.
The
Platform
scales
and tanks
for
water measurement.
immediately to the right of the platform scales is under test. The tank below
the platform scales into which the water is emptied after being weighed, is utilized to furnish all water for the boiler during the test. At the beginning of the test a hooked gage
registers the_ height of the water in this tank, and at each hourly period thereafter sufficient
water is weighed and emptied into it from the tanks above to maintain this exact level.
By means of these data, properly taken, the factor of evaporation and the boiler horsepower are easily computed.
boiler
The Method
of Standardized Platform
Scales. It
is
now
uni-
is
accurately
The
is
also maintained.
is accompUshed by two or
three vertical cyhndrical tanks that have a conically shaped outlet
at the bottom. These tanks are located on standardized scales
immediately above the main supply tank that has just been described.
The complete installation is shown in the illustration.
At the beginning of the test the height of the water in the boiler
is noted on the gage glass in front of the boiler and as near as
Fio. 182.
in a boiler teat.
In order to assure the rapid passage of water or oil from the tank upon the platform scales
into the container below, the employment of steel tanks with comcal shaped bottoms is
most effective. The outlet for the oil or water should be controlled by quick-opening valves.
is
maintain this
is
most
pump
is
regulated in
its
operation so as to
level.
carefully
As the water
is
298
disconnect the outlets from the blowoff pipes of the boiler during
the period of the test. All outlets from the water columns and
-OAuaE CUA9.
OUTLET
Fig. 183.-
-An
finds
of the
many
oil
pump
is
taken.
reading of which
situated a
is
beginning of the test. This exact reading is maintained throughout the hourly progress of the test, and indeed at any other
period if so desired.
This is accomphshed by means of a tank situated above the
No.
3,
is
largely
an excerpt:
he
may
may
easily
be,
make
if
work and render the results of tests and analyses utterly misleadA sampler must be always on the alert for sand, water and
ing.
He
foreign matter.
suspicious,
wagon
any definite quantity, say 0.5 Uter (about 1 pint), is filled from
the stream of oil. Similar samples are taken at equal intervals of
time from the beginning to the end of the flow a dozen or more
dipperfuls in all. These samples are poured into a clean drum
300
oil is
pail,
and thoroughly
stirred.
oil
may
For a
sample representing
wagon-load
Fig. 184.
of
20 barrels."
The viscosimeter.
The design
AND
OIL
/A'
thrown into the receiving tank and not mixed with the sample for
analysis.
of
sediment
is
CHAPTER XXXV
IN ATOMIZATION
methods used
when converted
into heat
when the
atomization.
accuracy.
In the mathe-
When
itself is less
medium
into
of the
higher pressure, a certain formula applies. And the rather remarkable thing is that below this point the flow is neither increased nor decreased by a reduction of the external pressure,
even to the extent of a perfect vacuum. This was the basis upon
which Napier's formula was derived in the chapter on Steam
Calorimetry, wherein a formula was given to compute the steam
In this formula it was
utilized for operating the calorimeter.
302
MEASUREMENT
OF
303
seen that,
if
is
Fio. 185.
on the
(1)
Thia apparatus
California Edison Company.
right.
is
at the
wherein
W
A
orifice
is
W=
minute,
left
initial
^
70
is
1.9
AK\/iP-d)d
(2)
the absolute
pressure between the two sides in pounds per square inch, and
304
a constant which has a value of 0.93 for a short pipe and 0.63 for
a hole in a thin plate or a safety valve.
This latter formula is applicable in the measurement of steam
to burner utiHzed in the atomization of fuel oil. In the following
lines a method will be outhned setting forth the necessary apparatus involved in determining the variables in the formula.
is
Instead of actually substituting and solving numerically, however, it is far simpler to construct a chart and pick from this the
Fig. 186.
steam passed.
MEASUREMENT OF STEAM
nothing more nor
less
I'SED IN
than a U-tube
filled
ATOMIZATION 305
with mercury.
When
The
difference
to
Humeri
Fig.
1,87.
Apparatus employed
in
The
as
shown
in order
steam
in
many
instances
is
306
every fifteen minutes during the test, the testing engineer notes
at such intervals the steam that has passed during the preceding
fifteen-minute period.
In such a manner the total quantity of
steam used in atomization is ascertained.
Thus in a test at the Fruitvale Station of the Southern Pacific Company, the pressure of the steam at the burner was found
The temperature of the steam at the
to be 168 lb. per sq. in.
12
foQudB
FiQ. 188.
Calibration
9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Steam per Minute
8
of
of orifice for
measurement
of
16
17
IS 19
20
Previous to a boiler test the manometer which registers the pressure difference at the
faces of the orifice is carefully caUbrated by condensing the steam flow and weighing the
hourly condensate. These data when plotted on a curve as shown above enable the engineer to quickly ascertain the steam used in atomization at any time during a test.
was found by the above means to be 7441 lb., while the total
weight of water fed to the boilers proved to be 180,240 lb. Hence
the percentage of total water evaporated by the boilers used
in atomization is determined by dividing 7441 by 180,240, which
is 4.16 per cent.
The total weight of oil fired was 14,093 lb. during the test of
10 hr. Hence, the pounds of steam utilized for atomization per
pound
proves to be 0.528
lb.
by dividing 7441 by
14,093,
which
CHAPTER XXXVI
THE TAKING OF BOILER TEST DATA
In previous chapters
all
the important
These, however,
FiQ. 189.
A portable pyrometer
outfit.
For the ready measurement of temperatures in and about the power plant, a portable type
In the illustration shown temperatures may be read from
of pyrometer is often convenient.
200r, to 2200F. Such an instrument as the one indicated is convenient in ascertaining
the flue gas temperatures
ment
of
human
endeavor.
analysis
And
is
being taken.
and
is
test its
The manner
of the boiler
or else relegate the type of steam generator under test to the scrap
heap.
307
308
The
The
minute
details that
Fig. 190.
Saybolt water indicator, a device whereby the water
contents of oil may be conveniently indicated.
by the American
309
fee.
it
many
steam generated to
Having made a
Time
of
height.
its
closing point
is
carefully weighed.
310
previous chapters.
With
these data at
is
enabled by de-
production of steam.
The
Oil, Its
Measurement and
Analysis.
in Atomization.
oil is
In
consumed
being generated in the boiler. To obtain the useful and economic quantity of steam generated by the boiler we should then
subtract this steam used in atomization from the total steam
generated in the test. A practical method of obtaining experimentally the steam used in atomization has been described in
Chapter
XXXV.
The
Boiler Efficiency.-
oil
311
latter gives us the efBciency of the boiler as set forth in the chapter
on Heat Balance.
In central station practice on the Pacific Coast the gross boiler
from 81 to 83 per cent,
under test conditions. The atomization of the steam lowers this
efficiency by about 2 per cent., thus making the best net boiler
efficiencies range between 79 and 81 per cent.
The Overload Test. The sudden demand for power during
certain hours of the day make an elasticity in boiler steaming
As an instance
Test.
In
This
for
is
is
of
prime importance.
pumping
is
fire
protection.
In San Fran-
to attain.
312
Mechanical Engineers.
of
In the first place, one should note on a log sheet the general
observations such as date of test, duration of test, type of oil
burner, make of oil burner, number of burners used, and with this
information should be compiled suflBcient physical dimensions
simultaneously if possible.
Pressure Readings. The pressure of the atmosphere is read
in inches of mercury and the steam gauge readings of the boiler
and superheater having been duly calibrated or corrected for
mechanical inaccuracies, are then reduced to absolute pressure
readings as set forth in the chapter on pressures.
The pressure of the oil under which it is forced into the furnace
is also usually noted, although it has no bearing on data compufifteen minutes,
tation.
The
pit,
One
is
room
furnace.
To
313
the firing of the boilers and during the test an electrical pyrometer is advised, especially if other high temperatures are to be
taken in various points of flue gas passage.
detailed
data explained.
later chapter.
will
be set forth in
full in a
The Test as a Whole. The reader has now before him the
taking of the test as a whole. At this point he should carefully
review all the previous chapters alluded to in this discussion so
as to weld into a solid chain the links that go to
make up
the
Having thus
in
involved in the taking of the boiler test data, we are now in position to link together the computed data involved in formulating
the engineer's report of the economic results of the test.
CHAPTER XXXII
PRELIMINARY TABULATION AND CALCULATION OF
TEST DATA
HE
show
in the minutest
portance.
It
is
prime imoverdo
far better to
of
to
the
test
is
the engineer
much
when he
of
in
Fig. 192.
which
The
used as a
fuel.
illustrate
this supply
water
is
314
315
weigher, one to be used for each hourly period. Each sheet sets
forth general information indicating the kind of boiler under
test,
the date of
test,
the
name
of the observer,
column
is devoted to the
a second to the gross weight of the
water and tank before emptying into the tank below, the tare
to be subtracted from the gross weight, which is the weight of
the upper tank after the water is emptied into the tank below,
and a fourth column setting forth the net weight or difference
of the two preceding columns.
This sheet will have somewhat
the following appearance.
number
is
stationed.
boiler
of Starting Test
Reading
316
place
is
The
value of the
oil
is
is
as follows:
of Boiler
Date
Observers at Scales for Oil
Reading
317
318
vious chapters have already set forth in detail suggestions for the
ascertaining of these quantities, and the reader is now advised
fuel.
319
The
made
in
is
to bear in
any particular
now check
that
and
is,
total
reader
sum
of the test
The
such matters.
sheet
must
will,
The
it is
forth.
CHAPTER XXXVIII
THE HEAT BALANCE AND BOILER EFFICIENCY
The steaming
ing
The
so-called efficiency.
its
by measur-
and the
pound
calorific
of fuel
value of
consumed
in
lb.
of fuel.
calorific
chapter,
1 lb. of fuel.
It is seK-evident
320
riFE
321
pound
of fuel
is
H, =
M.X U
(1)
^' =
.-.//<=
28,225
W2
^m ^
^^-^-
^^'^^^
for Atomization.
In ordinary
combustion, there are three methods of
atomization employed. In the larger power plants the use of
steam for atomization purposes, or in other words, the diverting
of steam from the boiler into the furnace in order to atomize the
b.
practice
oils,
of
fuel
oil
It is
proposed to alter
that
Ha = M,(H. - hO
(2)
Thus
lb. of
21
322
B.t.u.
H = 0.530
(1198.98
136.87)
562.44 B.t.u.
Power Generation.^
Since then the heat utilized in atomization must be subtracted
from the total heat absorbed by the boiler, to ascertain the net
heat Hn absorbed by the boiler for power generation, we have
c.
for
Hn = Ht Ha
= 14,639 -
.-.Hn
(6)
Loss
amount
Due
to
Water
of moisture.
(3)
562.44
in the Fuel.
14,076.56 B.t.u.
All
fuels contain
a certain
send
it
chimney
in a superheated condition,
Thus
H = M
[212
to
970.4
0.47 fe
212)]
(4)
(tg
212) B.t.u.
fuel contains
ilf
its
entering temperature
96F.,
is
323
400F.
Hence
H =
0.01 [212
96
970.4
0.47 (400
212)]
11.67
B.t.u.
Due
(c)
to
From
to
970.4
0.47
(<
212)] B.t.u.
bines with 8
tion
by weight
of
Hh = 9Ma
By
[212
-to
970.4
0.47
(<
we have
212)]
(5)
hydrogen per pound of fuel, that the temperaentering air is 84 and the temperature of the escaping
shows 0.11
ture of
we
lb.
of
Ha =
0.11 [212
84
970.4
0.47 (400
212)]
1166.97 B.t.u.
Loss
Due
to
324
that
it
gas per
pound
1 in temperature.
pound
of fuel,
of
chimney gas
Mg
Hence
if
Hg =
0.24
is
seen to be
{tg
- QMg
(6)
In this particular instance, let us assume that by the appHcawe find that 19.83 lb. of dry chimney gas are
is
84,
and that
of the outgoing
temperature of the
Hence
H, =
0.24 (400
84) 19.83
1503.91 B.t.u.
pound
carbon.
Fs
t^-^^t-
-r v
Ho =
C-y~Y^ X
10,150
(7)
In the particular case cited above the fuel has 0.86 proportions
evidently
10,150 XO.Ol
_^ _^^
^" = ^-^^.0979+ 0.01 = ^l-^2 B.t.u.
325
(/)
referring
H. = M. {H.
and
hi)
(8)
Where
it would, of course, be necessary to neglect the correction made under (o) b, although the
quantity under this heading must still be taken into account.
is
H..
in
which H,a
is
= 0A7M,
{t,
t.)
(9)
and
t,
atomization.
we have found
Since
of oil in atomization
H,a
0.47
0.53(400
381.9)
lb.
of oil
burned.
atomization
is
Hu.
= Ha
+ H^
562.44
+ 4.51 =
566.95 B.t.u.
(10)
326
may
Ha =
0.47
MaK
{t,
be
(11)
ta)
lb. of
the entering moisture represented 0.75 per cent, of the enterits way into the furnace at a temperature
and escaped from the chimney at a temperature of 400.
Therefore
H =
{h)
0.47 (21.82)
Stray Losses.^
0.0075 (400
84)
23.18
B t.u.
the
oil
sum
is
is
thrown
It is clearly evident
equal to the
cited above.
Hence if H^ represents
and H the calorific value of
of fuel,
1 lb. of fuel
we may
H. =
and
Ho-
{H
+ H^ +
Hh
H,
Hta
pound
oU under test,
+ H,J)
(12)
find this
to be 18151.06 B.t.u.
. .H,=
19,450
18,151.06
1,298.94 B.t.u.
B.t.u.
percent.
oil
(a) a.
boiler
6.
Heat absorbed
atomiza-
tion
(6)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(/)
00
14,r).'i0
for
.')(i2.44
.">
{g)
(Ji)
14,071)
.5(i
11
ii7
72.37
06
1,166 97
COO
1,503
7.73
".11
801 82
.
566.95
air
12
327
'
328
In the data set forth in the heat balance just computed we find
then that
The
14,076.56
^Q4gQ
_^_
Mechanism.
In
case,
(14)
1^
Under such a definition the boiler data set forth in the heat
balance would indicate a boiler efficiency, thus
^'
14,639
igiiSO
The data from which the heat balance and boiler efiiciency
was computed in this chapter is summarized as
illustration
follows
air
19,450 B.t.u.
28,225
lb.
1,872
lb.
0.
520 lb
381 9F.
.
169. 1F.
1.0%
96F.
400F.
11.0%
86%
84F.
of
dry
fuel
fuel oil
19 83 lb.
21 82 lb.
9 79%
,
0.
00%
75%
CHAPTER XXXIX
the
by
Mechan-
American Society
of
The most
Some
eflBciency.
is
is
the ratio of heat actually transferred from the fuel through the
metallic parts of the boiler to the total quantity of heat given out
by the
fuel.
When
coal
when
is
oil is
an
furnace.
of
amount
instance
is
oil is
come to some
important point is to
an exact manner of arriving at the efficiency of the boiler as
above alluded to. In this work we shall consider that the true
329
330
331
* S'*i Q,"*
::
c " 3 a
fr c8
aA
-^ 0.13 *3<;
g
S
'S'S
hod
" o
si 3^-5
o ea o
-S*
"3
giT
1a 2s~^
:o^ fiat's
--^ 1-*^
08
J3
0j- *
.j! S
>-
| -^^
^1 S
T)
f^ t.
+5
8S
ft-
M w a > 3
O iJ-S
00
O. ft
o S S "is
i^
" ft5 S
^g.Sp5.2
si's o S
gS
ts-a
2-5.2
332
and furnace
is
hand
to
compute the
producing agent,
we
a steam
steam
is
number
of oil
atomizing the
is
oil
also introduced,
at the burner.
by which
is
These
determinations should be fully described and included in Appendix No. 14, of the Report of the Power Test Committee begin-
333
Table
1.
of Evaporative
Test of
boiler located at
to determine
conducted by
Number and kind of boilers
Kind of furnace
Type of burner
Make of burner
Number of burners
Furnace dimensions
length
height
width
Approximate area of air openings in furnace floor
Approximate area of air openings around burners
Total area of air openings
Total area of air openings per rated horsepower
Volume of furnace
Distance from furnace floor to nearest heating surface
Water heating surface
Superheating surface
Total heating surface
.
(2)
(3)
(a)
(6)
(c)
(4)
(a)
(6)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(/)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Test
of 1915
sq. in.
sq. in.
sq. in.
sq. in.
cu.
ft.
ft.
sq. f t.
sq. ft.
sq. ft.
Date
(8)
(9)
Duration
(10)
Kind
(a)
(6)
(c)
(d)
(e)
hr.
of fuel oil
deg.
deg.
Engler.
lOtc.
lb.
per sq.
in.
lb.
per sq.
per sq.
in.
(6)
(c)
lb.
(d)
Barometric pressure
(11)
(o)
lb.
in.
in.
deg.
Temperature of steam at superheater outlet
deg.
(a) Normal temperature of saturated steam
deg.
(6) Temperature of steam at oil burner
deg.
(c) Temperature of oil at burner
deg.
Temperature of feed water entering boiler
(13)
deg.
(o) Temperature of feed water entering economizer
deg.
(6) Increase of temperature of water due to economizer
deg.
Temperature of gases leaving boilers
(14)
deg.
(a) Temperature of gases leaving economizer
deg.
(6) Decrease of temperature of gases due to economizer
deg.
(c) Temperature of furnace
These numbers correspond in so far as possible with numbers given in
(12)
'
the .V.S.M.E.
Code
of 1915.
334
(15)
(a)
(6)
(c)
(d)
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
in.
of water
in.
in
in.
in furnaces
in.
in ash pits
in.
State of weather
(16)
(6)
(c)
(a)
deg.
deg.
pit
per cent.
(18)
Quality of Steam
Percentage of moisture in steam or number of degrees
per cent, or deg.
of superheating
Factor of correction for quaUty of steam
(19)
Weight of
(20)
(27)
per cent.
Percentage of water in fuel oil as fired
lb.
Total weight of water free fuel oil consumed
lb.
Total weight of water fed to boiler
lb.
Total water evaporated corrected for quality of steam
Total weight of steam fed to burner
lb.
Steam fed to burner in per cent, of total water evaporated per cent.
Factor of evaporation, based on temperature of water entering
(28)
(17)
Total Quantities
(21)
(25)
(26)
(a)
(6)
boilers
(29)
(30)
(a)
(31)
(a)
(6)
(32)
(33)
lb.
lb.
lb.
.
.lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
(36)
Capacity
Equivalent evaporation per hour from and at 212 deg.
(same as Hne 32)
lb.
Boiler horsepower developed (line 32 -^ 343-^)
Bl. H.P.
Rated capacity per hour, from and at 212 deg
lb.
Rated boiler horsepower
Bl. H.P.
Percentage of rated capacity developed
per cent.
(37)
Wated
(34)
(a)
(35)
(a)
Economy
(38)
'
oil
as fired (item 25
-i-
item 19)
26 -^item 21)
lb.
lb.
(40)
(a)
(6)
Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 dog. per lb. of fuel oil
as fired (item 28 -i- item 19)
Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. per lb. of water
free fuel oil (item 28 -h item 21)
Equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. of steam fed
to burner per lb. of fuel oil free from water (item 26a X
item 27 -^item 21)
Net equivalent evaporation from and at 212 deg. per lb. of oil
free from water (item 40 item 40a)
Calorific
(a)
Calorific value of
1 lb.
of
lb.
lb.
lb.
lb.
Value
(42)
335
water
by calorimeter ....
B.t.u.
B.t.u.
Efficiency
and furnace.
,_. ^ Item 40 X 970.4
100 X
Tf,
^
Item 42a
Net efficiency of boiler and furnace.
,. ^ Item 406 X 970.4
100 X
iT
7^
Item 42o
Efficiency of boiler
(44;
(a.
C'o.st
of
per cent.
per cent.
Evaporation
Cost of fuel oil per bbl. of 42 gals, delivered in boiler room .dollars.
Cost of fuel oil required for evaporating 1000 lb. of water
under observed conditions
dollars.
Cost of fuel oil required for evaporating 1000 lb. of water
dollars.
from and at 212 deg
(46)
(47)
(48)
Smoke Data
(49)
(a)
(51)
(o)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
per
((nt.
per
(riit.
Oxygen (O)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Hydrogen and hydrocarbons
Nitrogen, by difference (N)
per cent.
(S3)
per cent.
per cent.
per cent.
oil.
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)
per cent.
per cent.
(e)
Nitrogen (N)
Sulphur (S)
(/)
Ash
per cent.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(g)
(55)
per cent.
per cent.
per cent.
336
Per
B.t.u.
cent.
(a) a.
(6)
(c)
(d)
gases
(e)
(J)
For numerical
example completely solved,
see page 327.
atomization
Total loss due to atomization
Loss due to moisture in entering air
c.
(g)
(h)
(i)
'
Stray losses
Total calorific value of 1
from water (item 42a)
Table
(1)
(2)
(3)
Date
(4)
Duration
(6)
(7)
(8)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
hr.
lb.
pressure at burner
lb.
per sq.
per sq.
in.
in.
deg.
.
.deg.
ft.
oil
(9)
sq.
,
100
2.
Oil Burners.
(5)
CHAPTER XL
THE USE OF EVAPORATIVE TESTS IN INCREASING
EFFICIENCY OF OIL FIRED BOILERS
To
it
may seem
It is his
steam
boilers
This
what
is
is
oil
burner, and the best draft conditions for the particular boilers
he
is
operating.
higher efficiencies.
of
337
338
floor.
openings, or to change
them
in such a
way
as to allow
more
air
and
flame,
possible,
boiler.
it is very important to
economy, as it may some-
FiG. 199.
The furnace
interior.
an oil fired boiler similar in design to the specifiNote the V-shaped arrangement in the brickwork in order
cations given in this chapter.
the fuel oil.
air
for
the
economic
burning
of
admit
to
Here
is
interior of
In such a case it may be necessary to adopt a less efficient furnace, as it is usually of supreme
importance for the boiler to be capable of carrying an overload
when
required.
Oil Burners.
Boiler
under the
In testing oil burners it is of extreme importance to measure the steam used by the burner and determine the
net efficiency of the boiler; for one kind of burner may produce
given conditions.
deciding on the
pressure of the
oil
is
may
required.
In general
it
should always be kept well below the flash point of the oil. By
testing the boiler with the oil first at one temperature and then at
another, and varying the quantity of steam to suit,
much
infor-
of
operation.
of
the grates.
Draft.
The quantity of air entering the furnace depends on
the intensity of the draft, and the area of openings for the admisThe quantity of air may be reduced
sion of air to the furnace.
by
may
best results.
maximum
load at
through the setting noted. Thus, if the draft in the furnace is 0.2 in and the draft in front of the damper is 0.3 in., there is
This loss of
loss of 0.1 in. between the damper and the furnace.
340
volume
drop in pressure
so as to
Maximum
dampers, and
is
Efficiency.
means
The analysis
of
how
to
of determining
obtained
In general,
when the
it
may
in regular
is
CO2
and
monoxide (CO).
it is
If
CO
further, as
offset
counted for from the heat supplied, includes the loss due to unconsumed hydrogen, and if accurate tests are made it will be
found that this item is always greater the more CO is found in
the gases.
If the furnace is properly designed it should be possible to
secure 133^^ per cent, to 14 per cent. CO2, with not over 3 per cent,
oxygen, and without a trace of CO, using not over 15 per cent,
J3
5-2
^g
c-o
a.
e
to .a
342
the flame
Pacific
observations on boiler
no
in
station
_,
may
obtained.
makes a
be
The quantity
The quantity
The quantity
of oil burned.
of atomizing
of air supphed.
Fio. 202.
Venturi meter for measuring water supply at the Long Beach
Plant of the Southern California Edison Company shown installed on piping
in
344
all
three
and 341.
Il-
The
that
it
shall
day
conditions.
Complete evaporative
in
it is
tests
is
form that
By
is
convenient
carefully study-
it is
very
By
to
efficient point.
remember
in these
days of national
we save and
crisis,
it is
well
is
to
serve."
San Francisco
will
oil
burning plants
be of interest
was run before and after the changes were made. The
amount of oil burned in the furnace was measured by a meter and
the amounts of steam generated and steam used by the burners
were measured by General Electric flow meters.
General Furnace Arrangement. Before making the changes,
the furnace in the boiler was arranged as shown in Fig. 86 and the
baffles between the gas passages were located as shown in Fig. 203.
Most of the baffle bricks in front of the flame plates between the
1st and 2nd passes were missing, thus allowing a large percentage
tests
J>EPTf*
Fia.
Ii03.
Arrangemont
Of
6'
SOOT,
tv/r/t
ASMtS Ano
I>mT
of baffles
test.
OF Mub
Xt^ufif.
flaTb
'Fv*/t
23 S'^jS's'kJ.Jm.
Fio. 204.
Arrangement
of
baffles
test.
after
making
the
346
of the gases
Fig. 205.
Cheokerwork
and housings
installed
around burners.
and the bridge wall was also very small as shown on the sketch.
This was remedied by moving bac'k the bottom of the baffle to. a
position as shown in Fig. 204.
All of the flame plates which were
-^M^
L^'~V_
DC
DC
fiM
Fig. 206.
Sketch
of grate bars
used during
test.
bad shape were renewed and new bricks put in front of them,
thus making the new baffles as tight as possible.
in
I 1
OS
.8
^e
4^
0^<?
?5
SS
;?!
)o *
1 HO
Wn
O O o o
-^
S5
a*^,")
0<i
yd
:s&,
i;
i:
^.
joo
3
?i
J5 *i
lit
fl-.
In
S'5
v);C
c;
|Q
>l
'=^'>
?!!i
HA
"0
^1
h.
IL
Ul;
wi U:
Ik
b.
1{
"WW
U:M
Ul
Cj e! Ki
OO.Oi g
U U|! Ul "I
O Q O' O
o
-i
- - o D;
^. a
:
d!lt' 3 >\
.
?.':2 o
'
- "i
,1)
\m
i<
Ul
<
3 D
Ul
'.
0.
Q <
UJ
z
O
o
a; Ul
U' h
!-;<
a:;<;u
I-
J
^
O
"
<<
J
U
Ul
as
Z I- < ff
O < a u
H O 1^
"
1 5 < S O' c _i'
"
u
u BE <
5
S "
j < :; o z > z z
^, <
IL
"
CE
I a > K
Bl lU
K b. K < < is
IL
0.
> > S. ,. u o
s ; ^ Si:
d d
c CC U UJ
V ^ "
Ul Ul
n o B
> a
t-.^t t- t- z t t 5 I S H
CC
<
<
w
Ul
I
5
o,<
o
o
;
3 3
< O ?
H.U. H < S J i S
o z
U
U.
U S
-
:S5i pi
(.
iLj IL
q;
ll-
o;0,0
-.
O:
OKU
K O
uij a.
Ul,
IT
0.
I K
14.
ft
: s K s : ?
I
'
nnunuiiu
'
ra>M
3M0H
3iru
348
having wide air spaces were also installed, a 2 ft. 6 in. bar being
used next to the bridge wall and a 3 ft. 6 in. long bar next to this.
These bars which are shown in Fig. 206 have a net free area of about
65 per cent. The cbeckerwork and housings installed around the
burners are shown in Fig. 205.
New
The
oil
to the burners.
front
at these points.
By
pass.
The
April 19, 20
Comparative Economic
Rio.sxlts
April 21,
May
before changes
after changes
196
Boiler pressure
Oil pressure
Oil
temperature
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
Draft
in breeching
in top
3d pass
3d pass
in bot. 2d pass
in top 2d pass
in top 1st pass
in furnace
in ash pit
in bot.
Net
efficiency
lbs.
14,
been made
had
350
noted was helped out by the saving in the amount of steam for
atomizing, the latter item having been reduced from 4.28 per
These
cent, of the total steam generated to 3.37 per cent.
eflBciencies are only comparative as a heat balance shows that
is
The discrepancy
2 per cent.
CHAPTER XLI
ECONOMIES OBTAINED IN OIL BURNING PRACTICE
When
a boiler
away unburned
is
fuel,
fired
with
oil
it is
fires
to cause poor
air,
the efficiency of an
effi-
com-
oil fired
efficiency.
There
is
amount
of
vacuum, economy
351
352
Fig. 208. Boiler front at Arizona Power Plant, Phoenix, Arizona. A world's
record was here established, wherein 333.3 kilowatt hours of electrical energy
were generated per barrel of fuel oil burned.
is
included.
day
oil
354
The
this point
were obtained
COj
effort was made to reduce the excess air by parthe damper, after which the following readings
an
tially closing
356
Flue gas temperatures in actual practice run all the way from
400F. for clean boilers operating at their rated capacity with 15
or 20 per cent, of excess air, up to 800F. for dirty boilers with
leaky baffles operating at 200 per cent, of rating with 50 to 100
air.
A general average for boilers in regular
about 550F.
The following results were obtained on a 524 h.p. Babcock
and Wilcox boiler set with the front headers 9 feet above the
The setting was new,
floor, equipped with a Peabody furnace.
and the boiler had just been cleaned inside and out. The boiler
was equipped with soot blowers which were operated about eight
operation
is
1.0
3.0
110.0
192
75
172.0
198
gases, deg.
01
14.4
431.5
73
23
14.3
.
457.5
The importance
O)
00
N
t-'S
CO
-w
to
SSo
1-1
.H
h-
NO^.
oOb-
00
.too
2 g
Pi
&
n
2
coo
wt>. o>-*'*"50
5
3
o
01
O
PQ
rt
o>
-o
CO
-ZSS
mo
(O
^-
OO
Ol
^>s
lO ^
oot;
357
358
Table
2.*
Number
of Test
Draft
ity
Fur-
Date, 1916
Third
nace,
in.
Breech-
CO,,
ing
per
per
per
rating,
temp.,
cent.
cent,
cent.
per
deg. F.
Per
pass, cent, of
in.
CO,
cent.
Mar
28
Mar. 29
Mar. 30
0.08 0.35
145
Tubes dusted
0.07 0.33
143
0.08 0.34
141
0.07 0.37
144
0.08 0.43
146
0.08 0.37
142
0.08 0.40
142
650
15.5
0.5
0.0
574
694
607
635
637
668
14.5
14.7
15.0
14,1
14,9
15.2
2,2
1.6
1.05
2.0
1.05
1.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.05
0.05
may
The
tighter the
damper the
less
will
be required.
per hour.
and 150 deg. superheat and 1.66 in. to 2.14 in. absolute
back pressure, generates from 287 to 326 kilowatt hours per
Monthly boiler room records of the former plant
barrel of oil.
show combined net efficiency of boilers and economizers of
approximately 83 per cent., which corresponds to 79}i per cent,
pressure
360
The
and method
its
pump
for
and
reduced to a minimum.
The
BOILER EFFICIENCY
The
firing of
the boilers
The furnaces
is
are of the
ECONOMIES OBTAINED IN
BURNING PRACTICE
OIL
361
mel oil burners are used. That the automatic control of the
dampers produces excellent results is shown by the boiler efficiencies maintained.
With the dampers properly set the regulator maintains a draft condition which gives almost perfect
combustion as shown by the gas analyzer, the per cent, of CO2
in the gases leaving the boilers being
and
the boiler
room
Load on
The
month
of
following figures
show
December, 1919:
91
0%
5%
0%
84
80
Net
79. Of;
10%
boiler efficiency
amount
is
inspection
of
firing
and regulating
it
all
is
362
it is
essential for
them
to
make adjustments on
the main
damper
MAINTAINING ECONOMY
In order to obtain a
maximum
of effort
on the part
of the oper-
economy
is
worked out for each watch and posted daily. The rivalry thus
promoted has aided materially in maintaining good operating
results in the plant.
The results thus posted every day are:
KUowatt-hours generated.
Barrels of fuel
oil
used.
is
as fol-
lows:
gives the
also provided
on the economizers
for gases
Readings are taken hourly and logged, of all of these instruments, and thus it is an easy matter to locate any losses of efficiency
which
As the town
may
of
occur.
Ajo
is
economies are
water for the condensers gets very warm, this resulting in a
material loss in vacuum.
The vacuum
is
also influenced
by
scale
364
relatively high.
During the
first
twelve
May the
days of
shown for this month, the average for the last nineteen days being
303 kw.-hr. per bbl. In June the load was increased practically
to normal conditions, and these conditions held until in December
the load was again reduced with a corresponding drop in effiAll efficiencies shown or given in terms of kw-hr. per
ciency.
bbl. of oil are net, all
from the
power used
cases
366
Fig. 215.
This cooling pond measures 150 by 400 feet and is one of the
largest in the country.
Each condenser in the plant has its own motor-driven
centrifugal circulating water pump for supplying the cooling water from the
pond.
volts,
to 170 volts.
full
is
a total
it
24 hours a day.
Accompanying
pond and interior
illustrations
of the plant.
house motor-generator
sets.
CHAPTER
XLII
General. The following report covers a series of tests conducted on the boilers at the Long Beach Steam Plant of the
Southern CaUfornia Edison Company, and was compiled by
H. L. DooUttle, steam power plant specialist for the company.
These tests extended over a period of approximately 10 mos.
Description of Plant. The Long Beach Steam Plant is located
at the
California,
and
125F. superheat.
368
of Testing.
In
general
all
all
tests
369
extended over a
15 min.
All temperatures, except the stack temperatures, were taken
with mercurial thermometers calibrated by means of a standard
thermometer.
All pressure gauges were calibrated with the dead weight gauge
tester.
Small differences in pressure and small pressures were
velocities.
The
ideal
method
of
370
lb.
per inch.
BOILER TESTS
of the
burners.
oil
The first
tests
efficiency of
the
was capable
of
oil
371
Boiler Efficiency.
Fig. 217 shows the gross boiler efficiency obtained for the various tests plotted against combined
economizer and boiler horse power. These curves show that
the efficiency
for instance,
it is
%
10
20
30
40
60
60
70
80
90
up
cold, fall
Rating
100 110 120 130 140 160
190 200
372
The
tests
of the boiler
practically the
same
efficiency as those
is
increased.
Figure 218 shows the draft required at the damper for the various loads on the boiler after removing the two top rows of
the rear baffle. From this curve it is seen that a definite draft
required for a given load on the boiler, or for a given amount
burned per hour. It is rather surprising to note that the
boiler can be operated up to 70 per cent, of rating with a positive
is
of oil
Stack Temperatures. Figure 219 shows the stack temperaand also out of the
economizer. These curves show only the result obtained during
the tests on the reconstructed boiler. The temperatures taken
during the first ten tests were found to be unreliable on account
of the location of the wires used in measuring the temperature.
tures obtained for the gases out of the boiler
373
Oil per
1000
d
14
Hour- Lbs.
2000
3000
4000
374
800
700
GOO
EDO
400
300
200
100
10
Fig. 219.
20
Stack
30
40
SO
CO
70
80
90
Rating
100
110 120
130
170
ISO
Boiler
the boiler
375
per pound of
of oil
B9
.30
.20
.10
376
^4
9
CO
3 2
20
10
30
40
50
CD
70
%
Pig. 222.
^Presaure
loss
80
90
100 110
120 130
140
160
160
170
180
Ratine of Boiler
its
that the drop across the superheater varies uniformly with the
load on the boiler. The drop at 170 per cent, of rating was
16
14
13 100
90
12:^80
11"
60
50
iO
40
30
20
10
lb.
per sq.
in.
377
140
,
130
120
110
100
90
TO
geo
ca
^BO
40
378
combustion.
Ratio of Oil and Steam Pressures. A short run was made to
determine the effect of varying steam pressure on the steam
and oil pressures at the burner. Pressure gauges were installed
oil
and steam
379
hour the
Starting up Cold.
In order to determine the amount of oil
required to bring a cold boiler up to header pressure, a run was
made on March 13, 1915 on a boiler that had been slmt down
for
48 hours.
The water
ture of 148.
The
boiler
Ste^m
Very
little
in Oil
Burners
pressure to operate
oil
firing,
oil
or the
steam pressure necessary to give proper atomization with a minimum quantity of steam. In the average plant, hand controlled,
the oil pressure is maintained at a constant pressure by means of
a pump governor, and the supply of oil to the burners is controlled
at each burner by the burner oil-throttle valve, and similarly the
supply of steam to burners by the burner steam-throttle valves.
In times past engineers have debated the advisabilitj^ of carrying
higher or lower of pressures at the pumps, as influencing the
economy of firing the boiler, without stopping to think that any
surplus in pressure over and above that necessary to force the
oil through the burner orifice, must be overcome by the friction
of the oil-throttle valve, and that unless the load on the burner
380
or the rate of
pump above
oil firing
is
a 90
k
CD
80
70
i.
CO
iJ
50
S 40
S 30
^20
10
price of fuel,
381
those which were available for the work, without any preference
make of
as to
crude
oil,
fuel purposes.
oil
through
The
orifices of
specific gravity
and viscosity of the oil were not observed at the time. It will
be seen that the plotted points fall practically on a straight line,
indicating a flow of oil for a given temperature and a given orifice
no
382
oil
and
fa
383
384
Figure 229 gives results of various tests, in which the steampressure and the oil-pressure on the burner are the two variables.
It is apparent that the curves represent practically straight lines.
Figure 230 shows the influence of temperature on the flow of
oil through an orifice, the pressure difference remaining constant.
To
above data
in the design of
the
for those not familiar with the details of this system, that
it
maintained in
at all burners, the pressure varying with the load, controlled auto-
matically
by
As in most
handle very heavy oil and
main-
plants,
also to
burners must be designed to
permit heavy overloads on boilers, the average pressure at the
is
is
known
as a chronometer valve.
385
this chronometer valve is in turn controlled by a steam-toburner regulator actuated by the variable oil pressure in the
oil-to-burner main.
If the curve of steam and oil pressure, as mentioned above, is
a straight line, then the steam pressure is equal to the oil pressure
multiplied by a coefficient plus a constant. At one plant this
relationship was found to be such that the steam pressure at the
burner was equal to the oil pressure times three, plus thirty;
thus at rating the oil pressure was 20 lb. and the steam pressure
was 90 lb.; at 50 per cent, overload the oil pressure was 30 lb.
and the steam pressure was 120 lb.; at half the load the oil pressure was 10 lb. and the steam pressure was 60 lb.
and
25
CHAPTER
XLIII
of hydro-electric
power on the
Pacific
Oil FIELDS
&
OIL PIPE
UHES
CALIFORNIA
''^'"-*"'^'""~'
Fig. 231.
Oil fields
and
and carrjdng a
oil
now
being operated at
full
capacity
Other steam
way
are being
OIL
387
becoming acute.
Fuel.
California oil is the fuel that is used almost exclusively,
along the Western Coast. However, unless its production is
oil.
Oil in the
Panuco
Uu^Ul
Fig. 232.
Graphical display
of
petroleum production.
order to keep
it
flowing.
388
to 190F. (90C.)
This
is
and
in
Jttaivmiks
FiQ. 233.
is
and
oil.
It
has
fuucurum Mtma
Comparative uses
the advantages of
superior to fuel
of
crude petroleum.
oil,
Fig. 234.
Comparison
in addition does
if it is
of coal
and
there
fields,
which are
oil.
known
to be very extensive
and to contain
389
coal of excellent
quality.
oil-burning one.
Economy
lines of the
make up
of burn-
The exact
purposes;
(6)
oil
to be delivered
390
&
P.
a
T3 -O
:S
P.
a 2
OIL
lines
is
391
system.
laif^c
large auxihary
single plant
number
PHooucmiv
Fio.
2.36.
The question
of economical distribution
is,
of a plant.
SIZE OF
The
down
of the
of the
many
main
requirement results
unit.
in too
causes that
may necessitate
the shut-
expensive a plant.
For instance,
if
392
essential to
The
Fig. 237.
pipe for the
Gag and
new
Electric
Company.
and carry
it
The
size of
is
also affected
by the
necessity
OIL
393
repairs.
Fig. 238.
Gas and
Electric
Company, San
Eastern
cities
cent, of rating
394
much headway
This
is
in
largely
oil burning
due to the
air required
with
burning, there
is less
FiQ. 239.
Typical view of auxiliary apparatus installed in Pacific Coast
power plants. Figure shows particularly a turbo feed-water pump at the Long
Beach Plant of the Southern California Edison Company.
that
is
most
For a poor
is
expected
of its hfe as a
OIL
li
395
when balancing
is
in the operation of central steam statoward higher steam pressure and higher superheat.
Theoretically in
obtained, as
FiG. 240.
ture at which the heat is supplied to the working substance uniform at the highest attainable value and the temperature at
which heat is with-drawn uniform similarly at the lowest attainable value.
With steam the upper temperature range may be
raised either
by
superheat, or both.
by
increasing the
is
396
FiQ. 242.
FiQ. 241.
Figs. 241-242.-
The temperature and pressure of the steam and water from the boiler down through the
condenser need careful attention in the economic operation of the modern power plant. On
the left is exhibited the vacuum gage, barometer and thermometer installed between the
first and second pass of the steam turbine.
Note the vacuum of 29.15 in. with the atmospheric barometer reading of 30.1 in. To the right may be seen recording meters for inlet
and outlet temperatures of. the circulating water, steam temperature, vacuum and steam
pressure, and the temperature of the condensate.
The Klaxon horn at the right of the meter
board sounds an alarm when the oil pressure accumulator drops. This installation is at
the Long Beach Plant of the Southern California Edison Company.
This
at 200
300
lb.
lb.
is
OIL BVHNIS'f!
397
200.0
Temperature saturated steam, deg. Fahr
388
Degree of superheat, deg. Fahr
200 .0
Temperature superheated steam, deg. Fahr
588
Heat per lb. steam (above 32 deg.) B.t.u
1310.0
Heat (above 32 deg.) per lb. steam after expanding
adiabatically to 1-in. absolute, B.t.u
892,0
Heat available per lb. steam, B.t.u
418.0
Heat utihzed at 75 per cent, efficiency, B.t.u
313.0
.
9.2
300.0
422
.
166
588
1300.0
.
866,0
434.0
325,0
11.4
the quantity of heat present in the initial steam in the two cases
is
many
years, station
"A"
of the- Pacific
Gas
&
pressure in 1901.
Within the last two or three years higher pressures than this
have been adopted, several plants having been built for boiler
pressures of 250 lb., while in the Eastern states plants are already
in operation at 300 lb. pressure and pressures even as high as 500
lb.
398
by steam
it is
Fig. 243.
Auxiliary
of steam.
is
more economical
at the heavy load and electric
It
is,
therefore,
It
is
other
is
driven
OIL
399
load they would take their current from the main bus. The
exhaust from the auxiliary generator would thus be available for
heating the feed water, and as this machine could be run merely
as a standby at light loads there would be no exhaust steam
wasted. This system has been used to advantage at the Connors
reciprocating
AUTOMATIC CONTROL
As economical operation of a plant is obtained by the careful
watching of all details, it is a growing conviction that personal
control under trained supervisors is the one way to produce high
economy. This is especially true of the boiler room, and it is
common
employ a combustion
and to keep continual check
on the boiler efficiency. There is a tendency toward introducing
automatic control into the fire room. Automatic oil-fire regulators have been placed in service in a number of plants on the
Pacific Coast and increases in efficiency as high as 3 or 4 per cent,
are reported.
Another tendency at the present time is to equip
the plant with recording meters which register automatically all
practice in the best plants to
engineer to
make
flue-gas analyses
important elements of operation throughout the full twentyIt was formerly the custom to operate
boilers with no instruments except a steam gage, but it is now
customary to install steam-flow meters which register the quantity
of steam produced by the boiler and the quantity of steam uesd
four hours of the day.
air
APPENDIX
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
Problem No.
The mean
is
Solution.
By
P =
43.9,
=Y^,
A = 0.7854(30)2, and N =
47.5 that
43.9
2.5
we
fl'.P.
find for
706.9
^^^
47.5
^ ,
33,000
the condenser
vacuum reduced
to the
in.
of
in the condenser?
Solution.
Barometer
for
day
29. 93 in.
Vacuum maintained
28 23
in.
1.70
in.
29.92
14.696
"
1.70
Problem No.
0.836
lb.
per
1.70
sq. in.
reading of 171.5
lb.
Solution.
Absolute pressure
Corrected gage pressure (171.5
1)
Atmospheric pressure
14.696
.X =
29.96
...'_
14.7
29.93
187 2
14.7
per sq.
in.
in.
lb.
lb.
per sq.
in.
29.92
14.7
.'
=
=
in. of
400
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
Problem No.
be 29.942
in.
How many
401
4.
of
lb.
per sq.
in.
is
foimd to
Solution.
To convert
to
per sq.
lb.
in.
by formula
in
/ ^ 29.921
or 29.942
.
2.046
P =
P
P
14.670
14.696
lb.
per sq.
in.
What
is
the pressure in
lb.
in.
from formula
is
29.937
in.
of
mercury
Solution.
To convert to lb.
per sq.
Im ^
P
=
or 29.937
.
in the
chapter on pressures:
30
14.7
2.041
= 14.668
lb.
per sq.
in.
Problem No. 6. (o) At what temperature do the Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales read the same? Fahrenheit and Reamur? Centigrade and
Reamur?
(b) Assuming the absolute zero of the Fahrenheit scale to be 459.6F.
compute the absolute zero on the Centigrade and Reamur scales.
Solution.
(a)
Relation
is
given by formula
F - 32 = 9/50
When the scales have
F = C =
Substituting in formula
X -
32 = 9/5X
4X = - 160
-40F. =
or
= -40
40C.
Relation
is
given by formula:
P - 32 = 9/4P
Let
32 = 9/iX
A' = -25.6
Relation
is
given by formula:
C = 5/4i?
C = R = X, then A' = 5/4Z
A'
=
or
4X = 5X
0C = 0R
= - 459.6F.
Let
(6)
Absolute zero
26
402
F in the general
F - 32 = 9/5C
relationship,
and we have
-459.6
9C = - 2458
C = -
or
= 9/5C
32
on Cent,
scale.
F -
= 9/4B
32
we have
-32 = 9/4iJ
9iE = - 1966.4
459.6
R=
218.049
absolute zero on
Reamur
scale.
in.
Solution.
=
=
=
Absolute pressure
From steam
172.5
14.7
=
=
521 2
5.6
526 8F.
187.21b.
.
Degrees of superheat
= 526.8 - 376.4
376 4F.
.
150.4
What was
Solution.
Problem No.
steam
9.
374.0
Regnault's
170.8F. superheat
classic
is;
H
Compute the
1091.7
-I-
0.305
(t
32)
sponding to 382.3F.
Solution.
Substituting,
we have
H
From
,
Error
= 1198.2
1198.54 - 1198.2
1198.2
tables
32)
0.34
1198.2
= 0.0284%
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
Compute the
H
Solution.
1150.3
+ 0.3745
403
steam at 382.3F.
(<
212)
0.000550
(I
212)^
=
=
=
1150.3
1150.3
212)
0.000550(382.3
212)
From
1198.2
^"'
1198.13
0.07
1198:2
1198:2
S =
Find the
Solution.
S =
=
=
N. B.
28.424
specific
0.01650(<
volume
of
steam
320)
for
0.0000132(
320)
382.3.
0.0000132(382.3
Substituting, we have
-
28.424
28.424
0.01650(382.3
0.862 - 0.036
320)
320)'
29.525
volume
for a
temperature of 382.3F.
is
tempera-
2.279 from
Problem No.
12.
The mean
matically on page 92 of
What
specific
&
C = 0.9983 - 0.0000288( - 32) - 0.0002133( the mean specific heat of steam for t = 382. 3F.?
32)
is
Solution.
Marks
Substituting, we have
Cm 0.9983
=
=
0.9983
0.9983
0.0101
=27.1582 Mean
32)
+ 26.17
specific heat.
C =
0.0101
-1-
.02617
1.0346
In the steam
is
0.9983
356. 1 B.t.u.
indicates
Problem No. 13. At a certain central station there are four 773 boiler
horsepower Parker boilers. These boilers were used to give a 10,000 kw.
load at the terminals of a turbine which has an over-all efficiency of 21 per
What was the percentage of overload on the boilers?
cent.
404
Solution.
^r-^3
Since
'
hp.
.746
kw.
OU
i
boiler
ratio of u
oo, UUU
i,
i
horsepower *to mechanical
v,
horsepower.
63 800
iq 1J,
4850
Bl. h. p. actually
taken from
boiler.
Problem No. 14. -A Parker boiler under test operated with the following
Steam pressure 179.7 lbs. gage; temperature of feed water
entering boiler was 123.4F.; barometer for the day read 30.1 inches of
conditions:
mercury.
Find the factor of evaporation for: (a) steam superheated 182F.;
saturated steam; and (c) 5 per cent, wet steam.
(6)
dry
Solution.
'q_
Q or
14.78
per sq.
lb.
in.
Gage reading
179 7 pounds
14 78 pounds
.
Atmospheric pressure
.'.
hi
=
H] =
hi =
H, =
Li
194.48 pounds
boiler pressure
at"
352.45
845 .-2
1197.65
91.3
superheat)
^''
1297 99
95
quality of steam
'^'
_ H,
~
hi
_
"
970.4
^ Hi -hi _
'
'
hi+XLi-hj ^
^'^>
'
Problem No.
970.4
In
1297.99 - 91.3
970.4
1197.65 - 91.3
970.4
_
~
1206.69
970.4
1106.35
970.4
970.4
352.45+0.95X845.2-91.3 _ 1065.25
~ 970.4
970.4
a boiler
^-^^-^
_
~
"^
was
test,
170.7F., the
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
405
Solution.
29.28
29.92
A'
" r096
^^
29.28
29 92
14.696
14.38
per sq.
lb.
in.
atmospheric
pressure.
=
=
Atmospheric pressure
From Steam
hi
=
Hi =
hi =
Hi =
Li
lb.
per sq.
in.
H -hi
p ^
hi
= -9704-^
+ XLi -
'
1194.34
^'
'
hi
_ H.
138.57
//,
_
"
0.999(where
1263.88 - 138.57
970.4
~ 970.4 ~
= quaUty of steam)
_ 1125.3 1 _ , ,
~ 970.4 ~ '^^^
Solution.
we have
water per
total weight of
in the text,
64,494
76,9501b.
Problem No.
17.
Heat
lb. of
1263. 88
1055.77
859.6
970.4
970.4
=-970X =^8
- 138.57 _ 969.13 _
970:4
^ 334.7+0.90
970.4
^'"
1.193
= 334.7
= 859
= 1194.34
= 138.57
lb.
Tables:
(")
lb.
= 158.38
.'.
144.00
14 38
../'
lb.
per sq.
in. abs.
and
1186.
26.88
_
- 1186- 26.88 _
^fQ^
1.193
is
53,688
Solution.
at 212F.
lbs.
of evaporation
is
1.193?
53,688
1.193
64,150
406
Solution.
is
20.
The equivalent evaporation of a boiler under test
be 5940 lb. of water per hour.
is the boiler horsepower of the boiler?
Problem No.
to
What
water heating
^^'^
2031
found
sq. ft. of
evidently
Solution.
By definition
H. P. =
Bl.
is
172.2
o4.0
Problem No.
as 210 Bl. h. p.
What was
Solution.
21.
100
= 82
is
per cent.
22.
What is the equivalent evaporation per lb. of coal as
under test when the weight of equivalent water evaporated
to dry steam from and at 212F. is 64,150, and the total weight of fuel consumed as fired is 8012?
Problem No.
fired in a boiler
Solution.
lb. of
coal as fired
^""
Steam pressure
(gage)
Atmospheric barometer
Temp, of water entering the boiler
Temp, of steam leaving the superheater drum
Specific gravity of the oil at 60F
Percentage of water in the oil
0.9705
.
15,084
205,277
of oil as fired
is
Solution.
Barometer reading
=
of
30.2
in.
30.2
or "
14.83
185.3
tables
Temp,
lb.
lb.
Steam pressure
From
7 of
18,752 B.t.u.
What
sq. in.
Weight
hrs.,
per sq.
in.
in.
Problem No.
Problem 23?
14.83
lb.
24.
What
is
oil in
degrees
Baum6
in
ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS
Solution.
407
''
^^'
^^
0.9705
130
Deg. Bauin6
0.9705 (Deg. Baume') = 140 - 130 X 0.9705
- 1A84 "
_ ,4^
0.970.5
Problem No.
Problem 23?
Solution.
Wt. of
oil
15,084
Weight of
26.
What
is
X
oil
0.007
105.6
lb.
15,084
What
is
-r.
li
=
=
105.6
200.13
in oil
14,978.4 lb.
.7 of 1
26.
= 15^084 lb.
= Wt. of water
as fired
Problem No.
oil
oil
lb.
in
Problem 23?
'
-
g^~^
per sq.
in.
(for
superheated
steam)
1280.1 B.t.u.
14.83 lb. per sq.
in.
136.96 B.t.u.
1280.1 - 136 96
cnfTi
1.178
Duration of test
Equivalent evaporation
ration
= Water
evaporation per
205,277
8 hrs.
hr.
at
lb.
factor
(if
evapo-
2^^^ X
is
1.178
=30,227
lb.
rating in
Solution.
"^
J,
30,227
876
34.5
Problem No.
per
lb.
29.
What
of oil as fired in
is
Problem 23?
408
Solution. Wt. of
as fired
oil
15,084
Wt.
lb.
i^^
1,885.51b.
30,227
lb. of oil
as fired
16.03 lb.
1,885.5
Problem No.
per
lb. of oil
Solution.
Wt.
30.
What
is
Wt.
yf^
Problem No.
31.
What
14,978.4
lb.
1,872.3
lb. of oil
i;872:3
moisture
lb.
,,,,,.
1^-^^^
'^-
is
Solution.
.,
ff
X 970.4
X 18,752=
30,227
1872.3
.
^^-29
P^-" ''"*
Problem No. 32. Assuming the steam was just saturated and not superheated in the above, what would be the factor of evaporation in Problem 23?
Solution.
Factor of evaporation
(for saturated
From Problem 23
Pi
P2
=
=
From Tables
Hi
=1198.1
hi
steam)
sq. in.
sq. in.
B.t.u.
136.96 B.t.u.
1198.1 -.136.96
Factor of evaporation
970.4
10l-l^-=
970.4
Problem No.
33.
From
Prob. 23, Pi
Factor of evap.
1.093
Pi =
nif?ri
(^et steam)
PVom
tables
h,
hi
Li
Factor
.
409
in.
843.2 B.t.u.
136.96
^^^^
354.9
817.9
136.96
970.4
1035.84
--970^-
^-"^^
How
1.
plant?
Answer.
we must know
power
three factors:
steam turbine installation and that the overall efficiency of steam boilers
steam turbine and electric generation is 15 %. What boiler capacity should
be installed if the boilers are capable of carrying a 50% overload?
Since 1 hp.
We
0.746 kw.
proceed as follows:
Mech.
h.p. required at
switchboard =rrfTh
Mech.
h.p. required to
be delivered by boilers ~
Since
boiler h.p.
o 746
15
150%
n 746
15
13 14
^lUi^ 1750
^
= ^^^
must be
,.
^'^P"
What
is
oil
as
if
when
coal
oil ?
The amount of boiler repairs is practically the same when burnwhen burning coal, provided the boilers are operated at the same
Answer.
ing
changed to
Stirling boilers,
chamber.
410
4.
Can you
modern
B.t.u.'s in coal
and
oil?
consideration.
7.
What
atomization?
of
superheated steam.
quote ver-
"On the other hand, the action of the superheated steam, appears to
produce an unsteady flame a rapid succession of small puffs rather than
the steady uniform condition which is desired."
We are wondering it these puffs are occasioned by the oil temperature
being raised to the flash point. We are of the opinion that superheated
steam should prove more efficient than saturated, and to this end are
arranging for test.
Pending receipt of flow meter and calibration of our
orifice, however, we will appreciate your comments.
Answer. We use superheated steam in preference to saturated steam
wherever we have super heaters. Superheated steam atomizes the oil more
perfectly than saturated steam and consequently it is the general belief
that less steam is required.
The quantity of steam required for atomizing can always be reduced by
heating theoU to a high temperature and it is, therefore, desirable to get the
oil as hot as possible without heating it above its flash point.
We have
never found the use of superheated steam to cause an unsteady flame such
as is referred to in Mr. Hawkins' book.
We have used steam having as much
as 160 degrees of superheat, though normally we use about 100 degrees.
APPENDIX
II
First
and engineers upon their teaching staffs are contributing noteworthy research data for the upbuilding of efficient mining and utilization
The Extension Division of the Uniof this important national resource.
versity of California is now serving over three hundred thousand people in
scientists
is
All operators or
oil in
that industry.
Especial attention
is
Mining Bureau.
The Book on Steam of the Babcock & Wilcox Company is perhaps the
most helpful of its kind in existence in setting forth the elementary laws of
steam engineering in a practical manner, and the authors are greatly indebted to it for many helpful items in the present work.
4H
412
4Sflui
za\c
413
414
In regard to current aids in the technical press, the only paper in existence
that devotes a regular department to the technical discussion of fuel oil and
steam engineering is the Journal of Electricity published in San Francisco.
This journal
is
now
published in
New York
oil
City also
Electrical
The work of the Pacific Coast Section, N.E.L.A. along lines of fuel oil
economy in steam power generation has proven m6st helpful. Through this
means, of expression the great power companies of the West which use oil
as a fuel are contributing noteworthy aids to efficient uses of this product.
of Mechanical Engineers
APPENDIX
III
Flasli
Point Test)
Table
416
1.
property.
Height of Tanks.
Vertical tanks
feet in height.
(a)
Table 2
Horizontal
Minimum
Maximum
Not over 5
diameter
feet.
6 feet to 8 feet
8 feet to 11 feet
Vertical
diameter less than 40
No. 8 U. S. gauge.
ring No. 8 U. S. gauge.
Other rings No. 10 U. S. gauge.
No. 12 U. S. gauge.
Top
less,
Bottom
Bottom
feet.
thickness
less,
diameter
Bottom
No.
Bottom ring No.
Other rings
Top
less
than 40
417
feet.
8 U. S. gauge.
7 U.
No. 8 U.
No. 12 U.
S. gauge.
S.
gauge.
S.
gauge.
418
exception of suitable
thoroughly grounded
5.
Means
(o)
of the
cushions.
Each tank
case of
wooden
fire,
All
above-ground tanks to be
electrically.
Tanks.
is
oil.
6.
Pumps.
Pumps used
Pipe Connections.
conveying pipes to be laid underground, but under no circumstances
shall they break through the reservoir walls.
The above rule does not apply to pipes passing under the reservoir wall
and laid well below the surface of the ground.
7.
All oil
Controlling Valves.
8.
There shall be a gate valve located at the tank in each oil conveying
In case two or more tanks are cross-connected there shall be
a gate valve at each tank in each cross-connection.
(ft) There shall be a gate valve in the discharge and suction pipes near the
pump and a check valve in the discharge pipe, located underground.
(a)
pipe.
9. Indicator.
There shaU be a
reliable indicator to
its
oil.
10.
A complete
construction.
CLASS B
Individual
Apparatus using
distinct
Where
used for
419
may be
Ourb
Ln*\
of btnetti
Fio. 246.
floor level
A diagrammatic sketch
when
boiler
ia
cavated.
floor in
the ground and below the level of the lowest pipe in the building to be supTanks may be permitted underneath a building if buried at least
plied.
420
three feet below the basement floor which is to be of concrete not less than
6 inches thick. Tanks shall be set on a firm foundation and faurrounded with
soft earth or sand, well
tamped
into place.
No
air
given
in
Fig. 248.
The view shows an oil tank below the level of the boiler room floor
where the sidewalk has been excavated. The installation is agreeable to the
Board of Fire Underwriters' specifications.
3.
PBRMissiBiiE Aqgkegatb Capacity if Lower Than Ant
Floor, Basement, Cellar or Pit in Ant Building Within Radius
Specified
Table
Capacity
Unlimited
20,000 gallons
5,000 gallons
Radius, feet
50
30
20
1,500 gallons
10
*500 gallons
Less than 10
" In this case tank to be entirely encased
in 6 inches of concrete.
Outside of closely built up districts or outside of fire limits, abovemay be permitted as specified in Rule 1, provided
421
When above-ground tanks are used all piping must be arranged so that in
case of breakage of piping the oil will not be drained from tanks.
This
requirement prohibits the use of gravity feed from storage tanks. Aboveground tanks of
12. Material
(o)
steel plate of
a gauge depending
Minimum
thickness
of material
14U.S. gauge
to
560
561 to
1,100
12 U.
.S.
1,101 to
4,000
7 U.
S.
4,001 to 10,500
K"
10,501 to 20,000
Jie"
20,001 to 30,000
gauge
gauge
^"
5.
Underground Tanks Outside of Specified Fire Limits,
Provided the Tanks are Ten Feet or More From .\ Bt ildi.n(;
Table
Capacity, gallons
Minimum
thickness
of material
30
350
18U.S. gauge
31 to
351 to
1,100
14U.S. gauge
1,101 to
4,000
Ito
16 U.
7 U.
4,001 to 10,500
}i"
10,501 to 20,000
20,001 to 30,000
^/i^"
S.
S.
gauge
gauge
%"
of proportion-
422
above
made through
oil level.
(c) Tanks shall be thoroughly coated on the outside with tar, asphaltum
or other suitable rust-resisting material.
Note.
of the soil in
installed.
When
made
13. Fill
1,000 gallons
inch vent pipe extending from the top of the
tank to a point outside of building. Vent pipe to terminate at a point at
least 12 feet above the level of the top of the highest tank car or other reserTerminal to be provided
voir from which the storage tank may be filled.
(o)
Some
oil is desirable.
Where
used,
Suitable filters or strainers for the oil should be installed and preferably
be located in supply line before reaching pump. FUter to be arranged so as
to be readily accessible for cleaning.
16.
Feed Pumps.
Must be of approved
(a)
Note.
used, should be provided with a removable
cupped gland designed to compress the packing against the shaft and arranged so as to facilitate removal. Packing affected by the oil must not
Stuffing box,
if
be used.
(6)
To be arranged
so that
it is
further
air
423
used on
18.
oil
if
broken.
Receivers or Accumulators.
they must be designed so as to secure a factor of safety of not
than 6. Must be subjected to a pressure test of not less than twice the
(a) If used,
less
working pressure.
that the
oil will
To bo
down
an overflow, and so
ing, etc.
(c) If vented, the opening should be at the top and may bo connected with
the outside vent pipe from storage tank, above level of source of supply.
20. Piping.
Standard full weight wrought iron, steel or brass pipe with substantial
to be used and to be carefully protected against injury.
Piping
under pressure must be designed to secure a factor of safety of not less than
6, and after installation to be tested to a pressure not less than twice the
working pressure.
(6) Piping to be run as directly as possible, and laid so that the pipes are
pitched toward the supply tanks without traps.
(c) Overflow and return pipes to be at least one size larger than the supply
pipes, and no pipe to be less than one-half inch pipe size.
Unions,
(d) All connections to be perfectly tight with well-fitted joints.
if used, to be of approved type having at least one face of the joint made of
brass and having conically faced seats, obviating the use of packing or
(a)
fittings
made
oil tight.
424
(6) Controlling valves in which oil under pressure is in contact with the
stem to be provided with stuffing box of liberal size, containing a removable
cupped gland designed to compress the packing against the valve stem and
arranged so as to facilitate removal. Packing affected by the oil must not
be used.
(c) The use of approved automatic shut-offs for the oil supply in case of
breakage of pipes or excessive leakage in building is recommended.
CLASS C
On
CONVEYOK OE CaREIEES
wharfage.
(6) There shall be a gate valve immediately at the point in the pipe line
where connection is made with the hose leading to the ship for the purpose
of shutting off the oil, and there shall be another gate valve in this line of
pipe at a distance of at least 10 feet back from the wharf, where it will be
readily accessible for the purpose of shutting the oil off in event of failure on
the part of the valve first mentioned.
(c) A tight connection shall be made with the hose length at the wharf
by means of a carefully threaded coupling, to prevent leakage and accumulation of oil around the piers.
(d) Lights.
No fire nor open lights to be allowed on the vessel while at the
wharf.
CLASS D
Appabatus foe Cooking and Heating pok Household Use
The use of oil as fuel for domestic purposes is regarded from the msurance
viewpoint as more hazardous than the use of ordinary fuel, such as coal,
point.
23. Capacity
and Location
24. Material
and Construction
and Vent
Pump.
25. FUl
26.
Pipes.
of Storage
Tanks.
of Tanks.
Oil pump used in filling auxiliary tank from the main supply tank to be
approved type, secure against leaks, with check valves located as close to
the pump as convenient.
Pumps should be rigidly fastened in place.
facilitate
removal.
425
oil
must not
Tank.
not exceed
ccirisent of
(c) Shall be provided with an overflow connection draining to the supplytank and a vent pipe leading outside the building, the latter to have a
weatherproof hood. To be constructed of brass, copper or galvanized
plate not less than 0.050" (No. 18 U. 8. standard gauge) in thickness. Joints
to be made as specified for outside storage tanks.
28. Piping.
full weight, wrought iron, steel or brass pipe with substantial
be used and to be carefully protected against injury.
(&) Supply pipe to be not less than one-fourth inch sizes, and overflow
and return pipes to be at least one size larger.
(c) Pipe connections to tanks to be suitably reinforced and proper allowance to be made for expansion and contraction, jarring and vibration.
(d) Openings for pipes through outsiflc walls to be srcurcly cemented and
(a)
Standard,
fittings to
made
oil tight.
connections
All
(e)
Unions,
if
to
made
perfectly tight
or gaskets.
(/)
Rule
27.)
Draughts.
426
(c)
oil.
of the
Rule 1. Definition. Flash Point and Specific Gravity. The term "oil
used for fuel purposes" under these rules includes any Uquid or mobile
mixture, substance or compoimd derived from or including petroleum.
All oil used for fuel purposes under these rules shall show a minimum flash
point of not less than one hundred and seventy-five (175) degrees Fahrenheit, in an open cup tester, or if closed cup tester be used a minimum of not
less than one hundred and fifty (150) degrees Fahrenheit, and its specific
gravity shall be not less than 0.933 (20B.) at a temperature of sixty (60)
degrees Fahrenheit; and must not be fed from the tank to the suction pump
at a pre-heat temperature higher than its flash point.
Rule 2. Manner of Storage. Oil to be used as fuel for commercial,
heating and power purposes on the premises where stored shall be at all
times contained in metaJ tanks with all openings or connections through the
tops of the tanks, except a clean-out plug in the bottom and, when located
inside of a building, must at all times be placed in the cellar or lowest story
of such building, and at least two (2) feet in a horizontal direction from any
supporting portion of the structure, and if practicable shall be buried underneath the lowest floor or ground.
Rule 3. Location of Tanks. Existing Buildings. No storage of fuel oil
shall be permitted in a building of frame construction within the fire Umits,
or in buildings of hazardous occupancy as so defined by the fire commissioner.
If placed in buildings already erected, if not buried beneath the lowest
floor or ground, such tanks shall be placed in an enlosure the floor of which
shall be at least three (3) feet below the surface of the cellar or lower story;
or if by reason of water or foundation conditions, or if on rock bottom, the
tank may be placed above the surface of the ground, but in any case subject
to the conditions as hereinafter described under Rule 5.
Rule 4. Location of Tanks New Buildings. In buildings hereafter
oil
below
427
t\\i:
428
Capacity
building in feet
not exceeding
in gallons
40
30
20
40,800
10
20,400
10,200
71,400
30,600
If such service tanks are entirely buried and roofed below the surface of the
ground, the capacity in gallons may be increased by two hundred (200)
per cent.
Rule 8. Outside General Storage Fuel Oil Tanks Located Above Ground
Within the Fire Limits. Such general storage tanks located within the fire
limits shall not exceed twenty-five (25) feet in height, shall be built of metal,
and shall be surrounded with a dike of unpierced masonry or reinforced
concrete not less than four (4) feet in height, with a capacity of at least that
The walls and floor of such dikes must be
of the tank to be protected.
continuous, and oUproof and waterproof, and must not be built within ten
If tanks are placed in battery the dikes
(10) feet of the walls of the tank.
shall be rectangular in shape, and the dike wall separating them as well as
the dike wall within one hundred (100) feet of any structure, shall be carried
up as a fire stop to a height of four (4) feet above the head of the tank and
coped with stone or concrete, and any openings in walls above the dike
shall have automatic fireproof doors.
The capacity of any such single general storage tank within the fire limits
shall not exceed one hundred thousand (100,000) gallons, and the gross
capacity of storage shall not exceed the following tables:
To
line of adjoining
property or nearest
building (feet)
Gallons
75
100
150
200
100,000
150,000
250,000
500,000
may
may
oil
pressure.
429
and
:
shall
:
Thickness of material
r. S. gauge
500
14
1,000
12
6,000
10,000
'.i
inch
^fs inch
inch
20,000
30,000
(Horizontal)
430
Diameter
feet
S.
(Vertical)
Gauge
431
2. Vent pipes for fuel oil tanks located in the lower story or buried under
buildings shall be run to a point outside the building, above the street
surface and at least twelve (12) feet above the fill pipe and shall terminate
Such vent
not be located within five (5) feet either vertically or horizontally of a window or other opening or an exterior stairway or fire esi aiic.
3. The receiver terminal of fill pipes shall be located in a metal box or
casting provided with means for locking and the delivery terminal shall be
connected through the top of the tank at a point furthest remote from the
shall
vent.
Rule 12. Fuel Oil Feed Systems. 1. Systems fed by gravity or force
systems between tank and pump shall not be permitted.
2. Pump suction feed systems only will be approved and anti-syphon
system must be provided.
Rule 13. Pumps and Piping. 1. Feed pumps for fuel oils shall be of
approved design, so arranged that dangerous pressures will not obtain in
any part of the system and shall be located outside of enclosure walls around
storage tanks, but so placed as to be accessible at all times, and provision
shall also be made for remote control.
They shall be installed in duplicate
when directed by the Fire Commissioner and shall be provided with a by-pass
to permit the draining of the oil for repairs.
A separate hand pump shall be provided for starting purposes.
2. Oil conveying pipes shall be carried above the tank outlet; if laid underground after leaving the tank to be carried in a separate trench enclosed in
They shall be of extra heavy standfireproof or non-conducting material.
ard wrought iron, steel or brass pipe with substantial fittings and not less
than one-half (K) inch in size and if covered it shall be with asbestos or
Overflow pipes shall be at least one
other approved fireproof material.
size larger than supply pipes and shall be carried back to the receiver
terminal.
Unions shall
one face made of brass with conically-faced seats.
4. Connections leading to outside tanks shall be laid below the frost line
and shall not be located near or placed in same trench with piping other
than steam lines for heating. All pipes leading to the surface of the ground
Openings for
shall be cased or jacketed to prevent loosening or breakage.
pipes through outside walls below the ground level shall be securely cemented
and made oil-tight.
5. Piping shall be run as directly as possible, without sags, and be properly
supported to allow for expansion, contraction, jarring and vibration and
3.
have at
least
draining.
6. Piping between any separated oil container or using parts of the equipment, should be laid as far as practicable outside of the building, underground, and inside piping in a trench with metal cover or protected by not
less than three (3) inches of concrete.
7. Piping under pressure must be designed with a factor of safety of not
less than six (6), and shall in every case be tested to a pressure of not less
fifty (150)
pounds
after installation.
432
Fahrenheit.
2.
line of
prohibited.
2. Oil shall be supplied through orifices not larger than necessary to
supply sufficient oil for maximum burning conditions when the controlling
valves are wide open.
3. The mechanism shall be so designed that, where manual or automatic
control is provided, operated at some distance from the burner, the flame
cannot be extinguished except by closing the main shut-off valve in line to
burner.
Approved gas-pilot lights or equivalent will be acceptable.
4. A check valve of approved type shall be installed in each oil, steam
and air line near the burner.
5. Smoke pipes shall be installed between the burners and chimney, and
any dampers in smoke pipes shall not exceed eighty (80) per cent, of the area
of the pipe.
Necessary regulation of draft shall be accomplished by dampers
in the fire or ash pit doors.
6. Burners shall be installed with overflow attachment so arranged that
surplus oil will drain by gravity from the burner into a substantially conSuch reservoir .shall be constructed of brass, copper or
structed reservoir.
galvanized iron plate not less than No. 18 U. S. gauge in thickness and shall
be provided with a vent pipe with weatherproof hood leading outside the
building.
The supply
7.
that
if
When
steam
is
used, the steam supply pipe shall not be less than one-
and
shall
be
Rule 18. General Devices. All devices used in connection, with oilburning apparatus, such as indicators, gauges and burners, shall be of such
character as to minimize leakage and exposure of oil, and shall be connected
433
apparatus.
Adopted, Nov.
6,
lOlU.
John
Wm. Wikt
2N
Mtll.s, Secrvliiry.
P.
Leo, Chairvian.
APPENDIX
IV
1 barrel of oil
1
barrel oil at
gallon oil at
16Baum^
16Baum6
0.498 to 0.5
Heat units
Heat units
Heat units
in 1
oil
(approximate)
pound
18,500 B.t.u.
148,000 B.t.u.
oil
in 1 gallon oil
in 1 barrel oil
(16Baum^)
(16Baum6)
6,216,000 B.t.u.
oil
lb.
Viscosity.
Comparison of ViscosiTr
Scai,bs.
Engler, deg.
(Approximate.)
Saybolt, sees.
30
350
680
1360
20S0
7000
10
20
40
60
200
Temp.'
F.
oil
of 16B6.
gravity.
Viscosity "Engler
110
15
120
12
125
140
10
180
7
3
212
Evaporation from and at 212 per lb. oil at 78 per cent, efficiency
16 lb.
Actual evaporation from 100F. feed temperature to 150 lb. pressure
per lb. oil at 78 per cent, eflfioienoy
13 lb
1
lb.)
oil.
434
lb. is
equivalent to 3
Boiler
horsepower =
boiler
boiler horsepower
mech. horsepower
boiler
horsepower
=
=
=
=
1 barrel oil
2'-> lb.
13
212^1''.
1.
per
lir.
0.250.5
lb.
pound
oil for
complete combustion
(14% CO..)
(10% CO2)
1 lb. oil
turc
per hr.
per hr
Theoretical requirements
50per
435
ft.
13
lb.
15
lb.
19W
lb.
2^i
1%
436
Degrees
1.
42 U.
Oil Standards
S. gallons
5.6146 cu.
ft.
Deg.
2.
Dbg.
437
Oil,
438
FUEL OIL DATA APPliOXI MATE VALVES
439
Table 4. Temperature Corrections to Readings op BACHtfi HydroMKTKus IN American Petroleum Oils at Various Temperatures'
[Standard at 60F.: modulus I40.I
Observed
tempera-
20.0
30.0
40.0
60.0
60.0
70.0
ture, F.
Add
30
38
1.7
1.6
1.5
1.4
1.3
40
42
44
46
48
0.9
0.8
0.7
60
62
54
56
68
0.6
0.5
0.3
0.2
0.1
60
62
64
66
68
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
70
72
74
76
78
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
32
34
38
1.2
1.1
80
82
84
86
88
90
92
94
96
98
100
102
104
106
108
2 4
110
U2
114
116
118
120
3.3
2.0
80.0
FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING
440
Table
5.
[This table gives the correction to be added to apparent specific gravities of heavy petroleum
oils (fuel oils, lubricating oils, etc.), at temperatures of 60 to 210''F. to give the true speIt is assumed that the hydrometer or pycnometer
cifio gravity of the oil at 60/60F.
used is of glass having a coefficient of cubical expansion of 0.000023 per degree centigrade,
and is correct at &)F,]
Observed
Observed
temperature,
specific gravity
0.860 0.860 0.870 0.880 0.890 0.900 0.910 0.920 0.930 0.940 0.950 0.900
T.
Add
66
68
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.003
70
72
74
76
78
0.004
004
0.004
004
0.005
005
0.006
006
0.006 0.006
0.004
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.006
0.004
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.006
004
004
005
006
006
004
004
005
,006
,006
80
82
84
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.009
0.010
007
008
008
009
010
0.007
0.008
0.008
0.009
0.010
0.007
0.008
0.008
0.009
0.010
007
008
008
009
010
,007
,007
.008
.009
.010
,010
90
92
94
96
0.011
0.011
0.012
0.013
0.014
0.011
0.011
0.012
0.013
0.011
0.011
0.012
0.013
0.011
0.011
0.012
0.013
0.0130.013 0.013
0.010
0.011
0.012
0.013
0.013
0.010
0.011
0.012
0.013
0.013
0.010
0.011
0.012
0.012
0.013
100
105
110
115
120
0.014
0.016
018
0.020
0.022
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.020
0.021
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.020
0.021
0.014
0.016
0.018
0.020
0.021
0.014
0.016
0.017
0.019
0.021
0.014
0.016
0.017
0.019
0.021
125
130
135
140
145
0.023
0.025
0.027
0.028
0.030
0.023
0.025
0.027
0.028
0.030
0.023
0.025
0.026
0.028
0.030
0.023
0.025
0.026
0.028
0.030
0.023
0.025
0.026
0.028
0.030
150
155
160
165
170
0.031
0.033
0.035
0.037
0.038
175
180
185
190
195
0.040
0.042
0.044
0.045
0.047
0.040
0.041
0.043
0.045
0.047
200
206
210
64:
0.040 0.040
0.042' 0.042
0.044 0.043
0.045 0.045
0.047 0.047
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.000,0.000
o.ooilo.ooi
0.002 0.002
0.002 0.002
0.003 0.003
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.003
60
'62
oil tables,
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.003
0.007
0.007
0.008
0.009
,010 0.010
0.007
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.010
0.007
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.010
0.007
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.010
0.010
0.011
0.012
0.012
0.013
0.010
0.011
0.012
0.012
0.013
0.010
0.011
0.012
0.012
0.013
0.010
0.011
0.012
0.012
0.013
0.010
0.011
0.012
0.012
0.013
0.014
0.016
0.017
0.019
0.021
0.014
0.016
0.017
0.019
0.021
0.014
0.016
0.017
0.019
0.021
0.014
0.016
0.017
0.019
0.021
0.014
0.016
0.017
0.019
0.021
0.014
0.016
0.017
0.019
0.021
0.023
0.024
0.026
0.028
0.030
0.023
0.024
0.026
0.028
0.029
0.023
0.024
0.026
0.028
0.029
0.023
0.024
0.026
0.028
0.029
0.022
0.024
0.026
0.027
0.029
0.022
0.024
0.026
0.027
0.029
0.031
0.033
0.035
0.036
0.038
0.031
0.033
0.035
0.036
0.038
0.031
0.033
0.034
0.036
0.038
0.031
0.033
0.034
0.036
0.038
0.031
0.033
0.034
0.036
0.038
0.031 0.031
0.033
0.034
0.036
0.037
0.040
0.041
0.043
0.046
0.046
0.040
0.041
0.043
0.044
0.046
0.039
0.041
0.043
0.044
0.046
0.039
0.041
0.043
0.044
0.046
0.039 0.039
0.041 0,041
0.042
0.044
0.040
007
007
008
009
007
007
008
009
0.000
0.001
0.002
0.002
0.003
Bureau
of Standards.
I'TKL OIL
Table
6.
Di-o.
441
Baum6 of
This table gives the correctionB to be subtracted from the apparent deg. B6. of heavy
petroleum oils (fuel oils, lubricating oils, etc.) at temperatures from 60 to 210''F. to give
the true deg. B4. at 60F. (modulus, 140).
It is assumed that the hydrometer is of
glass having a coefficient of cubical expansion of 0.000023 per dee. C., and is correct at
UOT.l
Observed degrees B6.
Observed
temperature,
"F.
26
28
30
32
34
36
FUEL OIL AND STEAM ENGINEERING
442
with
its
When
own
specific heat.
Table
7.
Specific
Heat
Capacities'
Specific
heat
capacity
0.452
0.445
0.419
0.511
0.498
0.377
0.525
0.589
0.622
0.700
-20 to 3
-19 to 20
Paraffin solid, 25 to 30
Paraffin solid, 35 to 40
Paraffin liquid, 52.4 to 55
Specific
Crude
gravity
oils:
Japan
0.862
0.810
0.908
0.960
842
0.859
0.854
Pennsylvania
Russia
California
Bustenari
Mabery and
cent, paraffin
cent, paraffin
0.453
0.500
0.435
0.398
462
0.467
0.457
.
heats:
Specific heat
Number
of
molecular weight
in molecule
atoms
series,
is
2.28.
"^
Holde, David,
'
Mabery, C.
vaporization of
The examination
443
M H K H y
O O O O O
f c- '- o o
ts is Is if is
Its
;S!i
i*
2;
.2;
OflJoJOoSoSaSaJOc/iS^o'!
^ ^,
c:
r X -/
'f;
r!
fc-
-ti
Si
eJ
Q O
CI
^1 X C- O C o O ^
X cc c o
O
"" -r
'^
-T"^ ^; o
c- iQ M -c
f
C-.
'-':
C'l
3C
-*
CDiO
C4
II
N b- Oi
0> O C> 0> O}
ooood
U3
CO
&
-a
ooo
Pi
>0
(M
"
c"
APPENDIX V
BRIEF BIBLIOGRAPHY
Oil Fuel
M.I.M.E.
ON FUEL
OIL
1914.
Oil Fuel, by Ernest H. Peabody.
A paper presented at the International
Engineering Congress, San Francisco, 1915.
Industrial Uses of Fuel Oil, by F. B. Dunn.
Technical Publishing Co.,
S. F., 1916, 235 pp.
The Science of Burning Liquid Fuel, by Wilham Newton Best.
Liquid and Gaseous Fuels, by Vivian Bryan Lewes. Published by A. Con-
stable
&
Co.,
London, 1907.
444
INDEX
Alaskan
coal,
.'i.S.S
Absolute, pressure, 22
Alcohol thermometers, 37
temperature, 46
zero, 46, 58
Absorption, heat of, 1 10
of solutions, flue gas analysis,
275
American
Acceleration, 16
Accessories, boiler, 107, 110
of
area of
159
of,
355
combustion,
per
pound
103,
105,
285
supplied,
259, 435
Scotch
specific gravity,
tempera-
of
baffles
in
lioiler,
208
l)^',
boiler,
calculated from
291
theoretical, 259
spaces in
'Ullo,
339
fuel,
oil,
*3!I4,
Artificial draft,
284
theoretical, 284
per pound
271
191,
Ash
106,
332,
*345
279, 283
air,
329,
excess
gas,
321,
310, 443
Arrangement
Electrical
Orsat, 27:!
159, 100
sis,
flue
oil,
Apparent
fuinm-c,
oil
location
359, 414
economy
326
in,
meters, 399
openings,
311,
333,
steam tables, 57
Analyzer, flue pas, '275
Apparatus, auxiliary,
*398
leakage, 191
due to moisture
of
308,
Analysis,
Institute
*160
flue
chanical atomizing)
steam, device for limiting, .Ms
method of measuring, 369, 374
per cent of total, 435
per pound oil, *375
pressure, *377
445
INDEX
446
Atwater
*244
Moore,
*331,
384
360,
*218,
*217,
*216,
(see
Moore automatic
temperature
degrees,
correc-
scale,
than
water, 227
than
lighter
water,
228
also
regula-
Boilers, 6
tors)
398
*395,
Witt, *215
driven,
electric
Auxiliaries,
*394,
Auxiliary,
oil
*164
tanks, 425
*121, *122
marine,
Badenhausen, 120
turbo-generator, 398
198
battery of 15
baffles,
oil-fired, *115
blowing down, 144, 198
*161, *164
Company,
180,
187,
441,
443
marine boiler, *121, *122
mechanical atomizing burners,
184, *185, *186
installed under, *178
arrangement
of,
effect
Barges,
oil,
Barometer,
cylinder
oil
dnim, 115
Edgemoor, 121
efficiency, 310
as a steaming mechanism, 328
defined, 329
Long
198
of,
cooling, 145
*345
boilers,
classification, 115
on draft
loss,
424
27, 28,
Beach
Steam
Plant,
*371
266
*262
corrections for, 29
pany, 360
Erie City, 120
externally fired, 116
feeding water to, 196
steam calorimeter, 82
weight of oil per, 434
Battery of 15 oil-fired
*I15
fire
boilers,
tube,
7,
116
firing, scientifically,
up, 144
200
INDEX
Boilers, foaming, 144
forcing
195
of,
447
strength
of,
test, gage,
of,
*142
pump,*143
(see
also
Boiler
tests)
Thomycroft, 123
time required to start up, 379
tubes, 115
71,
435
141
tube,
7,
116
for efficiency,309
net
'IGi
147
licat
graphic
log,
*31s
boilers)
*3ir,,
*316, *317
Plant, 370
precautions, 142
report, '342, 344
room,
*107
oil fired,
operation
of,
189
for safety, 141
Rust, 120
safe operation of, 141
Scotch, 122
shell,
107
rules for
computing strength
of, 148,
strength
of,
148
109
INDEX
448
B.t.u.,
44
in barrel, 434
of oil per barrel, 436
pound, 436
hour, 353
per pound of oil, 443
Bureau of Mines, U. S., 235, 242, 299
Bureau of Standards, U. S., 39, 229,
437, 438, 439, 440, 441
Burning point of petroleum, *124
of oil per
W.
per K.
104,
192,
ar-
also
burners, 166
Oil
burners)
outside mixer, 168
oil,
valves, 112
Chemical, energy, 21
properties of petroleum, 126
steam calorimeter, 86
Chimney, 106
correction for altitude, 262
design, *260
of, 260
example for sea level, 259
for least cost, 260
cost
steam, *306
CaUfornia,
oil,
fields,
Caloric, 31,
oil,
calorimeter)
Parr, *245, *246, (see also Parr
calorimeter)
{see
Steam calorimeters)
Calorists, 42
Campina
oil,
gas
442
264
255
(see
Flue
of design,
analysis
gas
gases, loss
due
to,
323
443
of petroleum, 127, 133
Calorimeter, fuel, 244 {see also Fuel
of
268,
analysis)
steam
example
of,
Draft)
*386
42
Calorific value
182
Check
(see
oil
393
427
Carbon monoxide, flue gas analysis,
274
loss due to, 324
Carnot cycle, 395
Carriers, oil, 424
Centigrade thermometers, 32, 35
Centrifugal pumps. 111, 399
of oil tanks,
Centrifuge, *235
161
of,
182
Chamber type
location
ers,
of,
for
draft,
257,
268
Circulating water cycle, 9
City of Seattle, *224
Classification of boilers, 115
of burners, 166
of petroleum, 125
Cleaning boilers, 145, 198
Cleaners, tube, 146
Closed heaters, 6
258,
INDEX
COj, content, 273
flue
Comparison
gas analyis,
inaximum
449
possil)le,
27:j
294
surface, 9
Conduction, 107
Confusion from Baum<5 scale, 227
Conservation and study of fuel oil,
helpful factors
Construction,
Consumption, of
oil,
206, 434
mechanical atomizing
burners, *176
oil
139
36
Column, mercury, 23
water, *110, 112
Combustion,
air
excess
air,
per pound
284
fuel,
285
291
theoretical, 284
chamber,
boilers,
large
burning
oil
fuel
oil,
124
323
by mechanical atomizing,
table
164, *165
large, 164
of, 160
Peabody, *161, 162
material
Peabody-Hammel, *163
volumetric proportion
circulating water, 9
oil,
10
steam, 3
182
29
burners, 425
of petroleum, 138
Crude
393
data, 286
of oil
oil,
temperature
411
furnaces, 103
pulverized, 388
Oil,
in,
of energy, 21
Colombian
*222
oil,
jet,
Alaskan, 388
burning plant, design of, 389
changing from, to oil, 221
comparison with oil, *222
Coen,
oil,
443
Computations of Westphal Balance,
233
Condenser, K
Code
of coal with
Comi)ositioii of
of,
Cylinder
oil,
keep out of
145
D
Dahl mechanical atomizing
burners, 175
Damper, control, 348
draft, regulated by, 339
required at, 372, *373
leakage passed, 348
160
boiler,
regulator, *218
oil
INDEX
450
Data, and results, boiler
tests,
333
boiler tests
in
plotting
of,
319
law of pressures
loss, 266
434
348
Diagram, of draft, *258
251
267
water tube
limitations
regulation
106
of,
mechanical
atomizing,
burning, 339
oil
table
of,
theory
251
of,
Drooling type
oil
Drum,
115
boiler,
burners, 166
mud, 113
of,
75,
79
79
Dwight
267
varying, 376
burners, 176
CO2
indicator,
flue
analysis, *277
*105
with five outlets, *201
in inches of water, 253
176,
188
size of
255
excess air varying with, 377
mechanical
atomizing
for
boilers,
of,
relation,
temperature heat, 53
chimney, 255
266
266
through boiler, 372
regulated by, ash pit doors, 339
damper, 339
in
*258
266
256
in flues,
production, *391
power plant, *4
of,
253
in boilers, 267
oil
available, 372
for,
friction losses in
Davy,
diagram
in,
formula
foot,
differential,
gas
IXDEX
Economy,
bcHt,
New
Cornelia Cop-
Companj', 364
per,
data, 348
kinetic,
Cornelia
*208,
*67,
*210,
*197, *202,
*297,
*282,
*398
plant, *83, *101,
*102
310
New
Cornelia Copper
pany, 360
Com-
New
Cornelia
Copper
Company, *365
from
coal, 221
potential, 20
Engine, reciprocating, 8
Engineers,
Electrical,
American
Institute of, 70
Long Beach
21
20
mechanical, 21
New
maintaining,
Efficiency,
Energy, chemical, 21
conservation of, 21
electrical,
*43,
451
in,
lators,
ners, *181
337
398
driven auxiliaries,
Light Association, National, 180
steam calorimeters, 90
Electrical, energy, 21
Engineers, American Institute
414
of,
351,
358,
70,
thermometers, 38
World, *178, 414
Electricity, Journal of, 414
Electrification of railroads, 140
Emerson Fuel Calorimeter, *243
Electric,
Enclosure of
Energy, 20
oil
tanks, 426
Factor, of evaporation
(.see
Evapora-
of safety, 147
Fahrenheit thermometers, 32, 34
Fan tail type, oil burners, 166
Feed, pumps, 422
water heaters, 5
water pumps, 6, 111
Fess Oil Burners, 168
Fill pipes, 430
INDEX
452
Fill pipes, for oil
Filters, oil,
tanks, 422
422
sum
432
tanks outside
tanks within, 428
limits, oil
oil
oil,
how
of,
through
oil
orifices,* 380,
*381, *383
efficiency,
340
oil,
289
355
275
vice, 354,
from
maximum
.16
pound, 16
Forced draft, 268, 269
302
Napier's formula for, 303
through orifice, 303
of steam,
from
Force,
for
Formation of steam, 52
Formula, Dulong's, 242
131
Flow, of
of,
analyzer,
to light, 196
Pennsky-Martens
275
283
of readings,
tabulation
428
for
steam constants,
95, 96,
97
255
supplied per
pound
of,
calorimeter, 244
125
loss
disadvantages
of,
125
production
135
286
INDKX
Flue
oil, in
California, 124
sources
stocks
of,
(if,
139
137
in service,
Fundamental
units, 15
around
housings
346
burners,
Com-
mercial furnacpH)
265
path of, 104
Hammel Peabody, 360
draft
in,
155,
192,
(see
of,
104
46
of,
boilers,
164,
*165
Company,
322
balance, 320
water, 112
Gallons in barrel, 434
Galvanometer,' 39
Pacific,
*190,
*193,
*203,
*207,
*225,
*280,
*330,
*342,
*382,
*392,
*393,
*395,
397
density, 46
flue, analysis,
of,
law
Ci
furnace, path
Oil
also
356
*7,
chimney, 2hh
*338
furnaces)
Peabody,
'\'ii\
friction of, in
of petroleum, 127
gases,
oil,
453
106
natural, 388
weight, 252
Gases, chimney, loss due to, 323
58
of evaporation, 97
of petroleum, 127
INDEX
454
Heat, latent, of steam, 62
laws of, 107
localization of, 160
mechanical equivalent
58
net absorbed by boiler, 322
of absorption, 110
of liquid steam, 61
of steam, total, 55, 63
of superheated steam, total, 79
of water, specific, 59
37
temperature diagram, 53
specific,
total, of
saturated steam, 96
435
109
in oil heaters, 435
rate of, 110
transfer, 107,
formula
of
44,
for,
oil
burned per
h.p. per
hour, 258
relationship of boiler
and me-
chanical, 435
Hot
well, 5
of,
230
Hygrometer, *37
Heaters, closed, 6
feed water, 5
oil, 10,
open, 5
Heating, of
oil for,
oil,
432
Ice, 51
424
of coal, 221
of hydrogen, 250
Injector, 111
surface required,
oil
heaters, 213
of
oil,
241, 434
sis,
276
for
saturated
boiler,
115
steam turbines, 8
Horsepower,
Inspiration Copper
Installation,
for,
Company, *331
New York
City, rules
426
to compute, 76
under B.
*178
of oil burners,
steam constants, 97
High pressure
ers
Henning's formula,
steam, 97
for
boiler, 121
Hemphel apparatus,
to,
435
& W.
boilers,
425
426
burning plants, 433
of oil tanks, rules for, 415
Instruction for boiler tests, 308
Instruments, recording, 200
Interconnected steam electric power
plants, 392
Internally fired boiler, 116
for, 415,
of oil
INDEX
Isolated
Steam
electric
power plants,
391
Italian oil, 443
Load on
Jet condenser, 9
Joint, riveted (see
Riveted
boilers, variable,
196
joint)
Joule, 43
Joule's equivalent, 44
K
per barrel
*3;')3
1S4
New
Puciiic,
382
at
Light
K.W. hours
455
C'ornelia
Copper Com-
pany, 364
Keeler boiler, 121
sheet,
boiler
tests,
314,
'31.'),
*316, *317
318
tests,
Long Beach
Plant,
Southern
draft
at,
*376
Edison
Company, '83, *101, '102
stack temperature, *374
California
oil
tests,
370
method
of testing,
369
*376
Lamp
petroleum, 129
Latent heat, 52, 53, 58
of evaporation, 97
oil in
of oil, 434
Laws, of heat, 107
of gases, 46
of motion, Newton's, 15
of thermodynamics, 42
Leaky oil burners, *169, 382
Leakage, air, 191
passed, damper, 348
LeConte, J. N., 242
Leland Stanford, Jr., University, 411
Length, unit of, 15
Low
M
Mabery, C. F.. 442
Mahler bomb fuel calorimeter, *245
INDEX
456
Manholes, 113
Manometer, 305
Marine boiler, 122
Master
Mechanical
'
57
44,
15
of,
*220
controller,
of
oil
Maximum,
efficiency, flue
Measurement,
gas analy-
340
sis for,
of oil, 205,
310
water, *74
economy,
apparatus,
*197, *396
method
atomizing steam,
369, 374
gage, oil, *206
of,
of,
369
Mechanical atomizer, 168
Mechanical atomizing advantages
of,
177
Wilcox,
182
draft for, 176
efficiency of, *181
of,
installed
boilers,
under
*178
& W.
B.
Lodi, 184
187
pressure
of burners required,
Meters,
air,
399
Moisture, in
for,
regulation
176
of,
187,
(see
burners)
temperature
for,
176
combustion of
oil
disadvantages
of,
by, 182
179
draft required, 176, 188
in marine practice, 183
in stationary practice, 183
Coen, *176
air, loss
due
to,
326
in coal, 223
Mechanical atomizing
oil
number
equivalent of heat, 58
horsepower, 435
recording, 399
&
Babcock
capacity
Com-
pany, 175
Peabody, 175
operation at high capacities, 184
pressure required, 176, 187
quantity of oil burned, 179
temperature required, 176
Mechanical, energy, 21
Engineers, American Society of,
of temperature, 31, 35
burners,
advantages
Measuring,
atomizing
also
oil
methods of determining,
236
oil,
in petroleum, 129
*217, *218,
IXDEX
Moore uutomatic regulators, boiler
room efficiency with, 361
operation
361
of,
361
chanical atomizing
ers, 175
burn-
oil
457
oil. Petroleum)
accumulators, 423
air required per pound, 259, 435
analysis, 310, 443
atomizing steam per pound,
375
Austrian, 443
barges, 424
Net
coefficient
New
434
heat transfer, 213
Colombian, 139
combustion of one pound of, 293
comparison with coal, *222
composition of, 443
continuous sampling, 300
conveyors, 424
correction for temperature, 208
crude (see Crude oil), cycle, 10
data, 434
distillation, 239
fields of California, *386
filters, 422
Mud
drum, 113
Myriawatt, 70, 71
N
National
Board
of
Fire
Under-
writers 204
boiler efficiency,
360
vacuum
Number
of
steam
electric
plants, 391
O
Object of boiler tests, 307
Odor of petroleum, 126
Ohio oil, 443
power
boiler
fire,
of
expansion,
200,
firing,
443
through burners, 379
flow
of,
*383
275
424
heating, 424
gallons per pound, 437
gravity of, 227
heating of, 432
value of 242, 434 {are also
Heating value of oil)
flue gas analysis from,
for cooking,
INDEX
458
temperature on flow
through orifice), *383
Italy, 443
Japan, 442
Java, 443
Oil, influence of
*353,
359,
364
latent heat
of,
434
205, 310
measuring gage, *206
Mexican, 139, 187, 387, 443
mixed samples, 301
moisture in, 335, 236
Ohio, 443
Pennsylvania, 442, 443
measurement
of,
standpipes, 423
pressure,
relation
steam
to
production, diagram
fan
*391
of,
443
166
tail type,
168
function of, 104
166, *167, 361,
home-made,
quantity burned
hour, 258
425
P'ess,
Hammel,
*212, 431
receivers, 423
of,
standards, 436
pressure-jet, 174
steamers, 424
relation of
still
of,
204
203
pres-
(see
tanks)
422
tank steamer, *412
temperature of, 195
Texas, 443
strainers,
oil
385
attachments, 205
size
steam and
storage, 426
rules for,
378
169, *173
also Oil
*383
Wilgus, *172
Witt, *170
OU burning
appliances, 202
average plant efficiency, 353
best recorded results, 359
INDEX
Oil burning, boilers, capacity of, 393
large
combustion
chamber,
393
Oil tanks,
gauge
glasses,
423
economies in 351
equipment, rules for installation, 415, 426
furnace arrangement, 337
interior, *338
outside
433
343
relation between furnace burner
and draft, 340
tests, 351, 357, 358
at Long Beach, 368
miscellaneous, 368
Oil fired boiler room, *107
Oil fired boilers, code for tests for,
332, 333, 336
operation
regulation
of,
of,
arrangement
excellent, *168
former type, *157
fundamentals of, 100
operation
of,
104
heaters,
10,
213
Oil tanks, auxiliary, 425
capacity, 427
capacity and location, 416, 419
construction, 416, 421, 429
controlling valves, 418
enclosure of, 426
fill pipe, 422
filling pipes for, *67
velocity of
fire
oil in,
428
fire limits,
pumps
418
for,
427
support for, 417
vent pipe, 422
volume of, 207
within fire limits, 428
Oil wells, production of, 139
service,
Open
heaters, 5
Operation,
detailed.
Parr
Calori-
meter, 246
of boilers, 141
rules for efficiency, 189
Moore automatic
of
192
air
Oil
459
regulators,
361
of
burning
oil
plants,
i;J3
Parr Calorinicli-r,
246
steam boiler, principle of, 109
Orsat analysis, 274
conclusions on, 277 (see also
Flue gas analysis)
Orsat apparatus, *273
flue gas analysis, 271
Orsat totals, 275
Orifice, calibration of, for measuring
steam, *306
principle of.
Orifices,
flow of
oil
through,
*3S(),
*381, *383
284
Pacffic
Gas and
*33,
Electric Co.,
'45,
*68,
*84,
3,
*26
*108,
*190,
*193,
*203,
*207,
*225,
*280,
*330,
*342,
INDEX
460
Pacific Light and
Power Co.,
187, 382
fur-
nace, *163
Physical
oil
burners, 175
for
flash
442, 443
Pipes,
Pound
Pound
force, 16
of
229, 230
133
chemical properties of, 126
classification of, 125
color of, 125, 126
consumption of, 138
corrosion from, 129
density of, 126
effect of heat on, 126
ether, 442
Power
132
129
127
methods of sampling, 133
moisture in, 129
odor of, 126
physical properties of, 126
production
of,
of,
Power plant
Power
committee, A.
332
test
Power, water,
M.
E.,
247
Pressure, absolute, 22
conversion
of,
27
gage, 22
in atmospheres,
60
Long Beach
steam plant, 375, *376
loss, in
oil,
superheat,
138, 387
S.
oil in,
oil,
plants)
S.,
latent heat
430
fill,
vent, 430
in,
petroleum,
386
impurities
of
point, 131
oil,
properties
126
Sierra
lamp
127
Poundal, 16
Power, 17, 414
Pennsylvania
of,
442
Paraffin,
Ka(!
176, 187
working, 153
INDEX
steam,
Pressuri',
Hteam and
oil
theory
Railroads, electrification
oil,
burners,
382,
*383,
385
Rates of
22
of,
working, 147
for boilers, 141
and steam,
ratio of oil
oil,
*377, 378
135, 136
and
Principal data
results of boiler
336
tests,
Problems, 400-409
Process of distillation, 239
Production, of fuel oil, 135
in California, 124
of oil, diagram, *391
of oil wells, 139
of petroleum, 138,
5,
387
sum
Receivers,
399
duplex. 111
feed water. 111, 6
dry vacuum, 9
oil,
431
210, *212
reciprocating, 399
wet vacuum, 9
Pumping station, San
Francisco, *18
Pyrometer, *307
Pyrometers, expansion, 38
radiation, 38
32, 34, 35
423
oil,
Reciprocating engine, 8
Reciprocating pumps, 399
Recorder, CO2, *272, *279
centrifugal. 111,
of,
Reaumur, thermometers,
steam,
399
for
140
pressures,
Pumps,
of,
and steam
oil
*377, 378
25
Prices of fuel
IGl
(Mi
steam constants, 90
349
Q
Questions and Answers, 409
R
"R"
value
of,
bursting pressure
47
boiler, 359,
pyrometers, 38
of,
152
Radiation, 107
from
378
strength
of,
151
INDEX
462
Rose type,
Rules
oil
for
burners, 166
Sellegr-ies,
operation,
efficient
of
189
boilers,
Separator, 7
204
Russia
Rust
443
Oil, 442,
boiler,
of,
Smokestack
of
Mines
instruc-
of
oil,
continuous, 300
of
oil,
station, *1S
&
Elec.
Scales
water
boiler,
measurement
122
Sea
*202,
*208,
*210,
*282,
*303,
*368,
oil,
formula
of
oil,
442
for,
213, 434
at
thermometers,
of
Standards, Bureau
Standards, oil, 436
Standpipes,
*160
level,
438
40
by, 296
Scotch
*197,
*279,
platform,
Chimney)
(see
Soot, 356
Bureau
plants,
391
valve, *20
valves, *113
oil.
203
power
of steam electric
147
of
137
'
*206
Siphon, steam gage, *112
S.,
120
124
Staples
oil
and
oil heaters,
Starting
up
of,
piping, 423
Keiffer,
211,
*212
boiler, cold,
379
*212
/NDEX
A^-San Francisco, Pacific
Gas & Electric Co., *84,
Station
u;:i
Steam,
*108
90
normal reading
sampling nipple
electric,
atmoiisiug,
also
(see
Atomizing
used by stoam
Steam
limitations
75, {nee also
Dry
Steam driven,
391
isolated,
302
flow of through
of,
orifice,
number
303
Steam
391
Steam
plant.
steam)
specific density, 61
volume, 60
Superheated
steam)
total heat of, 55, 63
used in atomization, 302, 310
also
{sfie
steam)
atomizing burners, boiler
with, 357
Long
Beaeli, descrip-
302, *305
(see
fundamental
Engineering,
laws, 14
82,
of,
formation of, 52
generated heat in, 310
generation, 107
heat of liquid, 61
internal work, 63.
latent heat, 62
78,
398
connected, 392
wet, 75,
90
of,
auxiliaries,
steam)
of,
Steam
pressure, gain
due to higher,
396
limit of, 397
relation
to oil pressure,
Steam
turbines,
8, (see
also Turbines)
horizontal, 8
Wet
impulse, 8
reaction, 8
vertical,
tesls
Steamer,
oil
8
tank, *412
calorimeters, 80, 86
calorimeters, barrel, 82
principle
of
operation,
109
chemical, 86
Steam
92
*377,
378
tendency toward higher, 395
Steam tables, 54, 57
analysis of, 58
oil, 424
Steaming mechanism, boiler
ciency as a, 328
boiler,
Sll,
87
cycle, 3
saturated
throttling,
calorimeters,
calorimeterH, 92
superheated,
.H4
tank, 82
correction for,
measurement
*89
88,
93
ing, *306
dry saturated,
of,
for,
steam)
calibration of orifice for measur-
specific
made
type, 87, 94
Steam, 50
flow
easily
calorimeters,
Still
effi-
81
thermometers, 40
with hood for, determination
of water in oil, *238
INDEX
464
Tanks, for
Stocks, of fuel
oil,
137
tank,
oil,
oil service,
426
oil,
oil storage,
tanks)
205
{see also Oil
storage
tanks)
10
tank, water, 3
Strainers, 210, *211
oil,
*74
tests,
{see Oil
oil,
Storage, of
'
422
comput-
152
132
Summary, heat balance, 327
Superheat, determination
ners, 176
heat diagram, 53
pressure
loss
of,
81
375, *376
Steam Plant,
volume
of,
98
correction, 81
tables
of,
65
in service, 356
of
oil,
oil,
195
mechanical atomiz176
stack, {see Stack temperatures)
superheat, determination of, *81
taking of Parr calorimeter, 248
required,
tests
on,
378
Pennsky
Table, of draft, 257
economy
data, 348
of, flue
Tagliabue, C.
Tank steam
J.,
229, 230
calorimeter, 82
surface condenser, 84
Tank
cars,
Tanks and
Martens
for
flash
point, 131
Testing,
Tables, steam, 54
Tabulation
35
from boilers
of
of, 31,
of escaping gases
C. formula for, 99
Superheater, 7
Supply
oil
flow of
*383
orifice,
ing,
steam
U.
on
of,
through
measurement
influence
Long Beach
in.
*202
scales for
ment, *296
water measure-
40
mechanical atomizing
burners, 180, 187
oil burning, 351, 357, 358
oil burning, at Long Beach, 368
scales and tanks for, *74 (see
of thermometers,
Tests,
of
INDEX
Tests, with oil burners, 380, *382,
465
U.
S.
U.
S.
*383
Texas
oil,
143
299, 411
Shipping Board, 137
Utilization, of exhaust steam, 398
U.
Theory
S.
of draft, 251
of pressure, 22
Vacuum, 24
Thermal
unit, British, 44
Thermocouple, *31, *38, *39
Thermodynamics, first law of, 44
laws of, 42
Thermometers, 31
alcohol, 37
Centigrade, 32, 35
electrical, 38
Fahrenheit, 32, 34
mercurial, 37
Reaumur,
thirty-inch, 25
Value, of
check, 112
for
of,
40
40
123
86,
New
U
Unit of length, 15
Unit of mass, 15
Unit of time, 15
Units, fundamental, 15
University of California, 270, 381,
411
U. of C. formula, for superheated
steam
Bureau of Standards,
437,
U.
S.
438,
439,
229, 411,
440
off,
'111
gases
tube
boilers,
Viscosimeter, *300
S.
and blow
through water
266
of oil in heaters, 213
of oil in pipes, 215
Venezuelan oil, 139
Vent pipes, 430
for oil tanks, 422
Venturi meter, *343
of
of,
*87, 90
U.
423, 425
stop, check
steam calorimeter,
Turbine room,
oil,
non-return, 112
Tube
47
Velocity, 16
boiler,
"R"
Valves, 432
32, 34, 35
standardization
Throttling
Cornelia Copper
Co., 363
recording, *280
Thornycroft
New
obtained.
441
W
M., 129
Wadsworth,
Warner, J. B., 142
J.
Water, 50
INDEX
466
Water, column, *110, 112
draft in inches of, 253
feeding to boilers, 196
gage, 112
in fuel, loss due to, 322
in oil, determination of,
*238
237,
analysis, 281
computations
Wet
urer, *298
measurement,
platform
by
scales, 296
measurement, scales and tanks
*296
for,
volume
relation of, to
of,
233
359, 379
WUgus
power,
specific
heat
of,
59
storage tank, 3
tube boilers, 7
tube boiler advantages
117
of,
116,
266
velocity of gases through,
266
weighing, 295, 309
Watt, James, 67
Weighing of oil, 298
boilers, draft loss in,
153
Wrana, King
&
Co.,
370
Z
Zero, absolute, 46, 58
mill n nimwi Mm u