Wind Energy - Part - 2 - Power in The Wind PDF

Renewable and
Green Energy
ADEL A. A. ELGAMMAL
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
ADEL ELGAMMAL
THE UNIVERSITY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO UTT
WIND ENERGY
Part - 2
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Available Power
in the Wind
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Available Power in the Wind

How much energy is in the wind? And how
much of that energy can a wind turbine
"catch"?
Or how much of the wind's energy can a wind
turbine convert into useful electrical energy?
ADEL ELGAMMAL

The following figure shows the "tube" of wind
energy that goes into a wind turbine.
The "D" represents the diameter of the turbine
blades.
The blue oval is to show that the circular area
of wind swept by the blades is the area
available for producing power.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Air density
The Air Density, symbolized by the Greek letter (rho), is an

important parameter to know in wind power applications.
Air density is the mass of air per unit volume:
where
is the air density, in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3)
[pounds mass per cubic foot (lbm/ft3)].
m is the mass of air, in kilograms (kg) [pounds mass (lbm)].
V is the volume, in cubic meters (m3) [cubic feet (ft3)].
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Air density
The air density varies with atmospheric pressure,
temperature, humidity, and altitude:
In S.I. units, is equal to 1.225 kg/m3 under standard
sea level conditions, which are: a temperature of 15.5C,
an atmospheric pressure of 101.325 kPa, and a relative
humidity of 36%.
In U.S. customary units, is equal to 0.076 lbm/ft3 under
standard (sea level) conditions, which are: a temperature
of 60F, an atmospheric pressure of 14.7 psia or 0 psig,
and a relative humidity of 36%.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Kinetic energy in the wind

Any object or fluid in motion has kinetic
energy. For example, wind, which is a mass of
air in motion, has kinetic energy.
The faster the speed of the wind, the higher the
kinetic energy of the wind.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
POWER IN THE WIND

Consider a packet of air with mass m moving at a speed v.
Its kinetic energy K.E., is given by the familiar relationship:
mv 2
K .E
2
(2)
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where K.E is the kinetic energy, in joules (J) [feetpound force (ftlbf)].
m is the mass of air, in kilograms (kg) [pounds mass
(lbm)].
v is the velocity of the mass of air, in meters per
second (m/s) [feet per second (ft/s)].
2 is a constant. When working in U.S. customary
units, this constant must be multiplied by the
gravitational constant, g (32.174 lbmft/lbfs2).
ADEL ELGAMMAL

The gravitational constant, g must be used to change
from pounds mass (lbm) to pounds force (lbf). The
equation for calculating kinetic energy is, therefore:
mv 2
K .E
2g
Where g is equal to 32.174 lbmft/lbfs2.
Note that the term wind speed is also used to
designate the wind velocity, v.
ADEL ELGAMMAL

Kinetic energy is a function of mass and
velocity. So to know the energy in the wind we
have to know the wind's velocity as well as the
density of the air.
The density is the mass per unit volume
(kilograms per cubic meter [kg/m3], or pounds
mass per cubic foot [lbm/ft3] are a couple of
typical examples of units of density).
ADEL ELGAMMAL

Of course, what we are really interested in as
engineers and producers or users of electricity is the
power we can get out of the wind.
Power is how fast we are producing or converting a
quantity energy.
Power has units of energy divided by time.
A Watt is a unit of power. It represents one joule of
energy transformed every second. A 60 Watt light
bulb converts 60 joules of energy every second into
light and heat (mostly heat - don't touch the bulb).
ADEL ELGAMMAL
POWER IN THE WIND

Since power is energy per unit time, the power represented
by a mass of air moving at velocity v through area A will be
(2)
ADEL ELGAMMAL
POWER IN THE WIND

The mass flow rate , through area A, is the product of air
density , speed v, and cross-sectional area A:
m A v (kg / s )
density (kg / m3 )
A cross sec tional area (m 2 )
v fluid velocity (m / s )
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Calculating wind power

The formula below shows the variables that
determine the power in the wind going into the
wind turbine (not the power obtainable,
because we can't get it all):
Pavail
1
m v 2
2
ADEL ELGAMMAL
POWER IN THE WIND
Pavail
1
A v3
2
Pavail (Watts) = power in the wind

(kg/m3)= air density (1.225kg/m3 at 15C and 1 atm)
A (m2)= the cross-sectional area that wind passes through
v (m/s)= wind speed normal to A (1 m/s = 2.237 mph)
ADEL ELGAMMAL

Notice that the power in the wind going into a
specific wind turbine, depends on 3 variables,
1) the density of the air,
2) the diameter of the turbine blades
squared (D times D), and
3) the velocity of the wind to the third
power (v times v times v).
ADEL ELGAMMAL

Pavail
1
A v3
2
Density = P/(RxT)
P - pressure (Pa)
R - specific gas constant (287 J/kgK)
T - air temperature (K)
kg/m3
Area = r2
Instantaneous
Speed
(not mean speed)
m2
m/s
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Importance of Wind Speed

No other factor is more important to the amount
of power available in the wind than the speed of
the wind
Power is a cubic function of wind speed
vXvXv
20% increase in wind speed means 73% more
power
Doubling wind speed means 8 times more power.
Energy in 1 hour of 20 mph winds is the same as
energy in 8 hours of 10 mph winds
Nonlinear, so we cannot use average wind speed.
Faster is better, and bigger is better (if you can
afford it and can build it strong enough).
Hence, selecting the right site play a major role
in the success of a wind power projects.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Importance of Wind Speed

Of course, the wind doesn't blow all the time in most
places and when it blows too hard the turbine blades
can break or spin so fast they break off (not good when
each blade can weigh several tons).
In that case, the blades are usually "feathered" to reduce
stresses on them and to slow them down. This means
we can't take advantage of really high wind speeds.
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Power in the wind is proportional

to the swept area
For a conventional HAWT, A = (/4)D2, so wind power is
proportional to the blade diameter squared
Doubling the diameter increases the power available by a
factor of four. That simple observation helps explain the
economies of scale that go with larger wind turbines. The
cost of a turbine increases roughly in proportion to blade
diameter, but power is proportional to diameter squared,
so bigger machines have proven to be more cost
effective.
Cost is roughly proportional to blade diameter.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Power in the wind, per square meter of cross

section, at 15C and 1 atm.
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Example
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Example
Calculate how much more power is available
at a site where the wind speed is 12 mph than
where it is 10 mph
P ~ V3
P2/P1 = (V2/V1)3
P2 = (12/10)3P1 = 1.73 P1
1.7 x the power (almost a factor of 2 increase),
with only 2 mph increase in wind speed!
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Power in the Wind = Av3

V = 5 meters (m) per second (s) m/s
= 1.0 kg/m3
R = .2 m >>>> A = .125 m2
Power in the Wind = AV3
= (.5)(1.0)(.125)(5)3
= 7.85 Watts
Units
= (kg/m3)x (m2)x (m3/s3)
= (kg-m)/s2 x m/s
= N-m/s = Watt
(kg-m)/s2 = Newton
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Maximum
Efficiency & Betz
Limit
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Turbine Efficiency
If the turbine could convert all the wind's
power to mechanical power we would say it
was 100% efficient.
But as you probably know, the real world is
never so generous.
To even achieve 50% is unlikely, and would be
a very efficient machine.
A 50% efficient turbine would convert half of
the power in the wind to mechanical power.
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Turbine Efficiency
Two extreme cases, and neither makes
sense1) Downwind velocity is zero turbine
extracted all of the power
2) Downwind velocity is the same as the
upwind velocity turbine extracted no
power.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Turbine Efficiency
Imagine a wind energy extraction machine of
100% efficiency that could take all of the
kinetic energy out of the wind.
That would mean the velocity on the "out" or
"leaving" or "exit" side of the turbine blades
would be zero, nothing. No kinetic energy left
in the wind.
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Turbine Efficiency
If the velocity leaving the blades is zero then
the air wouldn't be leaving at all.
There would be no air movement, meaning the
air after the blades isn't getting out of the way
of the air coming in, which would mean the
fresh air couldn't come in, which would mean
there is no air flowing through the turbine
blades, which would mean no power.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Turbine Efficiency
In order to at least keep the wind moving
through the turbine there has to be some
velocity or energy in the air after going
through the blades so that the air can get out of
the way of the air coming through next.
Just to keep the machine running at all the
efficiency has to be less than 100%.
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Betz Limit
Albert Betz, 1919, pointed this out and then
proceeded to prove, with solid physics and
math, that there must be some ideal slowing of
the wind so that the turbine extracts the
maximum power.
Albert Betz figured out that the best that could
be achieved by a wind turbine is around 59%
of the power in the wind.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Betz Limit
In other words, a perfect best-possible wind
turbine would be able to convert almost 59%
of the power in the wind into mechanical
rotating power.
But we can't achieve perfection.
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In Fig., the upwind velocity of the undisturbed wind is v, the

velocity of the wind through the plane of the rotor blades is vb,
and the downwind velocity is vd . The mass flow rate of air within
the stream tube is everywhere the same, call it .
Approaching wind slows and

expands as a portion of its
kinetic energy is extracted by
the wind turbine, forming the
stream tube shown.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
The power extracted by the blades Pb is equal to the difference in

kinetic energy between the upwind and downwind air flows:
= mass flow rate of air within stream tube

v = upwind undisturbed wind speed
vd = downwind wind speed
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Determining Mass Flow Rate

The easiest spot to determine mass flow rate is at the plane of
the rotor where we know the cross-sectional area is just the swept
area of the rotor A.
The mass flow rate is thus
If we now make the assumption that the velocity of the

wind through the plane of the rotor is just the average of
the upwind and downwind speeds (Betzs derivation
actually does not depend on this assumption), then we
can write
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Determining Mass Flow Rate

Assume the velocity through the rotor vb is the
average of upwind velocity v and downwind
velocity vd:
v vd
vb =
2
v vd
m A
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20
Power Extracted by the Blades

then we can write:
To help keep the algebra simple, let us define the ratio of

downstream to upstream wind speed to be :
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Power Extracted by the Blades
Pb
1
v v
A
2
2
2v 2
(6.22)
v 3 2 v 3 v 3 3v 3
v v 2
2 2
+
v v =
2
2
2
2
2
3
v
1 - 2 1
=
2
v3
1 1 2
=
2
1
1
Pb Av3 1 1 2
(6.22)
2
2
PW = Power in the wind
CP = Rotor efficiency
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Maximum Rotor Efficiency

Find the speed wind speed ratio which maximizes
the rotor efficiency, CP
From the previous slide
1
1 2 3
2
CP 1 1 = - + 2
2 2 2 2
Set the derivative of rotor efficiency to zero and solve for :
CP
=-2 1 3 2 0
CP
=3 2 2 1 0
maximizes rotor efficiency
CP
= 3 1 1 0
ADEL ELGAMMAL
1
3

Plug the optimal value for back into CP to
find the maximum rotor efficiency:
CP
1 1
1 16
59.3%
1 1 2 =
2 3 3 27
(6.26)
The maximum efficiency of 59.3% occurs when

air is slowed to 1/3 of its upstream rate
Called the Betz efficiency or Betz law
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Rotor efficiency CP
vs. windspeed ratio
The blade efficiency

reaches a maximum
when the wind is
slowed to one-third
of its upstream value.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Power Coefficient vs Tip Speed Ratio

Power Coefficient Varies with Tip Speed Ratio
Characterized by Cp vs Tip Speed Ratio Curve
0.4
Cp
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
0
6
8
Tip Speed Ratio
10
12
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Betz Limit
PWind Rotor
CP A v3
2
Cp is called the power coefficient.

Cp is the percentage of power in the wind that is converted
into mechanical energy.
What is the maximum amount of energy that can be
extracted from the wind?
Betz Limit:
C p ,max
16
.5926
27
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Betz Limit
All wind power cannot be captured by rotor or air would be

completely still behind rotor and not allow more wind to pass
through.
Theoretical limit of rotor efficiency is 59%
Most modern wind turbines are in the 35 45% range
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Betz Limit
Power from a Wind Turbine Rotor = CpAV3
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Tip-Speed Ratio
Tip-speed ratio is the ratio of
the speed of the rotating
blade tip to the speed of the
free stream wind.
R
R
R
v
Where,
= rotational speed in radians /sec
R = Rotor Radius
v = Free Stream Velocity
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Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR)

Efficiency is a function of how fast the rotor turns
Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR) is the speed of the outer tip of the
blade divided by wind speed
2n
R
n D
R 60
TSR
60v
v
v
D = rotor diameter (m)

v = upwind undisturbed wind speed (m/s)
rpm = rotor speed, (revolutions/min)
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Performance co-efficient and Betz

criterion
The proportion of the power in
the wind that the rotor can
extract
is
termed
the
coefficient of performance (or
power coefficient or efficiency;
symbol Cp) and its variation as
a function of tip speed ratio is
commonly used to characterize
different types of rotor.
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A plot of typical efficiency for various rotor types versus

TSR is given in Fig. The American multi-blade spins
relatively slowly, with an optimal TSR of less than 1 and
maximum efficiency just over 30%. The two- and threeblade rotors spin much faster, with optimum TSR in the 4
6 range and maximum efficiencies of roughly 4050%.
Also shown is a line corresponding to an ideal efficiency,
which approaches the Betz limit as the rotor speed
increases. The curvature in the maximum efficiency line
reflects the fact that a slowly turning rotor does not
intercept all of the wind, which reduces the maximum
possible efficiency to something below the Betz limit.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR)
Rotors with fewer blades reach their maximum efficiency

at higher tip-speed ratios
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Example
40-m wind turbine, three-blades, 600 kW, windspeed is 14
m/s, air density is 1.225 kg/m3
a. Find the rpm of the rotor if it operates at a TSR of 4.0
b. Find the tip speed of the rotor
c. What gear ratio is needed to match the rotor speed to
the generator speed if the generator must turn at 1800
rpm?
d. What is the efficiency of the wind turbine under these
conditions?
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Example
a. Find the rpm of the rotor if it operates at a TSR of 4.0,
Tip-Speed-Ratio (TSR) 60v
D
4.0 60sec/min 14m/s
rpm
= 26.7 rev/min
40m/rev
We can also express this as seconds per revolution:
rpm
rpm
26.7 rev/min
= 0.445 rev/sec or 2.24 sec/rev
60 sec/min
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Example
b. Tip speed
Rotor tip speed=
rpm D
60 sec/min
Rotor tip speed = (rev/sec) D

Rotor tip speed = 0.445 rev/sec 40 m/rev = 55.92 m/s
c. Gear Ratio
Gear Ratio =
Generator rpm 1800

=
= 67.4
Rotor rpm
26.7
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Example
d. Efficiency of the complete wind turbine (blades, gear
box, generator) under these conditions
From (6.4):
1
1
Av 3 = 1.225 402 143 2112 kW

2
2
4
Overall efficiency:
600 kW
28.4%
2112 kW
PW
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Estimates of Wind Turbine Energy

Depends on rotor, gearbox, generator, tower, controls,
terrain, and the wind
PW
Power in
the Wind
CP
Rotor
PB
Power
Extracted
by Blades
g
Gearbox &
Generator
PE
Power to
Electricity
Overall conversion efficiency (Cpg) is around 30%

ADEL ELGAMMAL
Kinetic
Energy
Mechanical
Energy
Electrical
Energy
Component
Rotor
Gearbox
Generator
Converter
Efficiency
45-52%
95-97%
97-98%
96-99%
Overall: 42 50% Efficient Today Theoretical Maximum is 59.3%

(no losses)
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30
Turbine Power
Curve
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Turbine Power Curve

10 000
Wind Power
9 000
8 000
Power [kW]
7 000
Turbine Power
6 000
5 000
4 000
Cut-in
Wind
speed
3 000
2 000
Rated Wind
speed
1 000
Cut-out or
Furling Wind
speed
0
0
10
15
20
25
Wind Speed [m/s]
31
Turbine Power Curve

No operation until wind velocity reaches a
minimum called the cut-in velocity
Then operate at full turbine output power until
turbine output is greater than generator can
accept
Limit turbine output power to full generator
power at high wind speeds
No operation above maximum velocity called
cut-out velocity
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Turbine Power Curve

Cut in wind speed, rated wind speed, cut-out wind speed
Idealized power curve. No power is generated at wind speeds below
VC; at Wind speeds between VR and VF , the output is equal to the
rated power of the generator; above VF the turbine is shut down.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Figure
6.32
32
The figure shows a sketch a how the power

output from a wind turbine varies with steady
wind speed.
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Cut-in Wind speed

At very low wind speeds, there is insufficient torque exerted by the wind on
the turbine blades to make them rotate.
The speed at which the turbine first starts to rotate and generate power is
called the cut-in speed and is typically between 3 and 4 meters per second.
The cut-in wind speed VC is the minimum needed to generate net power.
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Idealized Power Curve

Cut-in Wind speed. Low-speed winds may not
have enough power to overcome friction in the

drive train of the turbine and, even if it do rotating,
the electrical power generated may not be enough to
offset the power required by the generator field
windings.
The cut-in wind speed VC is the minimum needed to
generate net power. Since no power is generated at
wind speeds below VC, that portion of the winds
energy is wasted. Fortunately, there isnt much energy
in those low-speed winds anyway, so usually not
much is lost.
ADEL ELGAMMAL

Rated Wind speed. As velocity increases above the
cut-in wind speed, the power delivered by the
generator tends to rise as the cube of wind speed.
When winds reach the rated wind speed VR, the
generator is delivering as much power as it is
designed for.
Above VR, there must be some way to shed some of
the winds power or else the generator may be
damaged. Three approaches are common on large
machines: an active pitch-control system, a passive
stall-control design, and a combination of the two.
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34
Rated Wind speed
As velocity increases above the cut-in wind speed, the power delivered by the
generator tends to rise as the cube of wind speed.
However, typically somewhere between 12 and 17 meters per second, the power
output reaches the limit that the electrical generator is capable of.
This limit to the generator output is called the rated power output and the wind
speed at which it is reached is called the rated output wind speed.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Rated Wind speed

As velocity increases above the cut-in wind speed, the power
delivered by the generator tends to rise as the cube of wind speed.
When winds reach the rated wind speed VR, the generator is
delivering as much power as it is designed for.
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35
Rated Wind speed

Above VR, there must be some way to shed some of
the winds power or else the generator may be
damaged.
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Rated Wind speed

At higher wind speeds, the design of the
turbine is arranged to limit the power to this
maximum level and there is no further rise in
the output power.
How this is done varies from design to design
but typically with large turbines, it is done by
adjusting the blade angles so as to keep the
power at the constant level.
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36
Rated Wind speed

Three common approaches to shed excess wind
Pitch control physically adjust blade pitch
to reduce angle of attack
Passive Stall control blades are designed to
automatically reduce efficiency in high winds
Active stall control physically adjust blade
pitch to create stall
ADEL ELGAMMAL

Cut-out or Furling Wind speed. At some
point the wind is so strong that there is real

danger to the wind turbine. At this wind speed
VF , called the cutout wind speed or the furling
wind speed (furling is the term used in
sailing to describe the practice of folding up
the sails when winds are too strong), the
machine must be shut down. Above VF , output
power obviously is zero.
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37
Cut-out or Furling Wind speed

At some point the wind is so strong that
there is real danger to the wind turbine.
At this wind speed VF , called the cut-out wind
speed or the furling wind speed (furling is
the term used in sailing to describe the practice
of folding up the sails when winds are too
strong), the machine must be shut down.
Above VF , output power obviously is zero.
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As the speed increases above the rate output
wind speed, the forces on the turbine structure
continue to rise and, at some point, there is a
risk of damage to the rotor.
As a result, a braking system is employed to
bring the rotor to a standstill.
This is called the cut-out speed and is usually
around 25 metres per second.
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38

Above cut-out or furling wind speed, the
wind is too strong to operate the turbine
safely, machine is shut down, output power is
zero
Rotor can be stopped by rotating the blades to
purposely create a stall
Once the rotor is stopped, a mechanical brake
locks the rotor shaft in place
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Poweroutput
10 000
Wind Power
9 000
8 000
Power [kW]
7 000
Turbine Power
6 000
5 000
4 000
3 000
2 000
1 000
0
0
10
15
20
25
Wind Speed [m/s]

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39
Howmuchenergycanweget?
ADEL ELGAMMAL
How do you site a turbine?
Wind resource
Current land use
Environmental impacts
Government regulations
Cost of wind farm
Economic payback
Community opinion
aesthetics
Noise and flicker issues
Transmission lines
Spacing of turbines
Much, much more!
Mountaineer Wind Energy Center, WV

www.communityenergy.com
ADEL ELGAMMAL
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Wind turbine
power and torque
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Wind turbine power and torque

The wind turbine cannot extract the available
power completely from the wind.
When the wind stream passes the turbine, a part
of its kinetic energy is transferred to the rotor and
the air leaving the turbine carries the rest away.
Actual power produced by a rotor would thus be
decided by the efficiency with which this energy
transfer from wind to the rotor takes place.
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41

This efficiency is usually termed as the power coefficient (Cp).
Thus, the power coefficient of the rotor can be defined as the
ratio of actual power developed by the rotor to the theoretical
power available in the wind. Hence,
where PT is the power developed by the turbine.

ADEL ELGAMMAL

The power coefficient of a turbine depends on many
factors such as the profile of the rotor blades, blade
arrangement and setting etc.
A designer would try to fix these parameters at its
optimum level so as to attain maximum Cp at a wide
range of wind velocities.
The thrust force experienced by the rotor (F) can be
expressed as
ADEL ELGAMMAL
42

Hence we can represent the rotor torque (T) as
where R is the radius of the rotor. This is the

maximum theoretical torque and in practice the
rotor shaft can develop only a fraction of this
maximum limit.
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The ratio between the actual torque developed by the
rotor and the theoretical torque is termed as the torque
coefficient (CT). Thus, the torque coefficient is given
by
where TT is the actual torque developed by the rotor.

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43

The power developed by a rotor at a certain wind speed greatly depends
on the relative velocity between the rotor tip and the wind.
For example, consider a situation in which the rotor is rotating at a very
low speed and the wind is approaching the rotor with a very high velocity.
Under this condition, as the blades are moving slow, a portion of the air
stream approaching the rotor may pass through it without interacting with
the blades and thus without energy transfer.
Similarly if the rotor is rotating fast and the wind velocity is low, the wind
stream may be deflected from the turbine and the energy may be lost due
to turbulence and vortex shedding.
In both the above cases, the interaction between the rotor and the
windstream is not efficient and thus would result in poor power
coefficient.
ADEL ELGAMMAL

The ratio between the velocity of the rotor tip and the wind
velocity is termed as the tip speed ratio (). Thus,
where is the angular velocity and N is the rotational speed

of the rotor. The power coefficient and torque coefficient of a
rotor vary with the tip speed ratio.
There is an optimum for a given rotor at which the energy
transfer is most efficient and thus the power coefficient is the
maximum (CP max).
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44

Now, let us consider the relationship between the
power coefficient and the tip speed ratio.
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Thus, the tip speed ratio is given by the ratio
between the power coefficient and torque
coefficient of the rotor.
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45
Typical torque versus speed curve at the

wind turbine rotor
Figure shows a typical torque-versus-speed curve at the rotor
of a wind turbine obtained for a given wind speed.
As the rotor speed increases, the torque produced at the rotor
increases until a point is reached, beyond which the torque
gradually decreases to zero.
Consequently, the mechanical power produced at the rotor also
increases up to a certain maximum value, and then gradually
decreases to zero, as Figure shows.
The point at which the mechanical power is maximum is
referred to as the maximum power point (MPP). The rotor
speed and torque at the MPP are commonly referred to as the
optimum speed and optimum torque, respectively.
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46

wind turbine rotor
A wind turbine must be operated as close as possible
to the optimum speed to maximize the mechanical
power developed at the rotor and thus obtain the
maximum amount of electrical power.
This is performed by setting the rotor torque to the
optimum value, through adjustment of the current
drawn by the electrical load at the wind turbine
generator output.
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wind turbine rotor
Figure shows a set of typical curves at the rotor of a wind
turbine, for different wind speeds: the torque-versus-speed
curves (Figure a) and the mechanical power-versus-speed
curves (Figure b).
On each torque-versus-speed curve in Figure a, a diamondshaped marker indicates the optimum rotor torque and speed at
which the maximum amount of mechanical power is produced
at the wind turbine rotor.
The maximum power point (MPP) is also indicated by a
diamond-shaped marker on each of the corresponding
mechanical power curves in Figure b.
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47
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wind turbine rotor
Note that the rotor speed at which the maximum
amount of mechanical power is produced at the rotor
of a wind turbine varies with the wind speed.
Therefore, to operate the wind turbine at the
maximum power point (MPP) and maximize the
energy produced at any wind speed, the rotor speed
must be continuously monitored and kept at the
optimum value, through adjustment of the rotor
torque when necessary. This is generally performed
automatically by a controller in the wind turbine.
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48

wind turbine rotor
The following conclusions can be drawn from
examination of the family of curves in Figure.
Figure a shows that higher speeds and torques
are reached when the wind speed increases.
Consequently, higher amounts of mechanical
power are produced at the rotor when the wind
speed increases, as Figure b shows.
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wind turbine rotor
When the maximum power points on the various
mechanical power curves in Figure b are connected
together, they form a curve which increases
exponentially (see dashed line in Figure b. In fact, the
mechanical power at the MPPs increases by eight
whenever the wind speed doubles.
This occurs because the power in the wind varies
with the cube (the third power) of the wind speed.
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49
Current versus voltage and electrical power versus speed

curves at the wind turbine generator output for different
wind speeds
Figure shows a set of typical curves related to the

output of a wind turbine generator, for different wind
speeds: the current-versus-voltage curves of the
generator output (figure a) and the corresponding
electrical power-versus speed curves (figure b).
The following conclusions can be drawn by
comparing the family of curves in this Figure with the
family of curves in previous Figure:
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50
Current versus voltage and electrical power versus speed

curves at the wind turbine generator output for different
wind speeds
The voltage and current at the output of the wind turbine generator
are proportional to the speed and torque at the wind turbine rotor,
respectively.
Consequently the current-versus-voltage curves of the wind turbine
generator (Figure a) are similar to the torque-versus-speed curves at
the wind turbine rotor (shown in Figure a).
Also, the electrical power-versus-speed curves of the wind turbine
generator (Figure b) are similar to the mechanical power-versusspeed curves at the wind turbine rotor (shown in Figure b).
Through proper control of the electrical load applied to the windturbine generator output, the rotor speed and torque can be adjusted
in order to keep the generator operating at the maximum power
point (MPP) at any wind speed.
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Example
Consider a wind turbine with 5 m diameter rotor.
Speed of the rotor at 10 m/s wind velocity is 130
r/min and its power coefficient at this point is
0.35.
a) Calculate the tip speed ratio and torque
coefficient of the turbine.
b) What will be the torque available at the rotor
shaft? Assume the density of air to be 1.24
kg/m3.
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51
Example
Area of the rotor is:
As the speed of the rotor is 130 r/min, its angular

velocity is
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Example
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52
Temperature
Correction for
Air Density
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Temperature Correction for Air Density

When wind power data are presented, it is often assumed
that the air density is 1.225 kg/m3; that is, it is assumed that
air temperature is 15C (59 F) and pressure is 1
atmosphere. Using the ideal gas law, we can easily
determine the air density under other conditions.
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53
where
P is the absolute pressure (atm),
V is the volume (m3),
n is the mass (mol),
R is the ideal gas constant = 8.2056 105 m3 atm K1
mol1, and
T is the absolute temperature (K),where K = C + 273.15.
One atmosphere of pressure equals 101.325 kPa (Pa is the
abbreviation for pascals, where 1 Pa = 1 newton/m2). One
atmosphere is also equal to 14.7 pounds per square inch
(psi), so 1 psi = 6.89 kPa. Finally, 100 kPa is called a bar
and 100 Pa is a millibar, which is the unit of pressure often
used in meteorology work.
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1
PWind Rotor C P A v 3
2
= P/(RxT)
P - pressure (Pa)
R - specific gas constant (287 J/kgK)
T - air temperature (K)
The following observations can be made from the above equation:

Any change in the temperature of the air, atmospheric pressure, or
relative humidity causes the air density to change, causing the
wind power to change in the exact same way (for given wind speed
and cross-sectional area).
Humid climates have greater air density than dry climates
Lower elevations have greater air density than higher elevations
For instance, when the air density increases by 5%, the wind
power PW also increases by 5%.
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54
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The density of air
decreases
with
the
increase
in
site
temperature as illustrated
in Fig.
The air density may be
taken as 1.225 for most of
the practical cases.
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55
If we let M.W. stand for the molecular weight of the gas

(g/mol), we can write the following expression for air
density, :
(6)
Combining (5) and (6) gives us the following expression:
(7)
Air density is greater at lower temperatures

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56
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Altitude
Correction for
Air Density
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57
Effect of elevation on air density

The density of air
decreases with the
increase
in
site
elevation as illustrated
in Fig.
The air density may
be taken as 1.225 for
most of the practical
cases.
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Effect of elevation on air density

Wind energy increases with height to
the 1/7 power
2X the height translates into 10.4%
more electricity
ADEL ELGAMMAL
58
RECENT CAPACITY
ENHANCEMENTS
2006
5 MW
600
2000
850 kW
265
2003
1.8 MW
350
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Velocity with Height
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59
WindSpeed
&Height
Highermeans
stronger,
smootherwind
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Altitude Correction for Air Density

Air density, and hence power in the wind, depends on
atmospheric pressure as well as temperature. Since air
pressure is a function of altitude, it is useful to have a
correction factor to help estimate wind power at sites above
sea level.
Consider a static column of air with cross section A, as
shown in Fig. A horizontal slice of air in that column of
thickness dz and density will have mass A dz. If the
pressure at the top of the slice due to the weight of the air
above it is P(z + dz), then the pressure at the bottom of the
slice, P(z), will be P(z + dz) plus the added weight per unit
area of the slice itself: ADEL ELGAMMAL
60
A column of air in static equilibrium used to determine the

relationship between air pressure and altitude.
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where g is the gravitational constant, 9.806 m/s2. Thus we

can write the incremental pressure dP for an incremental
change in elevation, dz as
That is,
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61
The air density given in (10) is itself a function of pressure

as described in (7), so we can now write
To further complicate things, temperature throughout the

air column is itself changing with altitude, typically at the
rate of about 6.5C drop per kilometer of increasing
elevation. If, however, we make the simplifying
assumption that T is a constant throughout the air column,
we can easily solve (11) while introducing only a slight
error. Plugging in the constants and conversion factors,
while assuming 15C, gives
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which has solution,
where P0 is the reference pressure of 1 atm and H is in

meters.
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62
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A simple way to combine the temperature and pressure

corrections for density is as follows:
the correction factors KT for temperature and KA for

altitude are tabulated in Tables 6.1 and 6.2.
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63
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64
Impact of Elevation
and Earths Roughness
on Wind speed
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How to calculate wind speed increase with

height
Conservative Approximation:
V2 = (H2/H1)V1
is the Roughness exponent
Smooth terrain value (water or ice): 0.10
Rough terrain value (suburb woodlands): 0.25
Grasslands: 0.14
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65
Example
Considerdoublingtheheightofyourtower
from10mto20m.
V2 =(H2/H1)V1=(20/10).14 V1 =1.1V1
Thepoweravailableincreasesto:
P2 =(H2/H1)P1=(2)P1=1.34 P1
Ifyoumultiplyheightbyafactorof5:
P2 =(H2/H1)P1=(5)P1=1.97 P1
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Example
Youliveinaforestedarea.Calculatehow
muchmorepoweryoucangetfromaturbine
at87metersthanaturbineat30meters.
V2 =(H2/H1)V1=(87/30).25 V1 =1.3V1
Thepoweravailableincreasesto:
P2 =(H2/H1)P1=(2.9)P1=2.22 P1
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66
Impact of Elevation and Earths

Roughness on Wind speed
Since power increases like the cube of wind speed, we
can expect a significant economic impact from even a
moderate increase in wind speed
There is a lot of friction in the first few hundred meters
above ground smooth surfaces (like water) are better
Wind speeds are greater at higher elevations tall towers
are better
Forests and buildings slow the wind down a lot
Can characterize the impact of rough surfaces and height
on wind speed
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One expression that is often used to characterize the impact

of the roughness of the earths surface on wind speed is the
following:
=frictioncoefficient giveninTable6.3
v =windspeedatheightH
v0 =windspeedatheightH0 (H0isusually10m)
Typicalvalueof inopenterrainis1/7
Foralargecity, =0.4;forcalmwater, =0.1
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67
There is another approach that is common in Europe. The

alternative formulation is
where z is called the roughness length

Note that both equations are just approximations of the
variation in wind speed due to elevation and roughness
the best thing is to have actual measurements
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68
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Figure a shows the impact of friction coefficient on wind

speed assuming a reference height of 10 m, which is a
commonly used standard elevation for an anemometer. As
can be seen from the figure, for a smooth surface ( = 0.1),
the wind at 100 m is only about 25% higher than at 10 m,
while for a site in a small town ( = 0.3), the wind at 100
m is estimated to be twice that at 10 m. The impact of
height on power is even more impressive as shown in
Fig. b.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
69
Since power in the wind varies as the cube of wind speed,

we can rewrite (15) to indicate the relative power of the
wind at height H versus the power at the reference height
of H0:
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In Figure b, the ratio of wind power at other

elevations to that at 10 m shows the dramatic
impact of the cubic relationship between wind
speed and power. Even for a smooth ground
surfacefor instance, for an offshore sitethe
power doubles when the height increases from 10 m
to 100 m. For a rougher surface, with friction
coefficient = 0.3, the power doubles when the
height is raised to just 22 m, and it is quadrupled
when the height is raised to 47 m.
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70
Increasing (a) windspeed and (b) power ratios with height for various
friction coefficients using a reference height of 10 m. For = 0.2
(hedges and crops) at 50 m, windspeed increases by a factor of almost
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1.4 and wind power
about 2.6.
THEincreases
UNIVERSITYby
OF TRINIDAD
AND TOBAGO UTT
ADEL ELGAMMAL
71
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Example 6.6 illustrates an important point about the variation in wind speed
and power across the face of a spinning rotor. For large machines, when a
blade is at its high point, it can be exposed to much higher wind forces than
when it is at the bottom of its arc. This variation in stress as the blade moves
through a complete revolution is compounded by the impact of the tower
itself on wind speedespecially for downwind machines, which have a
significant amount of wind shadowing as the blades pass behind the tower.
The resulting flexing of a blade can increase the noise generated by the wind
turbine and may contribute to blade fatigue, which can ultimately cause blade
failure.
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72
Impact of Blade
Swept Area
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Wind Energy Natural Characteristics

Blade swept area
Wind energy increases proportionally with
swept area of the blades
Blades are shaped like airplane wings
10% increase in swept diameter translates
into 21% greater swept area
Longest blades up to 413 feet in diameter
Resulting in 600 foot total height
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73
Swept Area
Powerinthewindisalsoproportionaltotheswept
area
A=R2
Increasetheradiusfrom10mto12m:
A2 =(R2/R1)2 A1
A2 =(12/10)2 A1 =1.44A1
Nothingtellsyoumoreaboutawind
turbinespotentialthantherotorradius.
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Importance of Rotor Diameter

Sweptareis
proportionaltosquare
oftherotordiameter
20%increaseinrotor
diameterincreasesarea
by44%
Doublingdiameter
increasesarea4times
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74
Rotor diameter
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Blade Plan form - Solidity

Bladeplanform istheshapeofthe
flatwisebladesurface
R
a
Solidity istheratiooftotalrotorplan
formareatototalsweptarea
Lowsolidity(0.10)=highspeed,low
torque
A
Solidity = 3a/A
Highsolidity(>0.80)=lowspeed,
hightorque
ADEL ELGAMMAL
75
Solidity and Tip speed ratio
ADEL ELGAMMAL
Questions?
ADEL ELGAMMAL
76

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Renewable and

Available Power in the Wind

Available Power in the Wind

Available Power in the Wind

The Air Density, symbolized by the Greek letter (rho), is an

Kinetic energy in the wind

POWER IN THE WIND

Kinetic energy in the wind

Kinetic energy in the wind

Kinetic energy in the wind

Kinetic energy in the wind

POWER IN THE WIND

POWER IN THE WIND

Calculating wind power

POWER IN THE WIND

Pavail (Watts) = power in the wind

Calculating wind power

Calculating wind power

Importance of Wind Speed

Importance of Wind Speed

Power in the wind is proportional

Power in the wind, per square meter of cross

Power in the Wind = Av3

In Fig., the upwind velocity of the undisturbed wind is v, the

Approaching wind slows and

The power extracted by the blades Pb is equal to the difference in

= mass flow rate of air within stream tube

Determining Mass Flow Rate

If we now make the assumption that the velocity of the

Determining Mass Flow Rate

Power Extracted by the Blades

To help keep the algebra simple, let us define the ratio of

Power Extracted by the Blades

Maximum Rotor Efficiency

maximizes rotor efficiency

THE UNIVERSITY OF TRINIDAD AND TOBAGO UTT

Maximum Rotor Efficiency

The maximum efficiency of 59.3% occurs when

Maximum Rotor Efficiency

The blade efficiency

Power Coefficient vs Tip Speed Ratio

Cp is called the power coefficient.

All wind power cannot be captured by rotor or air would be

Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR)

D = rotor diameter (m)

Performance co-efficient and Betz

A plot of typical efficiency for various rotor types versus

Tip-Speed Ratio (TSR)

Rotors with fewer blades reach their maximum efficiency

Rotor tip speed=

Rotor tip speed = (rev/sec) D

Generator rpm 1800

Av 3 = 1.225 402 143 2112 kW

Estimates of Wind Turbine Energy

Overall conversion efficiency (Cpg) is around 30%

Overall: 42 50% Efficient Today Theoretical Maximum is 59.3%

Turbine Power Curve

Wind Speed [m/s]

Turbine Power Curve

Turbine Power Curve

The figure shows a sketch a how the power

Cut-in Wind speed

Idealized Power Curve