ISIJ International, Vol. 52 (2012), No. 10, pp.

1713–1723

Review

Recent Progress on Long Service Life Design of Chinese Blast

Furnace Hearth

Zheng-jian LIU,1,2)* Jian-liang ZHANG,1,2) Hai-bin ZUO1,2) and Tian-jun YANG1,2)

1) School of Metallurgical and Ecological Engineering, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083 China. E-
mail: jl.zhang@ustb.edu.cn, zuohaibin@ustb.edu.cn, yangtj@ustb.edu.cn
2) State Key Laboratory of Advanced Metallurgy, University of Science and Technology Beijing, Beijing, 100083 China.
(Received on April 26, 2012; accepted on May 21, 2012)

In recent years, Chinese steel companies suffered a spate of blast furnace hearth incidents, such as
hearth sidewall breakout or temperature abnormal increase, causing Chinese blast furnace ironmakers to pay
a great deal attention on long hearth service life technology. In this paper, the progress of Chinese blast fur-
nace long hearth service life design concept was analyzed deeply from design of hearth structure, selection
of hearth refractory, arrangement of hearth cooling system and establishment of online hearth monitoring
system, and the future design proposal for long hearth service life of Chinese blast furnace was put forward.

KEY WORDS: metallurgy; blast furnace ironmaking; long hearth service life; hearth breakout; temperature
increase.

cooling system, the state of bottom hot face was thoroughly

1. Introduction
In 2010, Chinese crude steel production reached 626.654
million tons, accounting for 44.90% of the whole world; pig
iron production reached 590.218 million tons, accounting
for 57.24% of the whole world. Currently, there are more
than 260 blast furnaces bigger than 1 000 m3 in China, and
24 blast furnaces were newly built in 2010. Since the 21st
century, Chinese blast furnace ironmaking technology has
made great progress. Technical and economic indexes of
blast furnaces in Chinese focusing steelworks from 2000 to
2010 were shown in Table 1.1–4)
From Fig. 1 it can be seen that Chinese blast furnace iron-
making has some features with high smelting intensity, high
reducing agent, and high coal injection rate. Although the
coal injection rate was high, but due to the low replacement
ratio, the reducing agent remained high.
With the updating design concept, widely application of
new equipment and development of operation level and long
campaign life technology, the weak zone in blast furnace has
been changing. Before the 1980 s, blast furnace shutdowns
were often happened due to deterioration of shaft. To pro-
long campaign life, blast furnaces were forced to medium
repair with replacement of lining and cooling equipment
above hearth. After development of some advanced technol-
ogies, including replacement of cooling equipment, hard
materials jacking into middle and lower part of shaft, gun-
ning on upper part of shaft, and so on, the situation of shaft
equipment was improved significantly, and then the problem
of hearth service life was coming out.5)
In the period that hearth sidewall and bottom using high
aluminum refractory, due to low thermal conductivity, bot-
tom lining had to be facing high temperature liquid iron and
difficult to last for a long time. Bottom hot face often eroded
severely, even breakout. After application of carbon bottom
with high thermal conductivity plus pure water closed loop
* Corresponding author: E-mail: liuzhengjian@126.com.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.2355/isijinternational.52.1713
changed, and then hearth sidewall was becoming the focus
of attention. In recent years, there were several incidents of
hearth sidewall breakout occurred repeatedly.
Besides China, in recent years, other countries also suf-
fered frequent safety accidents of blast furnace hearth.
Hearth is an important part of blast furnace body. As a high
temperature and high pressure reactor, hearth bears direct
reduction reaction, high temperature melting, frequent cast
and other tasks. At the same time, hearth suffers most severe
high temperature reaction, abrasion, erosion and other
damage. However, hearth lining can not be replaced under
medium repair, so hearth safe has become a key link limit-
ing a whole campaign life of blast furnace.6) Long hearth
service life design is a systematic engineering, which is
close related to hearth structure design, refractory selection,
cooling system arrangement and monitoring system estab-
lishment, Table 2 shows the long campaign performances of
Chinse several large blast furnace.
2. Design of Hearth Structure
2.1. Hearth Lining Structure
2.1.1. Typical Hearth Lining Structure
At present, there are mainly five types of hearth designs
for large blast furnaces (>3 000 m3) in China.
(1) Large carbon block
Features of large carbon block hearth design are shown in
Fig. 1. The hearth bottom construction begins with one
course of AG-C graphite brick (the properties of refractories
mentioned in this paper were shown in Tables 4 and 5) on
the bottom. Two or three courses of regular large carbon
block BC-5 are built-up on top of that. One course of large
blocks of micropore carbon BC-7S continues on top of those
BC-5 blocks. The top is one or two courses of ceramic pad
(the Chinese made corundum mullite brick) above the top of
the micropore carbon. The total thickness of all bottom
refractory layers is about 3.2 meters.The hearth side has four

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Table 1. Technical and economic indexes of blast furnaces in Chinese focusing steelworks from 2001 to 2010.

Total pig iron Productivity, Reducing Coke rate, Coal injection Blast Fe in Ironmaking process energy
Year Delay, %
production, Mt t/(m3·d) agent, kg/t kg/t rate, kg/t temperature, °C burden, % consumption, kgce/t
2001 148.93 2.337 547 423 124 1 081 57.28 2.360 448.32
2002 170.74 2.448 540 415 125 1 066 58.18 1.610 454.13
2003 213.67 2.474 551 433 118 1 082 58.49 1.860 464.68
2004 251.85 2.516 543 427 116 1 074 58.21 1.850 466.20
2005 330.40 2.624 536 412 124 1 084 58.03 1.842 456.79
2006 404.17 2.675 531 396 135 1 100 57.78 1.661 430.59
2007 471.41 2.677 529 392 137 1 125 57.71 1.524 426.84
2008 470.67 2.607 532 396 136 1 133 57.32 2.106 427.72
2009 573.75 2.615 519 374 145 1 158 57.62 1.661 410.65
2010 590.22 2.593 518 369 149 1 156 57.49 1.628 407.58
Note: a. Since 2001, the classification of Chinese steelworks has changed to as focusing steelworks and the rest steelworks, all the integrated steelworks including
state and provincial steelworks are taken as focusing steelworks, and the rest steelworks include mini-mills in countryside and private furnaces. Because believ-
able data for the rest steelworks are not available so far, the evolution of ironmaking was reviewed using blast furnaces in focusing steelworks as reference.
b. The definition of effective volume is that the volume from zero stock line to the centerline of the taphole, and the definition of zero stock line is that the bot-
tom of the rotating chute when natural drooping.
c. The calculation of blast furnace ironmaking process energy consumption includes raw materials preparation, blast furnace body, slag/iron treatment, blast,
hot blast stove, pulverized coal injection, mud milling, precipitator, environmental protection, iron casting machine, and etc., the recycling energies of blast fur-
nace gas and residual pressure are deducted.

Table 2. Long campaign performances of some large Chinese blast furnaces.

Effective Total production, Production per unit

Blast furnace Service time Campaign life Note
volume, m3 million tons effective volume, t/m3
Statistics to the end
Baosteel No.3 4 350 1994.9.20~now 17 years and 3 months 62.16 14 289
of 2011
One generation,
Shougang No.3 2 536 1993.6.2~2010.12.18 17 years and 7 months 35.38 13 953
shutdown for relocation
One generation,
Shougang No.1 2 536 1994.8.9~2010.12.19 16 years and 5 months 33.70 13 288
shutdown for relocation
Wisco No.5 3 200 1991.10.19~2007.5.30 15 years and 8 months 35.51 11 097 One generation
Baosteel No.2 4 063 1991.6.29~2006.9.1 15 years and 2 months 47.18 11 612 One generation

courses of super-micropore large carbon block BC-12SR in
the high risk erosion zone (elephant foot area). Six courses
of super-micropore large carbon block BC-8SR are on top
of that. However, in the taphole area, instead of BC-8SR,
BC-12SR is used. Six courses of regular large carbon block
BC-5 are at the top of BC-8SR or BC-12SR.
Using the configuration with large carbon block, it is pos-
sible to reduce brick masonry, and shorten the construction
period. However, large carbon blocks might have a tendency
to form circumferential cracks due to thermal stress, associ-
ated with the large size, and inferior defects, and etc. The
design was implemented for the first campaign of Baosteel
Blast Furnace No.1 (4 063 m3).
(2) Large carbon block + Ceramic cup
Features of large carbon block + ceramic cup hearth
design are shown in Fig. 2. In this configuration, ceramic
cup is added to the large carbon block configuration. The
two courses of ceramic pad are usually MS4R. The ceramic
cup is Sialon-bonded corundum brick CORANIT.
Ceramic cup is capable of resisting abrasion by the liquid
iron and slag, and consequently slows down the erosion pro-
cess. It is also expected that because of its good thermal
insulation property, ceramic cup may reduce heat loss of the
hearth, thus, reduce energy consumption, lower silicon in
hot metal, and lead to a more stable operation. However, the
experience of some Chinese blast furnaces is not so perfect.
Eventually, the ceramic cup will disappear due to erosion,
and the benefits will disappear as well. The general consen-
sus is that under normal operating conditions, the service
life of the ceramic cup may be for 3 to 5 years.
Since the ceramic cup has a shorter service life, to ensure
a long hearth service life, the hearth carbon bricks must have
excellent properties, such as super-micropore carbon brick
or micropore carbon brick. It should also be recognized that
the hearth configuration with a ceramic cup has its draw-
backs, such as more masonry work, longer construction
time, and a higher capital cost.
(3) Small hot-pressed carbon brick
Features of small hot-pressed carbon brick hearth design
are shown in Fig. 3. A design of this type has one course of
graphite brick AG-C on the bottom, and continues with two
courses of regular large carbon block BC-5 on top of that,
and then two courses of micropore large carbon block BC-
7S. The top of the hearth bottom is ceramic pad, which is
the Chinese made corundum mullite brick. The total thick-
ness of the bottom is approximately 3.2 meters. A ring of
small hot-pressed carbon bricks NMA are laid between the
bottom and stave. Small hot-pressed carbon (graphite)
bricks NMD are used in the high risk erosion zone (elephant
foot area and the taphole area). The rest of the hearth side
is small hot-pressed carbon bricks NMA.
It is expected that because of its high thermal conductiv-
ity, small hot-pressed carbon brick may be beneficial for the
formation of a stable skull on the hearth bottom and sidewall
to protect the refractory from erosion. There is no need for
a layer of ramming material between the carbon bricks and
cooling members. A ram layer should be avoided as much
as possible, because the space filled with ramming materials
always has the potential of forming a gap, leading to higher
thermal resistance. The joints between small hot-pressed
carbon bricks, when applied with special formula mortar, can
effectively absorb the thermal expansion of the bricks. Thus,
the thermal stress in each brick is reduced significantly. This
effectively decreases the risk of circumferential cracks in the

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 ISIJ International, Vol. 52 (2012), No. 10

hearth carbon bricks. However, it should be pointed out that

masonry work with small blocks may cause more trouble.

(4) Small hot-pressed carbon brick + Ceramic cup

Fig. 1. Configuration of blast furnace hearth using large carbon block.
Features of small hot-pressed carbon brick + ceramic cup
hearth design are shown in Fig. 4. The lowest layer of the
bottom is domestically produced graphite bricks; two cours-
es of domestically produced micropore carbon blocks are on
the top of the graphite; and two courses of semi-graphite
carbon brick on the micropore carbon. The total thickness
of the bottom is approximately 2 000 mm. After the bottom
bricks are laid, a ring of small hot-pressed carbon blocks
NMA are laid at its circumference. Small hot-pressed car-
bon bricks NMD are in tight contact with the hot face of the
staves in the taphole area, as well as the elephant-foot area.
Small hot-pressed carbon blocks NMA are used in other
areas of the mid and lower hearth. In the taphole area, hot-
pressed carbon blocks are laid in a jagged configuration
with larger thickness. Semi-graphite – silicon carbide blocks
are used in the upper hearth. Integral ceramic cup is built at
the hot face of the carbon block. For the bottom, it is a ring
of 800 mm thick RL70MLC ceramic pad with a jagged con-
figuration in both directions; for the side, it is 300 mm thick
RL89MNC ceramic cup with an inlaid configuration. To sta-
bilize the bosh lining and build up skull, as well as protect
the hearth inner lining, large RL89MNC blocks are used as
the tuyere surround.
In this configuration, ceramic cup is added to the small
hot-pressed carbon brick configuration, the high thermal
conductivity of the small hot-pressed carbon brick is com-
bined with the good insulation property of the ceramic cup.
The ceramic cup provides good protection for the hearth in
the early period of the hearth service life; after the ceramic
cup is gone in the middle and later period of the hearth ser-
vice life, the main protection shifts to the skull of slag and
iron layer solidified on the inner walls of the hearth, so that
the normal blast furnace operation can continue, and a long
campaign life becomes possible. This type of configuration
requires a good match between the cooling intensity and the
thermal conductivity of the lining. At the start-up of the
blast furnace and in the early period of the campaign, only
moderate cooling intensity is required because of the good

Fig. 2. Configuration of blast furnace hearth using large carbon

block + ceramic cup.

Fig. 3. Configuration of blast furnace hearth using small hot- Fig. 4. Configuration of blast furnace hearth using small hot-
pressed carbon blocks. pressed carbon blocks + ceramic cup.

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 ISIJ International, Vol. 52 (2012), No. 10
insulation and erosion resistance of the ceramic cup; once
the protection by the ceramic cup decreased or disappeared,
the cooling intensity must be increased immediately to
match the high thermal conductivity of the carbon brick.
Otherwise, the carbon bricks will be eroded quickly leading
to a breakout. Currently, because of the lack of effective
monitoring methods, it is difficult to pinpoint the time when
higher cooling intensity becomes necessary. This is the main
cause of the hearth incidents that occurred repeatedly in
recent years. Among those incidents, the one on the New
No.3 blast furnace of Angang is a typical case.
(5) Small hot-pressed carbon brick + Wet spaying lining
Features of small hot-pressed carbon brick + wet spaying
lining hearth design are shown in Fig. 5. The hearth bottom
construction begins with leveling course of MAGNECO
castable refractory on top of water cooling pipe. One course
of graphite brick NDK with high thermal conductivity are
built-up on top of that, and continues with two courses of
micropore carbon brick NDK on top of that, then one course
of super-micropore carbon brick NDK. The top is two
courses of ceramic pad NDK above the top of the super-
micropore carbon. After the bottom bricks are laid, small
hot-pressed carbon bricks NMA are laid at the medial wall
of hearth, and small hot-pressed carbon bricks NMD are laid
at lateral wall of hearth and taphole area. Above ceramic pad
and inside hearth sidewall with carbon brick, refractory
castable which is more capable of resisting abrasion is used
instead of common clay brick or ceramic cup. Bottom pro-
tective layer and hearth lining is cast integrally, while the
mud mass is one time cast in taphole area. Shougang Jingtang
steel No.1 and No.2 blast furnaces (5 500 m3) have used this
hearth configuration.7)
The above five typical hearth lining structures can be
Fig. 5. Configuration of blast furnace hearth using small hot-
pressed carbon blocks + wet spaying lining.
Table 3. Survey results of hearth erosion depths of some large Chinese blast furnaces at the end of their campaign.
Effective
Blast furnace Campaign life
volume, m3
Wisco No.4 (the 3rd generation) 2 516 9 years
Wisco No.5 (the 1st generation) 3 200 15 years and 8 months
Baosteel No.2 (the 1st generation) 4 063 15 years and 2 months
Baosteel No.1 (the 2nd generation) 4 063 11 years and 3 months
Angang No.11 (the 3rd generation) 2 580 6 years
© 2012 ISIJ
attributed to two main categories: full carbon brick structure
and carbon brick + ceramic cup/refractory castable compos-
ite lining structure (hereinafter be called composite lining
structure for short). Both two types of hearth structure
design are based on carbon brick with good thermal conduc-
tivity plus protective layer. The difference is that for the full
carbon brick structure, stable solidified layer was formed by
good carbon brick heat transfer system to resist further ero-
sion, but for the composite lining structure, ceramic cup/
refractory castable is set to the carbon brick hot face as a
man-made protective layer, the original intention of design
is that ceramic cup/refractory castable are more stable than
iron/slag solidified layer, so it is more desirable for carbon
protection. However, the expansion coefficient of ceramic
cup and carbon brick vary widely, so it must set expansion
joints, and the treatment of expansion joints became the key
to success for composite lining structure. If handled improp-
erly, the expansion joints will become a penetrating channel
of liquid iron, accommodating space of alkali and other
chemical erosion substances, and gas channel, causing car-
bon brick direct exposure to various complex environments
and erosion. If the expansion joints were too small, the
expansion force maybe formed soon after blow-in, resulting
in quickly damage of ceramic cup masonry or extruded
destruction of carbon brick, seriously affecting the hearth
service life.
2.1.2. Hearth Lining Thickness
In recent years, Chinese blast furnace designers have been
controversy around the design issues of hearth lining thick-
ness. Xiaoliu Wang believe that the hearth sidewall should
be appropriately thicker, which can prolong hearth service
life.8) Especially the wall at taphole area should be properly
thickened, which can effectively ensure the taphole length
and resist abrasion of liquid iron to the wall around taphole.
But Musen Song believe that thicker wall is not conducive
to hearth service life, because the thicker wall will make lin-
ing at a high temperature and 1 150°C isothermal line inside
carbon brick, resulting in carbon brick hot face can not form
a stable solidified layer and internal chemical erosion inten-
sified.9) Chinese current design of blast furnace hearth is
overall thicker, but is showing a gradual thinning trend.
On the whole, the structure of hearth lining is designed to
form a good lining heat transfer system, and form a stable
solidified layer on the carbon brick hot face as soon as pos-
sible, protecting lining from erosion.
2.2. Sump Depth
A shallow sump depth will promote circumferential liq-
uid iron flow, and hence accelerate the hearth sidewall ero-
sion or temperature increase. Increasing the depth of the
sump helps to prolong the service life of the hearth bottom
and sidewall. No.3 blast furnace of Baosteel has a sump
depth of 2.985 m, or 21.3% of the hearth diameter. In the
New No.1 blast furnace of Angang, the sump depth is 22.6%
of the hearth diameter. Good results were obtained on both
furnaces after blow-in.10) Survey results of hearth erosion
depths of Chinese several large blast furnaces at the end of
their campaign recently are shown in Table 3.11)
Production per unit Maximum hearth Hearth Ratio of erosion depth
effective volume, t/m3 erosion depth, m diameter, m to hearth diameter, %
7 013 3.2 11.20 28.6
11 097 3.7 12.20 30.3
11 612 4.1 13.40 30.6
9 091 3.8 13.40 28.4
3 961 3.2 11.05 29.0
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Currently, the ratio of sump depth to hearth diameter has
increased to 0.22–0.25 on blast furnaces in China. There is
an indication that this trend will continue.
2.3. Numbers of Tapholes and Arrangement
The taphole arrangement and cast practice play an impor-
tant role in the gas flow near the circumferential areas of the
furnace. In a blast furnace design, although the cast house
layout might be restricted by many variables, it is still nec-
essary to arrange the tapholes evenly distributed around the
circumference. During operation, each taphole should have
the same cast frequency.
In new blast furnaces, the number of tapholes is deter-
mined by the furnace volume, and the daily iron casting
capacity of each taphole. Shougang Jingtang Steel No.1
blast furnace (5 500 m3) has 4 tapholes. There are two rect-
angular cast houses and each has two tapholes 77° apart.
2.4. Taphole Area
The Chinese blast furnace ironmakers consider taphole
area as critical region. To prolong the service life of the tap-
hole and hence the service life of the hearth, the taphole
angle is between 8° to 15°, a taphole diameter is between
40 mm to 60 mm and the cast rate is controlled between 5
to 8 t/min.12)
3. Selection of Hearth Refractory
3.1. Carbon Brick
Carbon brick used in hearth sidewall and bottom includ-
ing semi-graphite carbon brick, micropore carbon brick,
super-micropore carbon brick, graphite carbon brick, small
hot-pressed carbon brick, self-baked carbon brick, and
etc.13) Properties of carbon brick commonly used in Chinese
blast furnace hearth as shown in Table 4.
3.1.1. Requirement for Thermal Conductivity
Good carbon brick heat transfer system with enhanced
cooling, which on the one hand is beneficial for the forma-
tion of solidified layer and hence alleviate the erosion of
carbon brick, on the other hand can also effectively reduce
the temperature of carbon brick and ceramic cup, and then
help to slow various erosion. Thermal conductivity is an
important index of carbon brick. In addition to high thermal
conductivity, other properties should also be required, while
too high thermal conductivity should not be required. The
main raw material of graphite brick is graphite electrode,
which has good thermal conductivity but poor resistance to
erosion by liquid iron. Once graphite brick is exposure to
liquid iron then will soon be depleted. Graphite brick was
generally used for hearth bottom in Chinese blast furnace,
rarely used for hearth sidewall.
3.1.2. Requirement for Micro-porosity Index
With the sump depth increases and bottom erosion inten-
sifies during the hearth service life, the static pressure of
liquid iron onto hearth will increase, which requires
strengthening properties of carbon brick to resist the infil-
tration by liquid iron, namely to increase pore ratio with
diameter of less than 1 μ m. The micro-porosity index of

Table 4. Physical and chemical properties of carbon based refractory materials commonly used in Chinese blast furnaces.

Item Unit AG-C BC-5 BC-7S BC-8SR BC-12SR NMA NMD

Bulk density g/cm3 1.65 1.56 1.62 1.71 1.78 1.62 1.82
Apparent porosity % 19 17.5 17.5 17 18.5 18 16
Compressive strength (Room temperature) MPa 26 36 43 63 56 33 30
Crashing strength (Room temperature) MPa 12 12 12 14 16
20°C W/(m·°C) 17 60
Thermal conductivity
400°C W/(m·°C) 80 16 19 21 35
Alkali resistance % U LC U or LC U U
(Gas) Permeability mDa 250 150 4 0.5 0.5 11 5
Index of resistance to liquid iron erosion % 29 15.79 28.18
Average pore diameter μm 8 5 0.3 0.05 0.05
(Linear) Expansion coefficient (20–900°C) 10–6/°C 4.5 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.4 3.4 2.8
Linear change % 0.1 0.1
Note: U: Excellent
LC: Good
C: Poor

Table 5. Physical and chemical properties of ceramic cup refractory materials commonly used in Chinese blast furnaces.

Item Unit Corundum mullite MS4R CORANIT MONOCORAL

3
Density g/cm ≥2.9 ≥2.65 ≥3.20 3.35
Apparent porosity % ≤18 ≤16 ≤14
Compressive strength (Room temperature) MPa ≥100 ≥70 ≥150 60
Flexural strength (Room temperature) MPa ≥20 ≥12
Flexural strength at 1 350°C MPa ≥15 25
Soften temperature under 0.2MPa °C ≥1 680 ≥1 625
Linear change (1 500°C×3 h) % ±0.1 +0.1 0 1
Resistance to liquid iron infiltration Excellent
Resistance for CO erosion Grade A A/B
(Linear) Expansion coefficient (20–1 500°C) 10–6/°C 6.2 5.4 7.8
800°C W/(m·°C) 3.8
Thermal conductivity
1 000°C W/(m·°C) 2.25 3.2 4.0

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super-micropore carbon brick is best, followed by the
micropore carbon brick. Small hot-pressed carbon brick is
not belonging to micropore carbon brick, and it has poor
resistance to infiltration by liquid iron.14)
3.1.3. Requirement for Alkali Resistance
With the quality of burden continuing to deteriorate, the
alkali load increases gradually, so the requirement for alkali
resistance of carbon brick is increasing.
3.1.4. Requirement for Thermal Expansion
Currently, hearth sidewalls of some blast furnaces were in
the implementation of jagged masonry structure with differ-
ent types of carbon bricks, the aim was to increase the con-
tact area between carbon bricks and form compound heat
transfer channel. However, when the temperature of blast
furnace lining fluctuates, the jagged area is likely to gener-
ate cracks due to the different thermal expansion coefficient
between two different carbon bricks, which will form air
gap thermal resistance hence influence on heat transfer,
while cause penetration of liquid iron and slag and infiltra-
tion of carbon brick. Taking the lining erosion process into
account, the temperature at the jagged area will be gradually
increased with the thinning of lining, so it requires that the
thermal expansion properties of two different carbon bricks
under different temperature are similar, but very difficult in
reality, so it is recommended different types of carbon bricks
should not adopt the jagged masonry structure.
3.2. Ceramic Cup
There are two types of the ceramic cup bricks: large pre-
shaped blocks and small bricks. The large pre-shaped blocks
are hoisted into position during construction. The small bricks
are laid in the same manner as regular refractory bricks. The
physical and chemical properties of ceramic cup commonly
used in the Chinese blast furnace are listed in Table 5.
In recent years, the number of blast furnaces constructed
with a ceramic cup has increased rapidly in China as shown
Table 6.15–18) The disadvantage of large pre-shaped blocks
is that the blocks are not thoroughly burnt at the temperature

Table 6. Application of ceramic cup in some large Chinese blast furnaces (>1 000 m3).
Materials
Company Location Furnace No. Hearth Dia.(m) Volume (m3) Type Year
Pad Wall
1 Shougang Beijing 1 11.56 2 480 M C Full cup 1994
2 Nangang Nanjing 3 8.1 1 250 M C Full cup 1995
3 Meigang Meishan 3 1 250 1995
4 Nangang Nanjing 1 8.1 1 250 M C Full cup 1996
5 Baogang Baotou 1 10.5 2 250 M C Half cup 1996
6 Baosteel Shanghai 1 13.4 4 063 M C Full cup 1996
7 Meigang Meishan 1 1 250 1997
8 Jiugang Jiuquan 1 1 800 1998
9 Tanggang Tangshan 3 11.0 2 650 Full cup 1998
10 Shanggang Shanghai 1 11.1 2 500 M C Full cup 1999
11 Tisco Taiyuan 4 1 650 2000
12 Hangang Handan 10.5 2 000 2000
13 Angang Anshan 11 11.5 2 580 M C Inlaid cup 2001
14 Bengang Benxi 5 11.0 2 600 2001
15 Angang Anshan New No.1 12.4 3 200 M C Inlaid cup 2002
16 Xingang Xinyu 8 1 050 2003
17 Jigang Jinan 1 9.5 1 750 2003
18 Xuangang Xuanhua 8 1 780 2003
19 Magang Maanshan 2 11.1 2 500 M C Inlaid cup 2003
20 Angang Anshan 7 11.5 2 580 2003
21 Changgang Changzhi 8 1 080 2004
22 Shuigang Shuicheng 3 8.9 1 350 2004
23 Baogang Baotou 2 1 800 2004
24 Laigang Laiwu 1 1 880 2004
25 Wisco Wuhan 6 12.4 3 200 2004
26 Laigang Laiwu 1 000 2005
27 Jigang Jinan 2 9.5 1 750 2005
28 Jigang Jinan 3 9.5 1 750 2005
29 Xuangang Xuanhua 9 1 800 Full cup 2005
30 Tanggang Tangshan 1 10.2 2 000 Full cup 2005
31 Anyang Steel Anyang New No.1 2 200 2005
32 Shagang Zhangjiagang 3 2 500 2005
33 Shaogang Shaoguan 7 2 500 2005
34 Bengang Benxi 7 11.6 2 600 2005
35 Angang Anshan New No.2 3 200 2005
36 Angang Anshan New No.3 3 200 2005
37 Chonggang Chongqing 4 8.9 1 350 2006
38 Hanggang Hangzhou New No.1 1 250 2007
39 Xuangang Xuanhua 10 11.4 2 500 Half cup 2008
Note: M: Mullite brick
C: Large blocks of gray corundum

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 ISIJ International, Vol. 52 (2012), No. 10
as high as that experienced in the hearth. After blow-in, dur-
ing its service life, phase transformation may occur inside
the brick, causing expansion or cracks and hence to affect
its service life.
3.2.1. Requirement for Thermal Conductivity Coefficient
of the Ceramic Cup Brick
The bottom and sides of the ceramic cup can provide pro-
tection for carbon brick behind the cup from direct liquid
iron penetration, and cracking. When choosing brick mate-
rials for the sidewalls and bottom of the ceramic cup, it is
necessary to consider that the material should not only have
excellent properties to resist the infiltration, erosion, and
abrasion by liquid iron, but also should have lower thermal
conductivity so that the isothermal line of 1 150°C for iron
solidification and the isothermal line of 800°C for the initi-
ation of cracking in the carbon bricks are within the ceramic
cup bricks. A lower conductivity helps to reduce the tem-
perature difference between the hot and cold face of the car-
bon brick, consequently to reduce the stress and to alleviate
the circumferential cracks in carbon bricks.
3.2.2. Requirement for Good Resistance to Thermal Shock
of the Ceramic Cup Brick
If ceramic cup brick has poor property to resist thermal
shock, it is easy to crack, which will cause liquid iron to
pass through ceramic cup, then contact with carbon brick,
and has a threat to carbon brick.
3.2.3. Requirement for the Softening Temperature of
Ceramic Cup Brick
For the part of the ceramic cup submerged in the liquid
iron sump, the softening temperature should be greater than
1 700°C. Because the temperature of liquid iron and slag is
normally below 1 550°C, such a material will not soften or
melt, and the erosion by iron and slag will be restricted on
the surface, and that helps to prolong the service life of the
ceramic cup.
3.2.4. Requirement for Other Properties of the Ceramic
Cup Brick
Due to the complexity of the hearth sidewall erosion
mechanism, it is necessary to specify some special require-
ments for the ceramic cup materials on the basis of particular
blast furnace operating conditions. The mechanism of the
hearth bottom erosion is relatively simple, mainly dissolution
in liquid iron, abrasion by iron flow, and infiltration by liquid
iron. For ceramic pad materials, in addition to normal prop-
erties, specifications should include resistance to dissolution
in liquid iron, permeability and micropore characteristics.
3.2.5. Requirement for the Thickness of the Ceramic Cup
Additional thickness of the part of the ceramic cup sub-
merged in the iron sump helps to prolong the service life.19)
Since its softening temperature is significantly higher than
the temperature of liquid iron and slag, and it has a low
porosity, the ceramic cup will be eroded slowly and gradu-
ally from the hot surface only. Therefore, a thicker wall can
have a longer service life. The thickness of ceramic cup
sidewall is between 230 mm and 700 mm for most middle
and large blast furnaces in China. Ceramic cup materials
produced domestically include corundum bricks (applied to
the middle and upper sections of the cup), corundum mullite
bricks (applied to middle and lower sections of the cup and
bottom), Sialon bonded corundum bricks, molded corundum
bricks, and etc. Some furnaces use SAVOIE ceramic bricks
imported from France.
3.2.6. Large Cast Blocks for a Ceramic Cup
The advantage of ceramic cup in large cast blocks is that
1719
it has fewer brick joints. However, its disadvantages are sig-
nificant, including low strength and less than perfect resis-
tance to slag erosion. Furthermore, cast blocks have not been
burnt at high temperature. Their properties will change dur-
ing service life. Especially the low resistance to slag erosion
will greatly affect the results of its application. Therefore, it
is believed that ceramic bricks, with size appropriately
enlarged, press molded, and fired at high temperature, work
better than large cast blocks.20)
3.2.7. Mullite Bricks for a Ceramic Pad
Mullite bricks have excellent resistance to erosion by liq-
uid iron, but very poor resistance to alkali and erosion by
slag.21) The permeability is very low and it is not micropore
brick. As the hearth bottom usually has no problems with
erosion from alkali and slag. Thus, mullite brick is a good
choice for the hearth bottom lining. High alumina brick and
clay brick are also very good on resisting the erosion by liq-
uid iron. So far, in blast furnaces in Baosteel and Wisco,
fire-clay bricks and high alumina bricks are still in use as
the top two to three layers of the hearth bottom, with good
performance.
It must be recognized that those types of bricks are not
micropore materials. Their permeability is very high. Liquid
iron can easily penetrate the ceramic cup (bottom) and pre-
maturely erode the carbon brick. Once liquid iron penetrates
the ceramic cup bottom, it may cause brick to float and the
cup to damage prematurely. Furthermore, the infiltration of
alkali, moving downward through circumferential cracks in
the sidewall, may reach the erosion location in the hearth
bottom. Therefore, it is recommended that micropore bricks
be used as the cup bottom materials to effectively prevent
the downward infiltration of iron and to prevent the erosion
by alkali in the circumference of the hearth bottom.
3.2.8. Issues with Matching Carbon Brick with the Ceramic
Cup
The sidewall outside the ceramic cup should use super-
micropore carbon brick or micropore carbon brick. For the
hearth bottom under the ceramic pad, high quality semi-
graphite carbon bricks are normally used. Actually, microp-
ore carbon is even more favorable. By using high thermal
conductivity micropore carbon brick, the temperature on the
cold face of the cup can be effectively lowered. That will
help to slow the erosion and prolong its service life. The ser-
vice life of a ceramic cup is normally 3–5 years. After the
ceramic cup is completely eroded, protection has to be pro-
vided by the skull formed on the hot face of the micropore
carbon brick that ensures the long service life of the hearth.
3.3. Amorphous Refractory
Amorphous refractory commonly used in Chinese blast
furnace hearth includes carbon mortar, carbon ramming
material and grouting material.
3.3.1. Carbon Mortar
The advantage of small hot-pressed carbon brick is that it
can be mason close to cooling stave or shell. Carbon brick
expansion space consists of expansion joints between car-
bon bricks, high expansion force of refractory can be elim-
inated by mortar.
Carbon brick with high thermal conductivity must be
equipped with mortar, ramming material or filling agent
with high thermal conductivity, the good properties of filling
and compactness should also be ensured, otherwise the zone
will become a thermal resistance layer, or even form gap,
which will not only hinder carbon brick from heat transfer,
but also may lead to erode by infiltrating of liquid iron,
resulting in serious consequences.
To make carbon brick bond into an organic whole after
© 2012 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 52 (2012), No. 10
high temperature heating, and then avoid floating of small
carbon brick and infiltrating of liquid iron into carbon brick
joints, the bond strength of mortar should be very high.
3.3.2. Carbon Ramming Material
Large carbon block structure commonly uses high quality
micropore carbon brick or super-micropore carbon brick,
and sets ramming material layer between carbon brick and
cooling stave to absorb thermal expansion of carbon brick.
Since the construction difficulty of ramming material layer
is very large, so it is very difficult to achieve high density
and high thermal conductivity, therefore it has a big possi-
bility to form large thermal resistance and scurry of gas.
3.3.3. Grouting Material
During the blast furnace campaign, for eliminating the
temperature rise of hearth sidewall and bottom, grouting is a
very effective way. The grouting material generally common-
ly uses carbon paste, and its properties should include good
thermal conductivity, good cooling effect, the same quality as
carbon brick, and temperature of solidification is more than
400°C. By grouting the material into the gap between car-
bon brick and cooling stave, the back room of carbon brick
will be filled, joints between carbon bricks will be made up,
temperature of cooling stave hot face will be reduced, ther-
mal conductivity of hearth lining will be improved, which
are beneficial to prolong hearth service life.22)
On the whole, hearth is a concentration zone of slag/iron
and a high enriched zone of alkali metal. So the refractory
used for hearth should be paid special attention. The property
standard set up should include alkali resistance, resistance to
slag erosion, resistance to liquid iron erosion, permeability,
micro-porosity index, thermal conductivity, and etc. Only
with these excellent properties, the refractory can be ensured
the good application effect. The purpose of hearth refractory
arrangement is to form an effective and good lining heat
transfer system, so the refractory with good thermal conduc-
tivity should be used, but must give consideration to other
properties, such as resistance to liquid iron erosion.
4. Arrangement of Hearth Cooling System
Water cooling provides the best protection for refractory
materials from erosion. Stable and suitable water quality
with reasonable design of pipe network system and scientif-
ic cooling process is the base of long hearth service life.
4.1. Control of Cooling Water Quality and Temperature
4.1.1. Water Quality
No matter how well designed cooler, once the 3–5 mm
scale formed at the cooling pipes inwall, under 60–90 kW/m2
heat flux its resistance will cause 300–500°C temperature
difference of cooling stave, then no matter how good the cool-
ing stave will be burnout.23) Therefore, the quality and stabil-
ity of the cooling water play an important role on heat transfer
effect of cooling equipment and long hearth service life. A
fundamental reason of Baosteel blast furnaces with relatively
long campaign life is that their cooling water has high quality
and good stability. According to different impurity content,
cooling water quality can be divided into industrial water,
soft water, demineralized water, pure water, and etc. Water
quality needs to be controlled to prevent scale formation and
erosion (to cooling element). The main method to prevent
scale formation is water treatment. Un-treated water is not
allowed to enter the closed loop of the cooling equipment.
Cast iron stave requires low oxygen content in the cooling
water. Therefore, a closed loop system with treated water or
purified water is normally used. The thermal conductivity of
the cast iron itself is low. In addition to that, the carbon steel
cooling water pipe is prone to corrosion due to oxidation and
© 2012 ISIJ
electrolysis. Therefore, scale formation inside the cooling
water tubes of cast iron stave must be prevented. Otherwise
the stave could be damaged due to significantly elevated
thermal resistance. In some countries, a closed loop cooling
system with purified water is used for cast iron staves. In
China, blast furnaces with cast iron staves use treated water
(for example: Wisco No.5 blast furnace24)) or purified water
(for example: Baosteel No.3 blast furnace25)) in a closed
loop system. If there are more than two types of staves, such
as cast iron and copper, in one cooling system, it is recom-
mended that thermal oxygen removal equipment be installed
to treat the supplement water.
While the copper stave uses industrial water for cooling,
the water velocity must be greater than 2 m/s and water
hardness must be less than 8 for avoiding formation of hard
scale; at the same time it should also make regular steriliza-
tion and algae removal to ensure that micro-organisms will
not multiply and form bio-slime in cooling channels then
affect copper stave heat transfer. If the copper stave uses soft
water or pure water, it requires the water velocity must be
greater than 1.5 m/s.26)
4.1.2. Water Temperature
It is necessary to control the inlet temperature of water
used for staves. The cooling system of blast furnaces differs
significantly. However, the inlet water temperature is mostly
controlled in the range of 40–55°C. In Angang and Wisco, for
all blast furnaces larger than 2 500 m3 that use a soft water or
demineralized water closed loop cooling system, the annual
average water inlet temperature is controlled below 40°C.
(1) In regions with ample water supply, open or semi-
open industrial water cooling systems can be used. With an
open industrial water system, the water flow can be relative-
ly larger; and it is possible to control the inlet temperature
below 30°C. In this type of system, it is important to keep
the water temperature away from the scale formation range.
(2) For a soft water or demineralized water closed loop
cooling system, to achieve the inlet water temperature below
40°C, the key is to choose a suitable type of cooling equip-
ment with good design and manufacturing.
4.2. Cooling System
4.2.1. Under Hearth Cooling System
All blast furnaces that use carbon bricks have an under
hearth cooling system. The purpose of the hearth bottom
cooling is to remove heat from the bottom so that the
1 150°C isothermal line is close to the upper bottom as much
as possible in the hearth for achieving longer bottom service
life. Cooling pipes are normally used under the bottom. The
cooling media includes air, water, and oil. Water cooling is
the predominate choice on most blast furnaces.
4.2.2. Hearth Sidewall Cooling System
For the hearth sidewall, most of the Chinese blast furnac-
es use bare-surface staves as the cooling system, including
gray cast iron, nodular graphite cast iron, or copper staves.
Previously, cooling intensity in the taphole area was rela-
tively too low. On the other hand, the lining in this area, as
compared to other areas, experienced more intensive
mechanical abrasion, higher temperature, and chemical
attack because of the periodical discharge of slag and hot
metal. As a result, the lining in the taphole area is often
damaged early and the damage in this area is often most
severe as compared to other areas. In order to increase the
cooling ability, and effectively prolong the lining service life
in the taphole area, as well as maintain the necessary taphole
length, in some large Chinese blast furnaces, copper staves
in conjunction with the high thermal conductivity small car-
bon bricks are used in the taphole area while traditional bare-
face staves are used in other areas of the hearth sidewall.
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 ISIJ International, Vol. 52 (2012), No. 10
Shower cooling on the hearth shell is a simple and effec-
tive cooling method. Shower cooling is still in use on some
blast furnaces. In the later stage of the campaign, some fur-
naces add shower cooling system as a special cooling tool
for an urgent situation, such as industrial water is sprayed
directly onto the shell to remove heat transferred to the shell.
Most of the blast furnaces, large or small, in China are
equipped with shell shower cooling. Advantages of shower
cooling include: (1) low requirement for the quality of
water; (2) simple equipment; (3) low capital cost; (4) low
flow rate and pressure of water directly used in cooling
hence low energy consumption. However, because it is an
open water system, solid particles in the water may cause
plugging. The working environment on the furnace platform
may also deteriorate due to the splashing water.
Almost all the Chinese blast furnaces use staves cooling
only, except at Baosteel No.1 blast furnace where shower
cooling was used during the first and second campaign. Stave
cooling has been used during the current campaign. In large
blast furnaces, normally four rows of bare-surface cast iron
staves are installed. Recently, a row of copper staves were
used in the elephant foot area to enhance the cooling; copper
staves also are installed in the area of about 2×3 m surround-
ing the tapholes; cast iron staves are used in other areas. The
staves normally measure 2.5 m high and 160 mm thick (100
mm thick for copper staves). Each row has about 54 staves.
4.3. Cooling Intensity
The dispute about using either the concept of “large water
flow and small temperature difference” or the concept of
“low water flow and large temperature difference” has last-
ed for some years in the Chinese blast furnace ironmaking
industry. In recent years, most ironmakers accept the design
concept of “large water flow and small temperature differ-
ence”. There is no difference in the total heat took away, no
matter which one of those two concepts is applied in hearth
sidewall cooling system design. But the different concepts
may have different effects on the temperature distribution in
the lining. For the composite lining structure, the hearth lin-
ing temperature distribution was examined with different
cooling concepts (different cooling water temperature)
under the limit status that ceramic cup was completely erod-
ed, as shown in Fig. 6.
The cooling water temperature is 30°C in Fig. 6(a), rep-
resenting a case of “low water flow and large temperature
difference”. The cooling water temperature is 20°C in Fig.
6(b), representing a case of “large water flow and small tem-
perature difference”. One can see that when the cooling
water temperature increased, with the same heat transfer
coefficient, because the cooling concept of “large water flow
and small temperature difference” uses large water flow, the
change in water temperature is small, the cooling water can
still maintain a lower temperature, the cooling intensity is
large. From Fig. 6(b) one can see that the isothermal lines
moved towards the inner side, the more obvious the lower
temperature, the blue region expanded significantly. When
water flow became small, the water temperature increased
more, the high temperature region in carbon brick expanded,
as shown in Fig. 6(a), various erosion will intensified in
high temperature region, so carbon brick will be more easily
damaged, this phenomenon will became more obvious as
proceeding of erosion and increase of heat flux.
Based on the above analysis, the cooling water system
design of “low water flow and large temperature difference”
may be sufficient in the early campaign, and may reduce
water consumption and save cost. As erosion proceeds, it is
necessary to increase the water flow rate to compensate for
the increasing heat load. In general, as the water flow rate
increases, the water velocity increases as well. Consequently,
the heat transfer coefficient increases, and in the meantime
1721
Table 7. Water pressure and velocity for cooling members on
2 500–3 200 m3 blast furnace of Angang.
Location Staves Tuyere
Under hearth
Straight and Small Big
Parameter Lug boss cooling pipe
snake pipes sleeve sleeve
Pressure/MPa ≥1.0 ≥1.0 ≥0.5 ≥1.6 ≥0.7
–1
Velocity/m·s ≥1.8 ≥2.0 ≥2.0 ≥15 ≥5
the water temperature remains at a low level. Table 7 shows
the demineralized water pressure and velocity on different
parts of the 2 500–3 200 m3 blast furnaces of Angang.27)
High velocity water flow is used to ensure adequate cooling
and to prevent the formation of steam bubble in the local
areas. Even if steam bubbles form, they can be quickly
brought to the de-gas tank and be removed from the system,
to protect the cooling equipment by eliminating the high
thermal resistance due to steam. Reducing water usage is a
basic national policy in China. In recent years, Wisco adopt-
ed an integral treated water closed loop system with high
water velocity. The water usage and power consumption
have been significantly reduced.
Insufficient water flow rate results in a higher water tem-
perature difference, as well as water temperature, causing
formation of scale with un-treated water. This will further
increase the heat transfer resistance and decrease cooling
ability. The temperature increase of cooling medium will
make lining temperature further increase and erode. To
avoid this vicious circle, the cooling water flow rate should
be adjusted based on actual erosion status timely.
On the whole, the design concept of hearth cooling should
use “large water flow and small temperature difference”
from the early period of the campaign. For the composite lin-
ing structure, this way can effectively reduce ceramic cup
cold face temperature and thermal stress, hence prolong the
service life to protect carbon brick. At the same time, for full
carbon brick structure and the composite lining structure,
using the large water flow in the early period of the campaign
can ensure a low working temperature of carbon brick from
the outset, and slow down the various erosions. Especially
for thin lining hearth structure, its design concept is that
relying on enhanced cooling to reduce carbon brick hot face
temperature, and thus forms a solidified layer to protect car-
bon brick from erosion, so it is particularly important to use
large water flow from the early period of the campaign.
Blast furnace water volume should be designed in accor-
dance with maximum heat load in the later period of the
campaign. Figure 7 illustrates the cooling water flow rates
for the hearth sidewall of some Chinese blast furnaces in
operation and in design.
5. Establishment of Online Hearth Monitoring System
The status of hearth sidewall and bottom is a restrictive
aspect for blast furnace long campaign life, high efficiency
and rational design is a prerequisite to achieve this purpose
but more importantly is to accurately online monitor on the
working status of cooling system, hearth sidewall and bot-
tom after blast furnace putting into operation, and timely
processing and analysis of monitoring results, then put for-
ward diagnostic advice and solutions.
5.1. Online Thermocouple Temperature Monitoring
In the hearth bottom and sidewall region, thermocouples
are normally embedded in bricks or cooling staves to monitor
the carbon brick temperature. The temperature informations
are collected as input of a computer model to determine the
remaining lining thickness and the location of the 1 150°C
isothermal line. In the mid to later campaign, an online mod-
© 2012 ISIJ
 ISIJ International, Vol. 52 (2012), No. 10
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6. Temperature distribution of two different cooling concepts.
(a) A cooling concept of “low water flow and large temper-
ature difference” (cooling water temperature is 30°C). (b) A
cooling concept of “large water flow and small temperature
difference” (cooling water temperature is 20°C).
Fig. 7. Cooling water flow rates for the hearth sidewall of some
Chinese blast furnaces in operation and in design.
el of the erosion status of the hearth bottom and sidewall is
very important for decision making. Using such a model, the
operators will be enabled to keep the remaining thickness of
the hearth bottom and sidewall under constant control,28)
Figs. 8 and 9 are two practical display interfaces of Wisco
blast furnace expert system.
In addition, the air gap is the key factor to affect hearth
effective heat transfer and cause taphole area easy to ero-
sion. Hearth lining temperature distribution and thickness
will be stable only when heat transfer and cooling of hearth
is effective. Vast majority of hearth erosions begin from
hearth sidewall air gaps are formed, and then heat balance
© 2012 ISIJ
Fig. 8. Display interface of isotherms.
Fig. 9. 3D display interface of hearth sidewall and bottom erosion
status.
is broke, heat can not be normally exported. Therefore, it
is necessary to establish hearth air gap index according to
principle of dynamic heat transfer and law of hearth lining
temperature distribution, monitor the heat transfer status of
hearth sidewall, hence it can take timely corrective action
for abnormal condition.
The information of hearth thermocouple temperature can
not only be used to set up hearth sidewall and bottom ero-
sion status online monitoring model and hearth air gap
index, but can also be used to calculate the real-time tem-
perature of furnace core.29) High temperature of furnace core
reflects good liquid permeability of furnace core, weak cir-
cumferential liquid iron/slag flow in hearth and slight ero-
sion of hearth sidewall; poor liquid permeability of furnace
core will cause furnace core temperature to gradually
decrease and strengthen circumferential liquid iron/slag
flow and be bound to exacerbate erosion of hearth sidewall.
The furnace core temperature can be maintained at a certain
range by management, which is conducive to the mainte-
nance of hearth sidewall.
Currently, most blast furnaces do not have sufficient num-
ber of monitoring points. Some furnaces only have a few
thermocouples embedded in carbon bricks at 0° and 90° ver-
tical section of hearth sidewall. For a large blast furnace
with circumference of 40–50 m and hearth sidewall of 5–7
m high, a region of 8–10 m wide of the hearth sidewall
might not be under any monitoring. Insufficient monitoring
points adversely affect the accuracy of the online hearth ero-
sion model calculation, which can lead to catastrophic
events such as breakout in the hearth bottom or sidewall. To
minimize the region that is not under monitoring, modern
design employs 150–250 thermocouples or more. The dis-
tance between two thermocouples is less than 2 m; and more
thermocouples are arranged in the potentially high risk
regions such as the taphole areas. With such close monitor-
ing, the online hearth erosion model, hearth air gap index
model and furnace core temperature model can accurately
determine the status of the erosion, and help to prevent the
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 ISIJ International, Vol. 52 (2012), No. 10
occurrence of liquid iron breakout from the hearth sidewall
and bottom and/or explosion in the mid to later campaign.
There are two types of thermocouple placement in the
carbon brick: tube insertion and grooving. In the tube inser-
tion method, the thermocouple is placed inside a tube which
is then embedded in carbon brick. When using this method,
it has to be ensured that liquid iron will not infiltrate the tip
of the tube. Otherwise there is a potential danger that liquid
iron will burst out of the thermocouple tube. Therefore, the
thermocouple tube should not be inserted too deep into the
brick. Furthermore, the thermocouple should not be in direct
contact with the carbon brick. In the calculations in the
(hearth erosion) model, it is necessary to do temperature
compensation which could lead to some error in the predic-
tion. In the grooving method, a small groove is machined on
the surface of the carbon brick. The advantage of this meth-
od is that the depth of the thermocouple is not limited: once
iron/slag penetrates to the thermocouple, it will fail but there
is no danger of iron flowing out of the furnace. Currently,
grooving is used on most of the Chinese blast furnaces.
5.2. Online Water Temperature Difference and Heat
Flux Monitoring
The heat fluxes through the lining and staves represent the
status of furnace operation. For stave cooling, the heat fluxes
at different areas can be calculated by the measured water
temperature difference and water flow rate. It can be used to
determine the lining thickness, erosion conditions, whether
or not the skull forms, and etc. Accordingly, immediate
actions can be taken to protect the lining, staves and the
shell. In recent years, an online monitoring system has been
developed and implemented in some blast furnaces in China
and abroad, with fairly good results. The monitoring system
consists of four parts: water temperature measurement, flow
rate measurement, data processing, and computer programs.
Various online monitoring systems based on the blast fur-
nace hearth heat flux calculation have been applied on most
of the Chinese large blast furnaces. For instance, one furnace
has setup a system with 3 action levels: alarm at 14 kW/m2,
countermeasures at 17.5 kW/m2 (such as titanium addition,
grouting, lowering production, enhancing cooling…), and
emergency action at 21 kW/m2 (showing liquid iron is close
to or contacting with staves, it should take corresponding
emergency plans), and the effect of practical application is
good. It should be pointed out that the heat flux level setup
varies from furnace to furnace, depending on the hearth
structure, lining properties, cooling system, quality of raw
materials, and operating conditions. For example, bricks of
higher conductivity may allow higher heat flux.
5.3. Online Cooling System Leaking Water Monitoring
The water leakage of tuyere or cooling equipment is easy
to cause iron/slag solidified layer to disappear, so it is very
important to prevent cooling water from infiltrating hearth.
By monitoring H2 content of blast furnace top gas, water
supplement curve of cooling stave, water supply and drain-
age flow differential of tuyere small sleeve and medium
sleeve, once water pipe damage was found, it should be
immediately processed. Usually, small amounts of equip-
ment water leakage is not easily to be found, but the harm
is serious, so it should strengthen the online monitoring of
hearth equipment water leakage. Water leakage monitoring
devices include electromagnetic flow meter, portable float
switch, and etc.
6. Conclusions
The key to long hearth service life of Chinese blast fur-
nace includes the establishment of a good hearth heat trans-
1723
fer system (including design of hearth structure and selec-
tion of refractory), adequate hearth cooling intensity and a
complete hearth monitoring system.
(1) There are mainly five types of hearth designs for
Chinese large blast furnaces, including large carbon block,
large carbon block + ceramic cup, small hot-pressed carbon
brick, small hot-pressed carbon brick + ceramic cup and
small hot-pressed carbon brick + wet spaying lining. The
hearth lining is showing a gradual thinning trend, and the
design depth of sump is increasing gradually.
(2) For selection of refractory, in addition to high ther-
mal conductivity, properties should include resistance to liq-
uid iron erosion, and etc. The thermal conductivity of amor-
phous refractory to refractory should be matched well.
(3) The implementation of adequate cooling intensity
includes control of cooling water quality and temperature,
selection of cooling equipment and control of cooling inten-
sity. Copper staves are used in the taphole area and elephant
foot area to enhance the cooling. By designing and controlling
a high cooling water velocity to achieve a large water flow. It
should implement “large water flow and small temperature
difference” from the early period of the campaign, and blast
furnace water volume should be designed in accordance with
maximum heat load in the later period of the campaign.
(4) Establishment of a complete hearth monitoring sys-
tem includes online thermocouple temperature monitoring
(including the online hearth erosion model, hearth air gap
index model and furnace core temperature model), online
water temperature difference and heat flux monitoring (it
should be pointed out that the heat flux level setup varies
from furnace to furnace), and online cooling system leaking
water monitoring.
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