DESIGN AND EFFICIENCY OF HEAT

EXCHANGERS FOR CHLORINATION UNIT

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

RAKESH RAJ G.R (312316203301)

VIKASH A (312316203303)

In partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

St. JOSEPH’S COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

SEPTEMBER 2020

i
 ANNA UNIVERSITY : CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “DESIGN AND EFFICIENCY OF

HEAT EXCHANGERS FOR CHLORINATION UNIT” is the

bonofied work of “RAKESHRAJ.G.R (312316203301)” and

“VIKASH.A (312316203301)” who carried out the project work under

my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Dr. R. BASKARAN, M.S, Ms. R.SIVARANJANEE,

Ph.D.,
Head of The Department
Chemical Engineering
St.Joseph’s College of
Engineering, Chennai- 600119.
M.Tech,,
Supervisor
Chemical Engineering
St. Joseph’s College of
Engineering,Chennai- 600119.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We wish to convey gratitude to Dr. Babu Manoharan, M.A., M.B.A.,

Ph.D., Chairman, Mrs.B. Jessie Priya, M.Com., Managing Director and
Mr.B.ShashiSekar, M.Sc.,Director and beloved Principal, Dr.Vaddi
Seshagiri Rao, M.E.,M.B.A., Ph.D., for their constant support
throughout the project.

We express our sincere thanks to Dr.R. Baskaran, M.S., Ph.D.,

Professor and Head, Department of Chemical Engineering and
Dr.N.Venkatesh, M.Tech., Ph.D., Professor, Department of Chemical
Engineering, St. Joseph’s College of Engineering, Chennai for their
encouragement and valuable suggestions on this project work.

We gratefully remember the co-operation and assistance of our

guide Ms.R.Sivaranjanee, M.Tech, Assistant Professor, without whom
this project would not have been possible.

iii
 CERTIFICATE OF EVALUTION

College Name: St. Joseph’s of Engineering

Branch & Semester: Chemical Engineering VIII Semester

S.No NAME OF THE TITLE OF THE NAME OF THE

STUDENT PROJECT SUPERVISOR WITH
DESIGNATION

1 RAKESHRAJ G.R
(312316203301) DESIGN AND EFFICIENCY Ms.R.SIVARANJANEE
OF HEAT M.TECH
EXCHANGERS FOR ASSISTANT
2 VIKASH A CHLORINATION UNIT PROFESSOR
(312316203303)

The report of the project work submitted by the above students in partial
fulfillment for the award of Bachelor of Technology degree in chemical
engineering of Anna University was evaluated and confirmed to be
reports of the work done by the above student and then evaluated.

(INTERNAL EXAMINER) (EXTERNAL EXAMINER)

iv
 ABSTRACT

This project work is for kerala minerals and metals Ltd (KMML) at
chavara. They produce very pure rutile grade TiO2 pigment. One of their
unit namely U-200 is designed for the production of titanium tetra
chloride (TiCl4) which is important raw material of TiO2 . After various
chemical processes the product TiCl4 is obtained, which ranges about
150oC in temperature (vapour form). To store the product its temperature
should be reduced to 40oC . In this stage a shell and tube heat exchanger
is used (184 tubes). As the plant undergoes capacity expansion process,
consequently the production of TiCl4 will increase by 65%. This
necessitates a heat exchanger of enhanced capacity. The aim of this
project is to design a shell and tube heat exchangers and spiral heat
exchanger according to various theoretical design available for improving
the capacity and select ones that are suitable for current system at Kerala
Minerals and Metals Ltd (KMML), chavara.

Keywords: Chlorine, Reactor, Stripper, Heat exchanger.

v
 TABLE OF CONTENT
Chapter Title Page
No. No.
ABSTRACT v
LIST OF FIGURES x
LIST OF TABLES xi
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 About the company 1
1.1.1 Milestone of company 2
1.1.2 Products 3
1.1.2.1 Titanium dioxide pigment 3
1.1.2.2 Magnesium chloride 4
1.1.2.3 Titanium tetra chloride 6
1.1.2.4 Ilmenite 6
1.1.2.5 Zircon 7
1.2 Properties of TiO2 9
1.3 Classification of heat exchanger 10
1.4 Types of heat exchanger 10
1.4.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger 11
1.4.1.1 Tube diameter 12
1.4.1.2 Tube thickness 12
1.4.1.3 Tube length 12
1.4.1.4 Tube layout 13
1.4.1.5 Baffle design 13
1.4.2 Plate heat exchanger 14
1.4.3 Plate fin heat exchanger 15

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 1.4.3.1 Advantages of plate and fin 16
1.4.3.2 Disadvantages of plate and fin 16
1.4.4 Sprial heat exchanger 16
1.5 Advantages of TiO2 17
1.6 Disadvantages of TiO2 18

2 MANUFACTURING PROCESS
2.1 Ilmenite benification plant 19
2.1.1 Roasting 19
2.1.2 Leaching in digesters 20
2.1.3 Tank farm 20
2.1.4 Calcinatoin 20
2.2 Acid regeneration plant 21
2.3 Chlorination plant 22
2.4 Oxidation plant 24
2.5 Sand mill and classification 25
2.5.1 Treatments 26
2.5.2 Filtration and drying 26
2.5.3 Larox 27
2.5.4 Micronisation and condensate cooling 28
2.6 Utilities department 28
2.6.1 Boiler plant 29
2.6.1.1 Water tube boiler 29
2.6.1.2 Fire tube boiler 30
2.6.2 Water treatment plant 31
2.6.3 Air compressor station 32
2.6.4 Effluent compressor station 32

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 2.6.5 Furnace oil recipt storage 33

3 MATERIAL BALANCE
3.1 Material balance 34
3.2 Over all material balance in heat exchanger 35

4 ENERGY BALANCE
4.1 Heat loss 36
4.2 Heat gain 37
4.3 Total energy balance 37

5 DESIGN OF EQUIPMENT
5.1 Design of shell and tube Heat exchanger 39
5.1.1 To Increase Efficiency 40
5.1.1.1 Case I 41
5.1.1.2 Case II 42
5.1.1.3 Case III 43
5.1.2 Mechanical Design 45
5.1.2.1 Shell Diameter Design 45
5.1.2.2 Material selected for the Shell 46
5.1.3 Design of shell and tube 47
5.2 Spiral heat exchanger 48
5.2.1 Spiral heat exchanger Data 48
5.2.2 Calcination 48
5.2.3 Design of sprial tube heat exchanger 51
6 EXCISTING HEAT EXCHANGER
6.1 Dimensional parameter 52

viii
 6.2 Company Requirments 52
6.3 Comparitive study 52
6.3.1 Find hi 55
6.3.2 Finf ho 56

7 PROCESS ECONAMICS
7.1 Cost of Estimation 59
7.2 Maintance Cost 60

CONCLUSION 61

REFERENCE 62

ix
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig No. Name Page

No.
1.1 Evolution of global production of TiO2 4
1.2 Shell and Tube heat exchanger 12
1.3 Plate heat exchanger 15
1.4 Sprial heat exchanger 17
2.1 Acid regeneration plant 22
2.2 Chlorination plant 24
2.3 Water tube boiler 30
2.4 Fire tube boiler 31
5.2 Spiral Heat exchanger 51
6.1 Present heat exchanger state 54

x
 LIST OF TABLES

Table No. Name Page

No.
1.1 Properties of TiO2 9
5.1 Parameters of shell and tube 47
5.2 Input data for hot and cold fluid 48
5.2.1 Simulated results 49
5.2.2 Specification of spiral plate heat exchanger 51

xi
xii
xiii
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

In this project we are going study the design of shell and tube
heat ex-changer and spiral heat ex-changer which has been used in the
kerala minerals and metals ltd at chavara. The aim of this project is to
design a shell and tube heat ex-changers and spiral heat ex-changer
according to various theoretical design available for improving the
capacity

1.1 About the company

Manufacturing Titanium Dioxide through the chloride route, KMML

produces very pure rutile grade Titanium dioxide pigment. The different
grades churned out by KMML under brand name KEMOX has a ready
market which asks for more. The commendable work in research by the
R&D department has also helped KMML to add more colours to its
portfolio. With continued growth and demand in the economy and
industry, the products of KMML are being lapped up by the eager market.
This has in turn set the wheels turning for KMML’s expansion. KMML
has always been responsive to social and environmental causes. Some of

1
the initiatives taken by KMML have made a significant change to the area
and its people.

KMML is now in the aerospace industry & Defence applications with the
commissioning of the titanium sponge plant. The TSP is a joint venture of
KMML, Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC) and the Defence
Metallurgical. Research Laboratory (DMRL). The VSSC has
fully funded the Rs.143crore TSP pr-object. With the inauguration of TS
P, India becomes the7th country in the world having the technology for pr
oducing titanium sponge,Which is the raw material for titanium metal.

Titanium sponge is known for its high strength but low weight, making it
an-ideal-material for aircraft manufacture, including fighter aircraft.The m
aterialist,also used In-nuclear plants, Engine parts, Ocean platforms, Re-a
ctors,Heat Ex-changers and to make dental implants and artificial bones.

1.1.1 milestone of company

 1974 - Letter of Indent for the production of 48,000 tonnes of

Titanium Dioxide Pigment through Chloride process technology.
Collaboration agreement with:
Benelite Corporation of America, USA – Synthetic Rutile Plant.
Woodall Duckham, U.K – Acid Regeneration Plant Kerr McGee
Chemical Corporation, USA – Titanium Dioxide Pigment (Chloride
process)

 1992 - Won the First National Award for in-house R&D efforts in
Industry for Technology Absorption under TAAS programme by
DSIR

2
 1999 - Erected and commissioned one more Chlorinator in
Chlorination section.

 2004 - Commissioned a new product packaging machine, modern

energy efficient filter and drier system, DCS system in Unit-400.

 2005 - World class quality management systems like ISO 14001 and
OSHAS-1800 implemented.

 2010 - Commissioned the Enhahced Zircon Recovery plant at MS

Unit.

 2016 - Loading and transportation of Finished pigment in bulk tankers

on trial basis to meet customer requirements

1.1.2 Products

 Titanium dioxide pigment ( rutile )

 Magnesium chloride

 Titanium tetra chloride

 Ilmenite

 Zircon

1.1.2.1 Titanium dioxide pigment

Titanium dioxide occurs in nature as the

minerals rutile and anatase. Additionally two high-pressure forms are
known minerals: a monoclinic baddeleyite-like form known as akaogiite,
and the other is an orthorhombic α-PbO2-like form known as brookite,
both of which can be found at the Ries crater in Bavaria. It is mainly

3
sourced from ilmenite ore. This is the most widespread form of titanium
dioxide-bearing ore around the world. Rutile is the next most abundant
and contains around 98% titanium dioxide in the ore. The metastable
anatase and brookite phases convert irreversibly to the equilibrium rutile
phase upon heating above temperatures in the range 600–800 °C
(1,110–1,470 °F). Titanium dioxide has eight modifications – in addition
to rutile, anatase, akaogiite, and brookite, three metastable phases can be
produced synthetically (monoclinic, tetragonal, and orthorombic), and
five high-pressure forms (α-PbO2-like, baddeleyite-like, cotunnite-like,
orthorhombic OI, and cubic phases).

Fig 1.1 Evolution of global production of Tio2

1.1.2.2 Magnesium chloride

Magnesium chloride is the name for the chemical

compound with the formula MgCl2 and its various hydrates MgCl2(H2O)x.
These salts are typical ionic halides, being highly soluble in water. The
hydrated magnesium chloride can be extracted from brine or sea water. In
North America, magnesium chloride is produced primarily from Great
Salt Lake brine. It is extracted in a similar process from the Dead Sea in

4
the Jordan Valley. Magnesium chloride, as the natural mineral bischofite,
is also extracted (by solution mining) out of ancient seabeds, for example,
the Zechstein seabed in northwest Europe. Some magnesium chloride is
made from solar evaporation of seawater. Anhydrous magnesium
chloride is the principal precursor to magnesium metal, which is
produced on a large scale. Hydrated magnesium chloride is the form most
readily available.

MgCl2 crystallizes in the cadmium chloride motif, which features

octahedral Mg centers. Several hydrates are known with the formula
MgCl2(H2O)x, and each loses water at higher temperatures: x = 12
(−16.4 °C), 8 (−3.4 °C), 6 (116.7 °C), 4 (181 °C), 2 (about 300 °C). In the
hexahydrate, the Mg2+ is also octahedral, but is coordinated to six
water ligands. The thermal dehydration of the hydrates MgCl2(H2O)x (x =
6, 12) does not occur straightforwardly. Anhydrous MgCl2 is produced
industrially by heating the chloride salt of hexammine complex
[Mg(NH3)6]2+.

As suggested by the existence of some hydrates, anhydrous MgCl2 is

a Lewis acid, although a weak one.

In the Dow process, magnesium chloride is regenerated from magnesium

hydroxide using hydrochloric acid:

Mg(OH)2(s) + 2 HCl(aq) → MgCl2(aq) + 2 H2O(l)

It can also be prepared from magnesium carbonate by a similar reaction.

Derivatives with tetrahedral Mg2+ are less common. Examples include

salts of (tetraethylammonium)2MgCl4 and adducts such as
MgCl2(TMEDA).

5
1.1.2.3 Titanium tetra chloride

Titanium tetrachloride is the inorganic compound with

the formula TiCl4. It is an important intermediate in the production
of titanium metal and the pigment titanium dioxide. TiCl4 is
a volatile liquid. Upon contact with humid air, it forms spectacular
opaque clouds of titanium dioxide (TiO2) and hydrated hydrogen chloride.
It is sometimes referred to as "tickle" or "tickle 4" due to the phonetic
resemblance of its molecular formula (TiCl4) to the word.

TiCl4 is produced by the chloride process, which involves

the reduction of titanium oxide ores, typically ilmenite (FeTiO3),
with carbon under flowing chlorine at 900 °C. Impurities are removed
by distillation.

2 FeTiO3 + 7 Cl2 + 6 C → 2 TiCl4 + 2 FeCl3 + 6 CO

The coproduction of FeCl3 is undesirable, which has motivated the

development of alternative technologies. Instead of directly using
ilmenite, "rutile slag" is used. This material, an impure form of TiO2, is
derived from ilmenite by removal of iron, either using carbon reduction
or extraction with sulfuric acid. Crude TiCl4 contains a variety of other
volatile halides, including vanadyl chloride (VOCl3), silicon
tetrachloride (SiCl4), and tin tetrachloride (SnCl4), which must be
separated.

1.1.2.4 Ilmenite

Ilmenite, also known as manaccanite, is a titanium-iron oxide

mineral with the idealized formula FeTiO3. It is a weakly magnetic black
or steel-gray solid. From a commercial perspective, ilmenite is the most
important ore of titanium. Ilmenite is the main source of titanium dioxide,

6
which is used in paints, printing inks, fabrics, plastics, paper, sunscreen,
food and cosmetics.

Ilmenite crystallizes in the trigonal system. The ilmenite crystal

structure consists of an ordered derivative of the corundum structure; in
corundum all cations are identical but in ilmenite Fe2+ and Ti4+ ions
occupy alternating layers perpendicular to the trigonal c axis.
Containing high spin ferrous centers, ilmenite is paramagnetic.

Ilmenite is commonly recognized in altered igneous rocks by the presence

of a white alteration product, the pseudo-mineral leucoxene. Often
ilmenites are rimmed with leucoxene, which allows ilmenite to be
distinguished from magnetite and other iron-titanium oxides. The
example shown in the image at right is typical of leucoxene-rimmed
ilmenite.

In reflected light it may be distinguished from magnetite by more

pronounced reflection pleochroism and a brown-pink tinge.

Samples of ilmenite exhibit a weak response to a hand magnet.

1.1.2.5 Zircon

Zircon is a mineral belonging to the group of nesosilicates. Its

chemical name is zirconium silicate, and its corresponding chemical
formula is ZrSiO4. A common empirical formula showing some of the
range of substitution in zircon is (Zr1–y, REEy)(SiO4)1–x(OH)4x–y. Zircon
forms in silicate melts with large proportions of high field strength
incompatible elements. For example, hafnium is almost always present in
quantities ranging from 1 to 4%. The crystal structure of zircon
is tetragonal crystal system. The natural colour of zircon varies between
colourless, yellow-golden, red, brown, blue and green.

7
The name derives from the Persian zargun, meaning "gold-hued". This
word is corrupted into "jargoon", a term applied to light-colored zircons.
The English word "zircon" is derived from Zirkon, which is the German
adaptation of this word. Yellow, orange and red zircon is also known as
"hyacinth", from the flower hyacinthus, whose name is of Ancient
Greek origin.

Zircon is common in the crust of Earth. It occurs as a common accessory

mineral in igneous rocks (as primary crystallization products),
in metamorphic rocks and as detrital grains in sedimentary rocks. Large
zircon crystals are rare. Their average size in granite rocks is about
0.1–0.3 mm, but they can also grow to sizes of several centimeters,
especially in mafic pegmatites and carbonatites. Zircon is also very
resistant to heat and corrosion.

Because of their uranium and thorium content, some zircons

undergo metamictization. Connected to internal radiation damage, these
processes partially disrupt the crystal structure and partly explain the
highly variable properties of zircon. As zircon becomes more and more
modified by internal radiation damage, the density decreases, the crystal
structure is compromised, and the color changes.

Zircon occurs in many colors, including reddish brown, yellow, green,

blue, gray and colorless. The color of zircons can sometimes be changed
by heat treatment. Common brown zircons can be transformed into
colorless and blue zircons by heating to 800 to 1000 °C. In geological
settings, the development of pink, red, and purple zircon occurs after
hundreds of millions of years, if the crystal has sufficient trace elements
to produce color centers. Color in this red or pink series is annealed in
geological conditions above temperatures of around 400 °C.

8
1.2 Properties of Tio2 :

Table 1.1 properties of Tio2

Property Name Property Value

Molecular Weight 79.87 g/mol

Hydrogen Bond Donor Count 0

Hydrogen Bond Acceptor Count 2

Rotatable Bond Count 0

Exact Mass 79.93777 g/mol

Monoisotopic Mass 79.93777 g/mol

Topological Polar Surface Area 34.1 Ų

Heavy Atom Count 3

Formal Charge 0

Complexity 18.3

Isotope Atom Count 0

Defined Atom Stereocenter Count 0

Undefined Atom Stereocenter Count 0

Defined Bond Stereocenter Count 0

Undefined Bond Stereocenter Count 0

Covalently-Bonded Unit Count 1

Compound Is Canonicalized Yes

9
1.3 Classification of heat ex-changer

There are three primary classifications of heat exchangers according to

their flow arrangement. In parallel-flow heat exchangers, the two fluids
enter the exchanger at the same end, and travel in parallel to one another
to the other side. In counter-flow heat exchangers the fluids enter the
exchanger from opposite ends. The counter current design is the most
efficient, in that it can transfer the most heat from the heat (transfer)
medium per unit mass due to the fact that the average temperature
difference along any unit length is higher. See counter-current exchange.
In a cross-flow heat exchanger, the fluids travel roughly perpendicular to
one another through the exchanger.

For efficiency, heat exchangers are designed to maximize the surface area
of the wall between the two fluids, while minimizing resistance to fluid
flow through the exchanger. The exchanger's performance can also be
affected by the addition of fins or corrugations in one or both directions,
which increase surface area and may channel fluid flow or induce
turbulence.

The driving temperature across the heat transfer surface varies with
position, but an appropriate mean temperature can be defined. In most
simple systems this is the "log mean temperature difference" (LMTD).
Sometimes direct knowledge of the LMTD is not available and the NTU
method is used.

1.4 Types of heat ex-changers

10
Double pipe heat exchangers are the simplest exchangers used in
industries. On one hand, these heat exchangers are cheap for both design
and maintenance, making them a good choice for small industries. On the
other hand, their low efficiency coupled with the high space occupied in
large scales, has led modern industries to use more efficient heat
exchangers like shell and tube or plate. However, since double pipe heat
exchangers are simple, they are used to teach heat exchanger design
basics to students as the fundamental rules for all heat exchangers are the
same.

1.4.1 Shell and tube heat exchanger

Shell and tube heat exchangers consist of a series of tubes which contain
fluid that must be either heated or cooled. A second fluid runs over the
tubes that are being heated or cooled so that it can either provide the heat
or absorb the heat required. A set of tubes is called the tube bundle and
can be made up of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc.
Shell and tube heat exchangers are typically used for high-pressure
applications (with pressures greater than 30 bar and temperatures greater
than 260 °C). This is because the shell and tube heat exchangers are
robust due to their shape.
Several thermal design features must be considered when designing the
tubes in the shell and tube heat exchangers: There can be many variations
on the shell and tube design. Typically, the ends of each tube are
connected to plenums (sometimes called water boxes) through holes in
tubesheets. The tubes may be straight or bent in the shape of a U, called
U-tubes.

11
Fig 1.2 shell and tube heat ex-changer

1.4.1.1 Tube diameter:

Using a small tube diameter makes the heat exchanger both economical
and compact. However, it is more likely for the heat exchanger to foul up
faster and the small size makes mechanical cleaning of the fouling
difficult. To prevail over the fouling and cleaning problems, larger tube
diameters can be used. Thus to determine the tube diameter, the available
space, cost and fouling nature of the fluids must be considered.

1.4.1.2 Tube thickness:

The thickness of the wall of the tubes is usually determined to ensure:

o There is enough room for corrosion

o That flow-induced vibration has resistance
o Axial strength
o Availability of spare parts
o Hoop strength (to withstand internal tube pressure)
o Buckling strength (to withstand overpressure in the shell)

1.4.1.3 Tube length:

12
 heat exchangers are usually cheaper when they have a smaller shell
diameter and a long tube length. Thus, typically there is an aim to make
the heat exchanger as long as physically possible whilst not exceeding
production capabilities. However, there are many limitations for this,
including space available at the installation site and the need to ensure
tubes are available in lengths that are twice the required length (so they
can be withdrawn and replaced). Also, long, thin tubes are difficult to
take out and replace.

1.4.1.4 Tube Layout:

refers to how tubes are positioned within the shell. There are four main
types of tube layout, which are, triangular (30°), rotated triangular (60°),
square (90°) and rotated square (45°). The triangular patterns are
employed to give greater heat transfer as they force the fluid to flow in a
more turbulent fashion around the piping. Square patterns are employed
where high fouling is experienced and cleaning is more regular.

1.4.1.5 Baffle Design:

baffles are used in shell and tube heat exchangers to direct fluid across
the tube bundle. They run perpendicularly to the shell and hold the
bundle, preventing the tubes from sagging over a long length. They can
also prevent the tubes from vibrating. The most common type of baffle is
the segmental baffle. The semicircular segmental baffles are oriented at
180 degrees to the adjacent baffles forcing the fluid to flow upward and
downwards between the tube bundle. Baffle spacing is of large
thermodynamic concern when designing shell and tube heat exchangers.
Baffles must be spaced with consideration for the conversion of pressure
drop and heat transfer. For thermo economic optimization it is suggested

13
that the baffles be spaced no closer than 20% of the shell's inner diameter.
Having baffles spaced too closely causes a greater pressure drop because
of flow redirection. Consequently, having the baffles spaced too far apart
means that there may be cooler spots in the corners between baffles. It is
also important to ensure the baffles are spaced close enough that the
tubes do not sag. The other main type of baffle is the disc and doughnut
baffle, which consists of two concentric baffles. An outer, wider baffle
looks like a doughnut, whilst the inner baffle is shaped like a disk. This
type of baffle forces the fluid to pass around each side of the disk then
through the doughnut baffle generating a different type of fluid flow.

1.4.2 Plate heat exchangers:

Another type of heat exchanger is the plate heat exchanger. These

exchangers are composed of many thin, slightly separated plates that have
very large surface areas and small fluid flow passages for heat transfer.
Advances in gasket and brazing technology have made the plate-type heat
exchanger increasingly practical. In HVAC applications, large heat
exchangers of this type are called plate-and-frame; when used in open
loops, these heat exchangers are normally of the gasket type to allow
periodic disassembly, cleaning, and inspection. There are many types of
permanently bonded plate heat exchangers, such as dip-brazed,
vacuum-brazed, and welded plate varieties, and they are often specified
for closed-loop applications such as refrigeration. Plate heat exchangers
also differ in the types of plates that are used, and in the configurations of
those plates. Some plates may be stamped with "chevron", dimpled, or
other patterns, where others may have machined fins and/or grooves.

When compared to shell and tube exchangers, the stacked-plate

arrangement typically has lower volume and cost. Another difference

14
between the two is that plate exchangers typically serve low to medium
pressure fluids, compared to medium and high pressures of shell and tube.
A third and important difference is that plate exchangers employ more
countercurrent flow rather than cross current flow, which allows lower
approach temperature differences, high temperature changes, and
increased efficiencies.

Fig 1.3 plate heat ex-changer

1.4.3 Plate fin heat exchanger

This type of heat ex-changer uses "sandwiched" passages containing fins

to increase the effectiveness of the unit. The designs include cross flow
and counter flow coupled with various fin configurations such as straight
fins, offset fins and wavy fins.

Plate and fin heat ex-changers are usually made of aluminium alloys,
which provide high heat transfer efficiency. The material enables the
system to operate at a lower temperature difference and reduce the weight
of the equipment. Plate and fin heat ex-changers are mostly used for low
temperature services such as natural gas, helium and oxygen liquefaction

15
plants, air separation plants and transport industries such as motor
and aircraft engines.

1.4.3.1 Advantages of plate and fin heat exchangers:

 High heat transfer efficiency especially in gas treatment

 Larger heat transfer area
 Approximately 5 times lighter in weight than that of shell and tube
heat exchanger.
 Able to withstand high pressure

1.4.3.2 Disadvantages of plate and fin heat exchangers:

 Might cause clogging as the pathways are very narrow

 Difficult to clean the pathways
 Aluminium alloys are susceptible to Mercury Liquid
Embrittlement Failure.

1.4.4 SPRIAL HEAT EXCHANGERS:

A modification to the perpendicular flow of the typical HCHE involves

the replacement of shell with another coiled tube, allowing the two fluids
to flow parallel to one another, and which requires the use of different
design calculations.[24] These are the Spiral Heat Ex-changers (SHE),
which may refer to a helical (coiled) tube configuration, more generally,
the term refers to a pair of flat surfaces that are coiled to form the two
channels in a counter-flow arrangement. Each of the two channels has
one long curved path. A pair of fluid ports are connected tangentially to
the outer arms of the spiral, and axial ports are common, but optional.

The main advantage of the SHE is its highly efficient use of space. This
attribute is often leveraged and partially reallocated to gain other

16
improvements in performance, according to well known trade offs in heat
ex-changer design. (A notable trade off is capital cost vs operating cost.)
A compact SHE may be used to have a smaller footprint and thus lower
all-around capital costs, or an oversized SHE may be used to have
less pressure drop, less pumping energy, higher thermal efficiency, and
lower energy costs.

Fig 1.4 spiral heat ex-changer

1.5 ADVANTAGES OF TiO2 :

One of the most notable advantages of titanium is its strength. It’s among
strongest and most durable metals on the planet, which is why it’s used in
so many industrial applications. In fact, titanium has the highest
strength-to-density ratio of any metallic element on the periodic table,
attesting to its benefits. Titanium (unalloyed) rivals steel in terms of
strength but is less dense, making it the preferred choice among many
professionals.
Another key advantage associated with titanium is its natural resistance to
rust and corrosion. When metal is exposed to moisture, it triggers a
chemical process known as oxidation, which can subsequently lead to
corrosion. The good news is that certain metals are naturally resistant to
this phenomenon, including titanium. Whether it’s used indoors or
outdoors, it will hold for years without succumbing to the effects of rust
and corrosion.

17
1.6 DISADVANTAGES OF TiO2 :
There are also some potential disadvantages to titanium, one of which is
the difficulty of casting. Unlike iron and aluminium, titanium can not be
easily cast. If you are looking for cast metals, it’s best to choose a
different metal instead of titanium. So, why can’t titanium be cast? Again,
this has to do with its strength. Because it’s so strong, titanium can not be
easily cast like aluminium or iron.
It’s also worth mentioning that titanium is generally more expensive than
other types of metals. When compared to steel, iron, aluminium, etc., you
can expect to pay more for titanium. This is due largely to its rarity.
While not necessarily considered “rare,” titanium is rarer than other
metals, resulting in a higher selling price.
The bottom line is that titanium has both advantages and disadvantages.
It’s strong, durable and naturally resistant to rust and corrosion. At the
same time, however, it cannot be cast like aluminium or iron, and it tends
to cost more than other metals.

18
 CHAPTER 2

MANUFACTURING PROCESS

In this chapter we are going to see about the manufacture

of Titanium dioxide that has been taken place in different units plants of
the company. This study helps us to gain more knowledge in various
components to develop new ideas.

2.1 ilmenite beneficiation plant (IBP)

​ In ilmenite beneficiation plant (IBP) the raw limonite containing 55 to
60oC Tio2 is processed to obtain beneficiated limonite of 90 to 35OC
which is the raw material for the pigment production unit by the
following process operations.

2.1.1 Roasting
​ Raw limonite is fed at the rate of 65.9 Ton/Hr with 100C petroleum
coke into a rotating kiln called roaster. The ferric oxide in raw ilmenite is
first subjected to high temperature reduction to ferric oxide in presence of
petroleum coke at a temperature of 900 to 950OC. The reduced limonite is
discharged through a rotary cooler having cooling water tubes and
collected in a hopper.

19
Reaction
Fe2O3 + C → 2FeO + CO
Fe2O3 + CO → 2FeO + CO2

2.1.2 Leaching in digesters

​ 42 Tons of reduced limonite is charged in a digester and leached with
19 to 220C HCl. During leaching the ferrous oxide and other impurities
are dissolved in HCl. Leaching to be carried out in two stages. First with
51 m3 acid and secondly with 38 m3 acid the spent leach liquor is blown
down to the storage tanks from where it is pumped to acid regeneration
plant for regenerating the acid. The leached ilmenite after washing with
50 m3 wash process water. It is dumped into the launders from the
launder it is pumped to the belt filter where it is filtered and the filtered
leached ilmenite is send to calciner through belt conveyor.
Reaction
TiO2 + 2 HCl + FeO → TiO2 + FeCl2 + H2O
TiO2 + 6 HCl + Fe2O3 → TiO2 + 2FeCl3 + 3H2O

2.1.3 Tank farm

​ The spent liquor and wash liquor blown down from the digesters are
pumped to the respective storage tanks, from where it is pumped to the
acid regeneration plant for regenerating the acid. The recovered acid
received from ARP and make up acid from the storage tank are pumped
together using controller to of get mixed acid of 19 to 22oC concentration
for use in the digestors.

2.1.4 Calcination
​ Leaching ilmenite is fed into calciner at the rate of 4 to 6 T/Hr through
screw feeder where it is calcined at 500 – 550oC to remove moisture and

20
volatile matter. The material is cooled by draft in the cooler. The cooled
beneficiated ilmenite is screened and stored in the BI go down through
bucket elevator and belt conveyor.

2.2 Acid Regeneration plant(ARP)

​ The spent acid containing 17 to 18% total chlorine from the spend
liquor storage tank (T-60 A/B/C) is pumped to pre-concentrator recycle
tank. The pre-concentrate recycle pump continuously circulates. The
spend liquid to the pre-concentrator(C-101). This pre-concentrator
circulates spend liquor is pumped from the recycle tank.
The heat required for this reaction is supplied by burning oil in four
burners which are mounted tangential, at the cylindrical bottom of the
spray roster and cause a flow of hot gas to spiral upwards. These hot gas
come into contact with the descending liquid droplets from the spray
nozzle. The Fe2O3 formed collects at the bottom of the spray roaster and
falls down to a slurry box(C-104) where clear water from iron oxide pond
is used to it and pumped to the pond.
The HCl gas formed in the spray roster is drawn by a blower(B-102)
through a set of dry cyclones(G-101) to remove solids from the gas and
then it is cooled in a pre-concentrator from about 335°C to 96°C by a
direct contact with incoming spend acid. it negative and interest of a set
of wave cyclones to remove the liquid carried over from the gas gas from
me cyclones enter the bottom of the observer which is shared back to tau
are filled with any locked sandals and it absorbs the heat shield content in
this team of acetic acid water feet from the top and a broader recovered as
he is having 18.8 percentage concentration is collected at the bottom of
the Vada but and workers by a gravity of storage tank which is packed
our filled with polypropylene sandals to remove that she’ll percent to 0.01
percentage the gas finally let out to excerpts talk by the blower make a

21
water is continuously added in a scrubber and continuously Blunt to a
liquid storage tank.

Fig 2.1 Acid regeneration plant

2.3 CHLORINATION PLANT

The solid raw beneficiated ilmenite (BI) and calcined petroleum coke
(CPC) are pneumatically conveyed from respective hoppers to the
chlorine from chlorine storage tank is also conveyed to the chlorinators.
Cl2 in gaseous from react with BI & PC to produce TiCl4 vapour and
other metallic chlorides.

Chlorinator is a fluidizer bed reactor. The bottom of the chlorinator is

boxed up with a hemispherical dish where a distributor plate with 78 nos.
of nozzles provided for the flow of gas or air required for fluidization
purposes. The Cl2 gas is fed to the Chlorinator through the bottom dished
end of the chlorinators by operating control valves. The BI & CPC are

22
charged to the chlorinators through the side nozzles above the chlorinator
bed.

During initial start up, when air ( 1200Nm3/hr) is fed through the bed
nozzles the material above the bed will be in a fluidized condition and the
temperature will rise gradually. When the temperature reaches 200oC Pet.
Coke will be fed continuously to build up the level up to 40%. BI is fed to
the chlorinator when the temperature reaches 600oC and the level is build
up to 80%. Before feeding Cl2 gas the composition of bed to be ensured
between 45 to 55%. When the chlorinator exits gas temperature reaches
700 to 950oC chlorine can be fed to chlorinators through the dished end.
The temperature of Cl2 from vaporizer must be a minimum of 50oC. The
reaction will take place and TiCl4 vapor produced will come out through
the cross over pipe and then to the cyclone. The temperature of TiCl4 at
cross over pipe is reduced to 180 to 2000C by spraying cooled TiCl4
inside the crossover pipe. The cooled gas will then pass through the
condensation section and the unreacted ore plus other metallic chlorides
are collected at the cyclone bottom and then pumped to ENP.

The gas from the cyclone enters the condensing column bottom and
crude TiCl4 cooled in water cooled heat exchangers ( E204 A/B) enters
from the top and condensed the upward flowing gas. The crude TiCl4 then
flows by gravity to quench surge tank (F.204) and from that to crude
TiCl4 surge tank (F.205).

The gases leaving top of condensing column is passed through water

cooled condensers (E.206 A/B), k.o pot ( D.207) refrigerated condensers
(E.207 A/B), K.o pot (D.208) to recover all the remaining crude TiCl4.
The vent gas at cooled stage from refrigerated condensers passes through
a series of scrubbers with water and lime for scrubbing in case of any

23
exigency. The vent gas from scrubbing system connected with a blower
and dilution air fan draws the gas to atmosphere.

Fig 2.2 Chlorination plant

The crude TiCl4 from condensation section is pumped to a reactor (D,213)

where it is heated and vanadium chloride is reacted with treating oil
added to from a compound, which is separated reboiler (E 210 A/B). The
vapor boils on passes through the heavy end column (D.215 A/B). The
top product pure TiCl4 is cooled in the heavy end condenser (E.215) and
collected in heavy end accumulator (D.219). From this accumulator a part
of the product returned to the column as reflux and the balance is pumped
to pure TiCl4 storage tanks (D.222A/B/C) for storage.

2.4 Oxidation plant

In this purified Ticl2 from U*200 is mixed with Alcl4 and vapor of this
mixture is oxidized in the oxidizer with oxygen in prevalence of LPG
flame to produce Tio2 pigment chlorine which is obtained as a by product
is filtered, cooled, dried and compressed before sending back to U-200
from chlorination of titanium ore there.

24
Pure tickle from tickle storage tank is pumped using transfer pumps
(G-235, G-236) through a heater (E-323) at a temperature of 120oc to
1350c. Aluminum chloride dissolving tank (D-303) from which the feed
material for the further process is drawn. Quantity of AlCl3 to be added
varies for different grades of raw pigment produced. Aluminum chloride
is added for enhancing nucleation reaction.
Tickle and AlCl3 solution from D-304 is taken to tickle feed vaporizer
E301, E302) where it is vaporized using steam in nickel tube bundle and
vapor is send to the tickle pre-heater at a temperature of 145oC to 195oC
through glass lined pipe in the tickle pre-heater this vapour is preheated to
330oC to 370oC using burners Oxygen from oxygen plant is preheated to
940oc to 980oc in the oxygen pre-heater and send to the oxidizer where
LPG is injected and this LPG in presence of heated oxygen forms a flame.
Then the pre-heater tickle vapor is admitted into the oxidizer
where the TiCl3 + AlCl3 vapor reacts to produce TiO2 pigment particles
and chlorine silica sand also fed into the oxidizer to craze the pigment
from downstream cooling tube side. Potassium chloride is injected
downstream.

2.5 Sand mill and classification:

Pigment slurry from storage tanks F401 A/B/C/D is
pumped to trash screen S425 (100/200 mesh vibrating screen)
which removes sand and trash. The screened slurry flows to F412 tank by
gravity flow. From this tank slurry is pumped to sand mill R412 A/B/C
where pigment grinding with sand is done for releasing absorbed gases
like TiCl4 and oxygen. Sand milled slurry is stored in D423 tank and from
there slurry is pumped to grids classifier S402 A/B and to vibrating
screen S404 A/B to screen grit and sand screened slurry flows to D424

25
tank from there slurry is pumped to product classifier S41 A/B/C. product
classifier separates 5 microns particles as overflow for treatment and
slurry is stored in treatment feed tank F414

2.5.1 Treatment:
In treatment various chemicals such as sodium silicate, sodium
aluminate etc. are added which when neutralized with caustic soda
or sulphuric acid from hydrous oxides. Hydrous oxide particles are very
small compared to titanium dioxide particles and trend to coat individual
pigment particles.
Treatment is done in F415 A or B tank on basis. This tank is provided
with steam spurger and agitator having two seeds (20 rpm & 30 rpm).
UsingG417 A&B pumps required quantity of raw slurry is pumped to
treatment tank. Required quantity of filtrate is taken in the tank using G42
pump. The treatment chemicals from U500 are connected to F415 A/B
tank. After batch treatment is connected the whole contents are
transferred to F418.

2.5.2 Filtration and drying:

Treated slurry is pumped to filtrate feed tank F418. From this tank, slurry
is feed to 1st stage filtrate S407 A or B. cake is formed on the filter by
applying vacuum to the drum and the cake is washed by spraying hot
water through nozzles. The cake is discharged to the repulper where it is
agitated after diluted with water. From the repulper slurry goes to F423
tank by gravity flow. Pigment to 2nd stage filter and after washing
and repulping slurry goes to F424 tank. Pigment slurry from F424 is
pumped to dewatering filter S411 A/B. dewatering filter id different from
washing filter since no washing is given. The cake from the dewatering is
falling into extruderwhich from pigment cake into chute which drops into

26
the tunnel drier conveyor. Macroni is carried into the drying chambers by
the conveyor. As the pigment passes through the drier, it loses the
moisture and pigment is discharged to the vibrating conveyor C417. At
this stage moisture content will be less than 1% and organic addition is
sprayed at the discharge of the conveyor. The macroni is stored in F425
through bucket elevator C418 and screw conveyor C428.

2.5.3 Larox:
The slurry from the filter feed tank (F418) is pumped to the slurry tank
(F418) in the laroxsection, using the pump G423B. The pressure
filtration process is done on the basis. In a single batch, 4.5 m3of slurry is
fed into the filter press (PF706). The slurry from the slurry tank (F1418)
is pumped to filter press using the slurry feed pump (G1423). In the
pressure filter the slurry is introduced in the cavity region of the filter
press and air is introduced into the diaphragm above, which creates a
pressure inside removing water content along the pigment particles. The
cake thus formed from the filter press is the feed vat (F1404) using the
belt conveyor C1402. The cake from feed vat is conveyed to the drying
chamber with screw conveyor. In the drying chamber the containing 30%
moisture is reduced to less than 1% moisture content using the heated air
from the burner chamber (500-600oc) and equally distributed to the
pigment particles using the agitator inside the drying chamber
(G1403A). Trimet (600 cc/min) is sprayed into the drying chamber for
the better dispersion of pigment particles. From the drying chamber the
pigment particles are carried to the cyclone. In the cyclone the particles
having higher density will be settle on the bottom of the cyclone (S1410)
and passes on the screw conveyor (S1417A). The escaping fine particles
is collected from the bag filter is passed on the screw conveyor and
forwarded to the screw conveyor D1417 and S1417B. The pigment from

27
the screw conveyor C1417A, C1417 and C1417B is fed to the bucket
elevator (C1418) which carries it to the screw conveyor (C428) and
ultimately to micronized feed tank F425. The flue gas is blown out
through the exhaust to atmosphere.

2.5.4 Micronisation and condensate cooling:

Dried pigment is micronized in the micronisation section. The purpose is
to reduce the particle size to 0.28 microns. Superheated stream at 17.6
Kg/cm2 is used as the grinding medium. Macronito micronicer at an
adjusted rate. The pigment is injected into the microniser chamber by a
high pressure steam ejector. Superheated stream which passes through the
nozzle of microniser attains supersonic velocity. At this velocity pigment
is collides with each other and particles sizes are reduced. The stream
escapes to a condenser / scrubber and micronized pigment is cooled and
conveyed by low pressure air to secondary cyclone and form there to
produce bin. The stream and non-condensable gas are drawn away by a
fines scrubber and venture scrubber by a vaccum pump to the
atmospheric vent. The slurry from F432 A/B (scrubber) flows to surge
tank C412 from where it is recycled back to F432 A/B by pumping
through heat exchangers E401 A/B and E402 A/B.

2.6 UTILITIES DEPARTMENT

Utilities department has the following sections

1. Boiler plant
2. Water treatment plant
3. Air compressor station
4. Effluent compressor station

28
 5. Furnace oil reception storage

2.6.1.Boiler plant

Our boiler house equipped with 2 Nos. of water tubes boilers and one no.
fire tube boiler for supplying steam to production plant

2.6.1.1 Water tube boiler

Make :- ISGEC JOHN THOMPSON, CULCUTTA
Fuel :- Furnace oil
Rating :- 33T/hr
Working pressure :- 24kg/cm3
Total heating surface :- 1727 M2

The boiler was originally designed for coal/oil fired with spreader stoker
and feeder with an economiser. This is steel cased, thin wall two-drum
integral type water tube boiler with natural circulation and balanced draft.
The exit fuel gas passes through the economiser and outlet gases into
atmosphere through chimney by means of ID fans. After dearation the
feed water is supplied in stream drum through economizer using
multistage pump.

The economizer water flows through integral bare type parallel tubes for
picks up the heat from the fuel gas. Water in the steam drum is circulated
to the mud drum via main bank tubes, from the mud drum is distributed
to evaporator main bank tubes and rest to the combustion chamber wall
via down comer pipes and manifold.

29
A steam/water mixture is returned by natural circulation to the steam
drum. This is fitted with internal baffles and cyclone separator for
separating steam water mixture then the steam is purified by passing
through the scrubber box mounted on the top of the cyclone. From the
steam drum, saturated steam is conveyed to saturated collecting header
and distributed to the production plants via common distributed header .

Fig 2.3 Water tube boiler

Part of the steam from the drum goes to super heater. The superheated
coils are suspended in the horizontal draught between combustion
chamber and the heat recovery surfaces. There are 15 Nos. of coils and
finally collected in super heated steam collecting header and distributed
to U-400 via common distribution header.

2.6.1.2 Fire tube (packaged) Boiler

Type :- horizontal smoke tube, 3 pass packaged boiler

Make :- M/s wester works limited, Bombay

Evaporator rate :- 9T/Hr

30
 Max working pressure :- 20 kg/cm2

Fuel :- furnace oil

Fig 2.4 Fire tube boiler

2.6.2 Water treatment plant

Our source water is tube wells; we have 13 Nos of tubes well with a draw
capacity of 40 M3 /hr each. The plant has been designed to produce
560M3/hr filtered water. Process of treatment is aeration, flocculation,
clarification and filtration.

Aeration of raw water to convert iron from dissolved ferrous state to

insoluble ferric state. The aerated water after lime addition flow in to a
chute and then enters into radial flow classifier for flocculation and
subsequent clarification. The effluent from the classifier flows through
rapid gravity filter for filtration. The filtered water collected in a concrete
reservoir.

Filtered water is drawn from the filtered water storage tank with the help
of centrifugal pump and supplying to different plants overhead tanks and
DM unit. 5 Nos cooling water pumps are used to circulate the cooling
water and 2 Nos of cooling towers are provided for cooling the hot water.

31
The hot water coming from various plants sent through the induced
vertical cross flow cooling tower cells and cooled water is collected in the
cold sump. We have a demineralization plant to produce DM water; it is
used in U400 U300 and boiler plant. The DM water plant consist of 3
Nos. strong acid and alkali storage tanks with connected pipe lines.

A fire and drinking water supply network in the factory. The whole plant
is connected with fire and drinking water meet the sanitary requirements
as well as drinking purpose and fire fighting. The fire and drinking water
supply and emergency water to U300& boiler provide by the over headed
tanks and welfare activities

2.6.3 Air compressor station

Operation of air compressors, driers and

supply wet air and dry to various plants as per their requirements. We
have 5 numbers of khosala, reciprocating type two stages twin cylinder
double acting compressors each 45.44 NM3/Min capacity, 3 numbers pf
the air recivers, 3 numbers of drier each 75 NM3/min capacity at a
pressure of 10Kg/cm2 and connected interplant piping.

2.6.4 Effluent compressor station

This is pumping of treated effluent in the

polishing pond to sea. Pumping of effluents from various plants after
neutralization collected in setting pond-after settling the effluent water
collected in the polishing pond by overflow. We have 2 numbers of pump
each 200 M3/hr capacity and one Gallagher pump with 280 M3/hr
capacity and connected pipelines for about 1.5 km. this pumped out to sea

32
if PH value is in the range 5 to 9. All statutory rules and regulations are
applicable while doing the operation.

2.6.5 Furnace oil receipt storage and transferring section

The main functions are receipt of furnace oil,

handling, storage and delivery to the user plants as per their request. We
have two numbers 1000 Kl capacity fuel oil tank, 3 numbers transferring
pump of 1000 LPM capacity and two numbers unloading pump with 340
LPM capacity each. After weighment and dip checking the oil tanker
from central stores will reach to furnace oil storage area and unloaded to
oil tanks and final dip will be taken and manage the stock. Operator in
utility section will pump the furnace oil as per the requirements of the
plants like IBP, ARP and boiler.

33
 CHAPTER - 3

MATERIAL BALANCE

3.1 MATERIAL BALANCE :

Raw pigment production rate = 60 TPD TiO2
TiCl4 condensed in methanol chiller = 0.8 T/100T TiO2
Oxidation Lines operational =2
O2:N2:Cl2 ratio in recycle gas = 8:18:86 mole basis
TiCl4 to heat exchanger = 1.03T/ 100T TiO2
Al2O3 content on raw pigment = 0.6 Wt %
H2O for nucleation = 0.64 T / 100T TiO2
TiO2 content recycle = 2 Wt %
AlCl3 conversion = 100 %
Bag filter efficienc = 100 %
TiCl4 in recycle gas exit demisters =0
TiO2 in slurry to wet storage = 36 Wt%
Ambient temperature = 27oC
TiO2 in makeup slurry = 8 Wt %

3.2 OVER ALL MATERIAL BALANCE TAKING PLACE IN

HEAT EXCHANGER

34
TiCl4 + O2 TiO2 + 2Cl2
From stoichiometry
1 mole of TiCl4 + 1 mole of O2 1 mole of TiO2 + 2 mole of Cl4

TiCl4 required for production of 1 ton of TiO2 = (1000 × mol.wt of TiCl4)/

(mol. Wt of TiO2)

= (1000×189.88)/79.88

= 2.377 tons
Oxygen required for production of 1 Ton of TiO2= (1000 × mol.wt of
O2 )/
( mol. wt of TiO2 )
= (1000 × 32)/79.88
= 0.4006 tons

Total TiCl4 required per day = 2.377 × raw pigment

Production rate =2.377 × 65

= 154.5 tons

Total O2 required per day = 0.4006 × raw pigment

Production rate = 0.4006 × 65

= 26.039 tons

Total TiCl4 required per hour = ( 154.5 × 103 ) / 24

= 6437.5 kg/hr

35
 CHAPTER - 4

ENERGY BALANCE

Energy balance is used in designing industrial processes in which

all energy flows and transformations, such as changes in temperature,
heats of reaction, use of steam or other sources of heat, etc., are
accounted for. Usually mass and energy balance because both are
necessarily part of the calculation because of multiple materials involved,
chemical reactions, phase changes, etc. and partial treatment of some of
the materials.

4.1 HEAT LOST

Heat lost by TiCl4

MpCph (T1 - T2)

Hot fluid

Cold fluid

T1 = Inlet temperature of TiCl4 = 82oC = 355oK

T2 = Outlet temperature of TiCl4 = 53oC = 326OK

Mh = Flow rate of TiCl4

Cph = Specific heat of TiCl4

36
4.2 HEAT GAIN

Heat gain by cold water

McCpc (t2 - t1)

TiCl4 ( Tube side )

Cold water ( shell side )

t1 = Inlet temperature of cold water = 30oC = 303oC

t2 = Outlet temperature of cold water = 60oC = 333oC

Mc = Flow rate of cold water

Cph = Specific heat of cold water

4.3 Total Energy Balance

Equation of energy balance is Q = M Cp ΔT

For heat lost

Qh = Mh Cph ( Th1 - Th2 )

= 1.692 × 1.8691 × (82 - 53)

= 91712.998 W

For heat gain

Qc = Mc Cpc ( Tc1 - Tc2 )

= 1.691 × 1.798 × ( 60 - 30 )

=91487.634 W

Hence Q = Qh = Qc

37
91712.998 = 91487.634

Energy balance is almost satisfied

38
 CHAPTER 5

DESING OF EQUIPMENTS

In this chapter we are going to see about the design of shell and tube
heat ex-changer and spiral heat ex-changer which has been used to
increase the efficiency of the product that has been produced in the
industry for long period of time.

5.1 Design of shell and tube heat ex-changer

Tickle out (Th2) 65-700C

Cold water out (TC2)

45oC

cold
water IN
31oC
Tickle IN (Th1)
85 – 90oC

39
Mass flow rate of hot fluid = 290
Mass flow rate of cold fluid = 100
Specific heat of hot fluid = 0.795
Specific heat of cold fluid = 4.18
Ch => mn Cph => 290 × 0.795 = 230.55 [ Cmin]
Cc => mn Cpc => 100 × 4.186 = 418.6 [ Cmax]

Efficiency

E = Cmax (Th1 – Th2) / Cmin ( Th1 – Tc1) Approximate = 80%

( 75 – 80 )

5.1.1 TO INCREASE EFFICIENCY BY REDUCING INLET H2O

TEMPERATURE

Tickle OUT ?
Water cold water
30 – 32oc 90C
Water OUT
31oC
Tank-1 SHE

85 – 90oC
Tickle IN

40
5.1.1.1 CASE : 1
Flow rate of H2o = 100 m3 (m2w)
Temperature of H2o out from tank 1 = [ Tc1 ] ?
Temperature of cold H2o = 9oC [ Tc2]
Temperature of water in = 31 [ Tf1 ]
Specific heat of water Cp = 4.18 joule/gram oC
Let us assume that flow rate of cold H2O is ( mc ) = 5 m3 ( mc T )
Mh cph ( Tc1 – Tf1 ) = mc cpc ( Tf1 – Tc2 )
100 ( Tc1 – 31 ) = 5 ( 31 – 9 )
100 ( Tc1 – 31 ) = 110
Tc1 – 31 = 1.1
Tc1 = 32.1
Tc1 = 320 C
To find outlet temperature of Tickle
Flow rate of tickle ( mht ) = 290 m3
Specific heat of tickle ( Cpn T ) = 0.795 joule/ gmo C
Inlet temperature of tickle ( Th1 ) = 900C
Outlet temperature of tickle ( Th2 ) = ?
Flow rate of H2O ( mc w) = 100
Specific heat of H2O ( Cpc w ) = 4.18 joule/gmoc
Inlet temperature of H2O ( Tf1 ) = 310 C
Outlet temperature of H2O ( Tf2 ) = 45o C
Mht Cpht ( Th1 – Th2 ) = Mc w Cpc w ( Tf2 – Tf1 )
290 × 0.795 ( 90 – Th2) = 100 × 4.18 ( 45 – 31 )
230.55 ( 90 – Th2 ) = 418 × 14
90 – Th2 = 5852 / 230.55
90 – Th2 = 25.38

41
 Th2 = 640C
Efficiency :
E = C max ( Th1 – Th2 ) / C min ( Th1 – Tf1 )
E = 418 ( 90 – 64 ) / 230 ( 90 – 31 ) = 10,868 / 13,570
E = 80.08 %

5.1.1.2 CASE 2 :
Flow rate of H2O = 100 m3 ( mL w )
Temperature of H2O from Tank 1 = [ Tc1 ]
Temperature of cold H2O = 9o C [ Tc2 ]
Temperature of water IN = 30 [ Tf1 ]
Specific heat of water Cp = 4.18 joule / gram oC
Let us assume flow rate of H2O is ( mc ) = 5 m3 ( mct )
mh cph ( Tc1 – Tf1 ) = mc Cpc ( Tf2 – Tc2 )
100 ( Tc1 – 30 ) = 105
Tc1 – 30 = 105/100
Tc1 = 31oC

To find outlet temp of Tickle

Flow rate of Tickle ( mh T) = 290 m3
Specific heat of Tickle ( Cph T) = 0.795 joule/gmoC
Tickle inlet ( Th1 ) = 90o C
Tickle outlet ( Th2 ) = ?
Flow rate of water ( mc w ) = 100 m3
Specific of water ( Cpc w ) = 4.18 joule/gmoC
H2O inlet (Tf1) = 300C
H2O outlet (Tf2) = 450C

42
mh T Cph T ( Th1 – Th2 ) = mc w Cpc w ( Tf2 – Tf1 )
290 × 0.795 ( 90 – Th2 ) = 100 × 4.18 ( 45 – 30 )
230.55 ( 90 -Th2 ) = 4.8 ( 45 – 30 )
90 – Th2 = 6270 / 230.55
Th2 = 630C
Efficiency :
E = Cmax ( Th1 – Th2 ) / Cmin ( Th1 – Tf2 )
= 418 ( 90 – 65 ) / 230.55 ( 90 – 30 )
= 11286 / 13800
E = 81.78 %

5.1.1.3 CASE : 3
Flow rate of H2O = 100 m3
Temperature of H2O from tank 1 = [ Tc1 ] ?
Temperature of cold H2O = 9oC [ Th2 ]
Temperature of water inlet = 27 [ Tf2 ]
Specific heat of H2O Cp = 4.18 joule/ gmoC
Let us assume flow rate of H2O is ( wc T )= 5 m3
Mh Cph ( Tc1 – Tf1 ) = mc Cpc ( Tf1 – Tc2 )
100 ( Tc1 – 27 ) = 5 ( 27 – 9 )
100 ( Tc1 – 27 ) = 90
Tc1 – 27 = 0.9
Tc1 = 28
To find outlet temperature of Tickle
Flow rate of Tickle ( cm h T ) = 290 m3
Specific heat of tickle (Cp h T) = 0.795 joule/gmoC
Tickle inlet ( Th1 ) = 90oC

43
 Tickle outlet ( Th2 ) = ?
Flow rate of water ( mc w ) = 100 m3
Specific heat of water ( mc w) = 4.18 joule/ gmoC
H2O inlet ( Tf1 ) = 27o C
H2O outlet ( Tf2 ) = 45oC
mnT Cpn T (Th1 – Th2 ) = mc w Cpn W ( Tf2 – Tf1 )
290 × 0.795 ( 90 – Th2 ) = 100 × 4.18 ( 45 – 27 )
230.55 ( 90 – Th2 ) = 418 ( 45 – 27 )
90 – Th2 = 7524 / 230.55
Th2 = 57oC
Efficiency :
E = Cmax ( Th1 – Th2 ) / Cmin ( Th1 – Tf2 )
= 418 ( 90 – 57 ) / 230 ( 90 – 27 )
= 13794 / 14490
E = 95 %
Since case 3 yields the maximum efficiency, now calculating the flow
rate of cold water inlet in tank 1
At Temp 30oC
mh T Cp T ( Tc1 – Tf2 ) = mc w Cpn w ( Tf1 – Tc2)
mh T = 100 cm3 ; Cph T = 100 ; Tc1 = 30 ; Tc2 = 27 ;
mcw = ? ; Cp n T = 100 ; Tf2 = 30 ; Tf1 = 9 .
AT temperature 300C
TC1 = 300
100 ( 30 – 27 ) = mc ( 30 – 9 )
300 = mc × 21
mc = 14.28 m3

AT temperature 31oC

44
 Tc1 = 31
100 ( 31 – 27 ) = mc ( 31 – 9 )
400 = mc × 22
mc = 18.18 m3

AT temperature 320C
TC1 = 32
100 ( 32 – 27 ) = mc ( 32 – 9 )
500 = mc × 23
mc = 21.73 m3

5.1.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN

5.1.2.1 SHELL DIAMETER DESIGN:-
Mass flow rate, m=ρvA
Cold fluid (water) flow through the shell
From thermal design we obtained
Mass flow rate of water as 42kg/s
Design ρ = 1000 kg/m2
Cross sectional area, A = Dshell2/4
Where, Dshell 1 =diameter of shell
M=ρvA
=ρ×v× D2/4
Dshell2=42 × 4/ (1000 × 0.1363 × )
Dshell =626.372 mm
Approximately Dshell =630mm

45
5.1.2.2 MATERIAL SELECTED FOR THE SHELL
SA516 GR 70 is a material standard accepted all over the
global for steel plates.
It is primarily intended for use in welded pressure vessels where notch
toughness is important. The grade covers a range of tensile strength from
50 – 90Mpa
Carbon = 0.27 – 0.31%
Manganese = 0.79 – 1.3%
Phosphorous = 0.035%
Sulphur = 0.035%
Silicon = 0.13-0.45%
The ASME equivalent of P355NH grade is SA 516 GR 70
Tensile strength (N/mm2) = 510/650
Yield stress/min (N/mm2)= 355
E= 34.2 Gpa
No. of TUBES :
Q=U A LMTD
1541.54 × 10-3 = 200.73 × × D × L × N × LMTD
N = 1541.54 × 103 / (200.73 × × 0.0254 × 4.94 × 72.305)
= 269.43 tubes
= 270 tubes
 IS2062
Density – 7850 kg/m3
Mild steel with carbon 0.20% to 0.23% and alloying element. It is used
in fabrication.

46
5.1.3 Design of shell and tube

Table 5.1 Parameters

Parameters measurements
Tube length 4.94m

Tube diameter 0.0254m

Shell diameter 0.485 m

Mass flow of TiO2 3.47 kg/s

Mass flow of 25 kg/s

cooling water
Baffle spacing 0.274 m

Shell thickness 0.01m

Pipe layout angle 600

Number of tubes 184

Tube pitch 0.03125 m

47
5.2 SPIRAL HEAT EXCHANGER
5.2.1 SPIRAL HEAT EXCHANGER DATA :
Heat transfer on the hot side can be calculated as
Q = mh ch (Thi – Tho)
Heat transfer rate on cold side can be calculated as
Q = mc cc (Tco – Tci)
The over all heat transfer coefficient is obtained from
U = Q / ( A × LMTD )
Table 5.2 input data for hot and cold fluids of spiral plate heat
ex-changer
Fluid Flow rate Specific heat Inlet temperature
(kg/s) (KJ/kg) (oC)
Tickle 3.475 185.22 90
Water 3.475 0.795 31

5.2.2 CALCULATION
Q = mh ch (Thi – Tho)
m= mass flow rate = 12500 kg/hr  3.472 kg/sec
Specific heat of vaporization of TiCl4 = 8.4Kcal/mole

Qh = 3.472 × 8.4 × ( 90 – 70 )
= 583.8 KJ/hr

Q = mc cc (Tco – Tci)
m=mass flow rate = 12500kg/hr 3.472kg/sec
Cp= specific heat of liquid = 37.53cal/oC mol=0.795kJ/kg K
Qc = 3.472 × 0.795 × ( 45 – 31 )
= 38.67 KJ/hr
Q = Qh + Qc

48
 = 583.8 + 38.67
Q = 622.47 KJ/hr
U = Q / ( A × LMTD )

Table 5.2.1 Simulated results

FLUID Outlet temperature Heat transfer
( oC ) coefficient
Tickle (Hot) 70 583.8
Water (Cold) 45 38.67

Log mean temperature difference ( LMTD )

LMTD = ( Thi – Tco ) – ( Tho – Tci ) / ln ( Thi – Tco / Tho – Tci )
Thi = 90o
Tho = 700
Tci = 31o
Tco = 45o
= ( 90 – 45 ) – ( 70 – 31 ) / ln ( 90 – 45 / 70 – 31 )
= 6 / ln ( 1.533 )
= 6 / 0.143
= 41.928 k

Over all heat transfer co efficient ( U )

U = 1/ ( 1/hh + 1/hc + t/kw )
U = 1 / ( 1/583.8 + 1/38.67 + 0.001/3.097 )
= 1 / 0.0278
= 35.9 W/m2K

Area of the spiral plate ( A )

A = Q / U × LMTD

49
A = 622.47 / 35.9 × 41.923
= 0.413 m2

Optimal length of the spiral

L = A / 2H
= 0.413 / ( 2 × 0.2 )
= 1.0325 m
The present length of tube is 1m which is approximately equal to the
value obtained (1.0325 m).

50
5.2.3 Design of spiral tube heat ex-changer

Fig 5.2 spiral heat ex-changer

Table 5.2.2 Specification of spiral plate heat exchanger

Parameter Value
Semicircle diameter of the centre line 125 mm
Width of the channel plate 0.2 m
Thickness of the plate 1 mm
Material of the plate Stainless steel
Pole radius from centre 40 mm
Central line 9m
Number of turns 7
Outer diameter of the heat exchanger 0.7 m

51
 CHAPTER 6
EXCISTING HEAT EXCHANGER

6.1 DIMENSIONAL PARAMETERS FOR EXICISTING

HEAT EXCHANGER
1. Tube Length : 49
2. Tube Diameter(OD) :0.0254m
3. Shell Diameter(ID) :0.485m
4. Mass Flow Rate of Ticl4 : 3.45 kg/s
5. Mass Flow Rate of Cooling Water : 25 kg/s
6. Pipe Layout : 60o Triangular
7. Baffle Spacing : 0.274m
8. Shell Thickness : 0.01m
9. Flow Configuration : Counter
10.Pipe Layout angle : 60o
11.Number of Tubes : 184
12.Tube Pinch : 0.03125m

6.2 COMPANY REQUIREMENTS

1. Must cool the chemical from 150o to 40o C
2. Heat Exchanger length cannot exceed 6 m
3. Heat Exchanger shell diameter cannot exceed 1 m
4. Minimize heat exchanger shell and tube weight hence the cost.
5. No variation in heat exchanger pressure.

6.3 COMPARITIVE STUDY OF PRESENT HEAT

EXCHANGERS

52
 The dimensional parameter of the existing heat exchanger
were gathered from the plant (U-200). Theoretical design was done for
existing heat exchanger using correlation & formulas obtained from
machine design book.
Objective of comparative study.
1. By conducting comparative study, its necessitates the design of a
new heat exchanger.
2. In order to compare the dimensional values of existing heat
exchanger to the values obtained after calculations.
3. In order to check the reliability of the equation, formulas, constants
values used.
Heat Transfer in a Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger
Hot side fluid (tube) : TiCl4 at 150oC to 40oC
Cold side fluid (shell) : Water at 36oC
Mass flow rate of TiCl4 : 12500 Kg/hr
Boiling point of TiCl4is 136oC. Therefore the heat transfer process inside
tube can be explained by dividing it into three zones.
Zone 1: Heat Transfer at vapour state i.e. from 150oC to 136oC
Zone 2: Heat Transfer at boiling point i.e. at 136oC
Zone 3: Heat Transfer at liquid state i.e. from 150oC to 40oC
Lets Q1, Q2, Q3 be the heat transfer at zone 1, 2 and 3
Then total heat transfer Q=Q1 + Q2+ Q3
Q1=m Cp ∆T
m= mass flow rate = 12500 kg/hr  3.472 kg/sec
Cp= specific heat of vapour = 24.3 cal/oC mol
=0.5364 J/oCg
=0.535 KJ/Kg K

53
150oC
136oC

40oC
40oc
36oC

300c

Zone 1 zone 2 zone 3

Fig 6.1 Present heat exchanger state

∆T = Temperature difference = 150-136=14oC

Therefore, Q1=3.472×0.535×14=26.033 kJ
Q2= m× latent heat of vaporization of TiCl4 at 136oC
Latent heat of vaporization = 8.4Kcal/mole = 185.22KJ/kg
Therefore, Q2 = 3.4728×185.22
= 643.084kJ
Q3=m×Cp×∆T
m=mass flow rate = 12500kg/hr 3.472kg/sec
Cp= specific heat of liquid = 37.53cal/oC mol=0.795kJ/kg K
∆T= temperature difference = 136 - 40 = 96oC
Therefore, Q3=3.472×96×0.795=265Kj
Thermal Duty Q=Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = 26.033+643.084+265
= 934.1kJ/hr

54
6.3.1 To find hi
Reynolds number:- Re=ρvd/μ
=4m/ Dμ
=8720214.114

Viscosity μ in centipoise between temperature 40oC to 150oC value

ranges from 0.75cp to 0.012cp but taking the average value as 0.2cp

0.2cp=2 ×10-4 kg/m sec

Diameter, D=1 inch=25.4mm
Mass flow rate, m=3.372kg/sec
Prandtl no:- pr=Cp μ/K
K=Thermal conductivity
Pr=0.795 ×2 ×10-4/0.004
=39.75
Considering fully developed flow
Nu=0.023Re0.8Prn
0.6<Pr<100:2500<Re<1.25 × 106
n=0.3 for cooling fluid
Also Nu=hi d/k
hi d/k=0.023 × (870214.114)0.8 × 39.750.3
hi d=3919.493
hi=3919.493 ×0.004/0.0254
=617.25 W/m2K

Assuming that all the heat from hot fluid is transferred to cold fluid
Qh(TiCl4) = Qc (water)
Qh=934.12 kJ/sec
Qc=mc × CP × ∆T

55
 ∆T=40-31=90C
Cp=4.186kJ/kg K
Qh=Qc=mC × 4.186 × 9=934.12
mC=934.12/ (4.186×9)
=24.794kg/sec
Therefore according triangular to effectiveness, the mass flow rate of cold
fluid should be greater than 25kg/sec

6.3.2 To find ho
For 60o equilateral triangle arrangement
De=8[0.43p2-0.5 (d102)/4]/ d10/2
Here P, pitch = 31.5mm=1.25inch,d10, diameter of tube=1 inch
De =8[0.43(1.25)2-0.5 (12/4)]/
=2.233 inch =0.056m
Clearance, c=P-d10=1.25-1=0.25 in=6.25cm
Flow area of tube bundle as,
as=(DS × c × B)/ (P× 144 × 1000)
B-Distance between baffles=L/no: of baffles
=4940/18=274.4mm
Ds=485mm(from sheet)
as=(485× 6.25 × 274.44)/ (31.5 × 144 × 1000)
=0.1834m2
Gs=mass flow rate of cold fluid
=mc/as
mc=25kg/sec
Gs=25/0.1834
=136.3kg/m2 sec
Reynolds No: Re= DeGs/μ

56
 =(0.056 × 136.3)/ (233.415 × 10-6)
=32703.93

Considering the exchanger having baffles cut of 35%

Heat transfer parameter JH=95
Pr=Cp μ/K
=4.184 × 233.415 × 10-3
=1.46115
h0 = jh k (Pr)0.4/0.056
= 95 × 0.6687 (1.4)0.4/0.056
=1297.83W/ m2K

Overall heat transfer coefficient

U=1/ (1/hi+Rfi+Rfo+1/ho)
h1=617.25W/m2K
ho=1297.83 W/m2K
TiCl4, Rfi=0.002
U-1 / (1/617.25+0.003+0.0002+1/1297.83)
=1/ (5.591 × 10-3)
=178.87 W/ m2K
Q= UoA∆Tm
=Uo DLN∆Tm
LMTD, ∆Tm=(150-40)-(40-31)/ln(150-40/40-31)
=72.305oC
Q=3362821.2KJ/hr
D=1 inch tube
N=184 nos

57
Substituting all the values
3362821.2 × 1000/3600= 78.87 × × 72.305 × 0.0254 × L × 184
L=4.92m
The present length of tube is 4.94m which is approximately equal to the
value obtained (4.92m).
On comparing the dimension of existing heat exchanger with values
obtained using calculation, it is inferred that:
1. Both the values are similar
2. The formulas and constant values are reliable for further designs.

58
 CHAPTER 7
PROCESS ECONOMICS
7.1 Cost of Estimation
Cost of Alfa Lava heat exchanger = Rs.52500
Cost of one shell of Alfa Lava = Rs.4200
Cost of GEO Eco flux = Rs.556000
Cost of one shell used in Alfa Lava heat exchanger = Rs.4150
Number of Tubes used in Alfa Lava heat exchanger = Rs.270
So Total cost of Alfa Lava heat exchanger = 270 × 4200 = Rs.11,34,000

Number of tubes used in GEO Eco flux exchanger = Rs.256

So Total cost of GEO Eco flux heat exchanger = 256 × 4150
= Rs.10,62,400
So the total cost for both the heat exchangers = 1134000 + 1062400
= Rs.21,96,400
For the newly designed Alfa Lava heat exchanger,
Number of tubes used = Rs.256
So the total cost of newly designed
Alfa Lava heat exchanger = 265 × 4200 = Rs.11,34000
So reduction in cost = 2196400 - 1134000 = Rs.10,62,400

59
7.2 MAINTENANCE COST
Per hour loss = Rs.35,000
Total time = 8 hrs for cleaning
Labor = 5 people Rs.150/hr
Considering two heat exchangers, there would be four maintenance
schedules, two for each heat exchanger.
So downtime loss would be = 8 × 4 = 32 hrs
Per hour loss is assumed by Rs. 50,000
So for 8 hrs Rs.35000 × 32 = Rs.11,20,000
Considering new heat exchanger, there would be an average of 3
maintenance schedules.
So down time loss would be 8 × 3 = 24hrs
Per hour loss is assumed to be Rs.35000 × 24 = Rs.840000

Labor cost for maintenance of existing heat exchanger.

For one worker = Rs.200 per hour × 24 hours
For five workers = Rs.200 × 24 × 5 = Rs.24,000
Savings from down time cost = Rs. 32000 - 24000
= Rs. 280000
Savings from labor cost = Rs. 32000 - 24000
= Rs. 8000

60
 CONCLUSION
As the conclusion, the objective of this experiment is to increase
the rate of efficiency of heat exchanger which as been using on the plant.
our aim is to increase the efficiency of shell and tube heat exchangers
without change in the no. of tubes and not by increasing their tube
diameters and another equipment named spiral heat exchanger, so that it
would be helpful to the industry. We have increased the efficiency of the
shell and tube heat exchanger by decreasing the standard temperature of
the inlet water. We have decided to decrease the ambient temperature by
placing a cooler on the inlet of water and that rises the rate of efficiency
of shell and tube heat exchanger. Then we have designed a spiral heat
exchanger which is very useful and the cost of the product is low. The
spiral heat exchanger has a backwash which makes the cleaning process
simple and the way of operation is easy, this is less complicated than shell
and tube heat exchanger. The objectives of the experiments are achieved.

61
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