HEAT

CHAPTER 11
HEAT

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DEFINITION

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Total Kinetic energy of a body is known as HEAT.

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OR

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Transfer of energy from a hot body to a cold one is

termed as Heat.

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Heat is measured by using an measurement

centimeter.

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UNITS
Since heat is a force of energy therefore its unit is
Joule (J).
TEMPERATURE
DEFINITION

The average kinetic energy of a body is known as

Temperature.
OR

The quantitative determination of degree of hotness

may be termed as Temperature.

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SCALES OF TEMPERATURE
There are three main scales of temperature.
1. Celsius Scale
2. Fahrenheit Scale
3. Kelvin Scale
Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are also known as
Scales of Graduation.

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1. Celsius Scale
The melting point of ice and boiling point of water at
standard pressure (76cm of Hg) taken to be two
fixed points. On the Celsius (centigrade) scale the
interval between these two fixed points is divided
into hundred equal parts. Each part thus represents
one degree Celsius (1C). This scale was suggested
by Celsius in 1742.
Mathematically,
C = K 273
OR
C = 5/9 (F 32)
2. Fahrenheit Scale
The melting point of ice and boiling of water at

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standard pressure (76cm of Hg) are taken to be two

fixed points. On Fahrenheit scale the lower fixed
point is marked 32 and upper fixed point 212. The
interval between them is equally divided into 180
parts. Each part represents one degree Fahrenheit
(1F).
Mathematically,
F = 9/5 (C + 32)

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3. Kelvin Scale
The lowest temperature on Kelvin Scale is -273C.
Thus 0 on Celsius scale will be 273 on Kelvin scale
written as 273K and 100 on Celsius scale will be
373K. The size of Celsius and Kelvin scales are
same.
Mathematically,
K = C + 273
THERMAL EQUILIBRIUM
Heat flows from hot body to cold body till the
temperature of the bodies becomes same, then they
are said to be in Thermal Equilibrium.
THERMAL EXPANSION
DEFINITION

The phenomenon due to which solid experience a

change in its length, volume or area on heating is
known as Thermal Expansion.

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Explanation
If we supply some amount of heat to any substance
then size or shape of the substance will increase.
This increment is known as Thermal Expansion.
Thermal expansion is due to the increment of the
amplitudes of the molecules.

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Types of Thermal Expansion

There are three types of Thermal Expansion.
1. Linear Expansion
2. Superficial Expansion
3. Volumetric Expansion.

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1. Linear Expansion.
If we supply some amount of heat to any rod, then
the length of the rod, then the length of the rod will
increase. Such increment is known as Linear
Expansion.
2. Superficial Expansion.
If we apply some amount of heat to any square or
rectangle then area of the square or rectangle will

increase. Such increment is known as Superficial

Expansion.

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3. Volumetric Expansion.
If we apply some amount of heat to any cube, then
the volume of the cube will increase. Such increment
is known as Volumetric Expansion.

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COEFFICIENT OF LINEAR EXPANSION

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CONSIDERATION
Let Lo be the initial length of rod at t1 C. If we
increase the temperature from t1 C to t2 C, then
length of the rod will increase. This increment in
length is denoted by L. The increment in length
depends upon the following two factors.
1. Original Length (Lo)
2. Difference in temperature t
Derivation
The increment in length is directly proportional to
the original length and temperature difference.
Mathematically,
L Lo (I)
L t (II)
Combining eq (I) and (II), we get
L Lot

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=> L = Lot
Where is the constant of proportionality and it is
known as coefficient of Linear Expansion. It is
defined as,
It is the increment in length per unit length per
degree rise in temperature.
Its unit is 1/C or C. If Lt is the total length, then
Lt = Lo + L
=> Lt = Lo + Lot
=> Lt = Lo (1 + t)

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COEFFICIENT OF VOLUMETRIC
EXPANSION

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Consideration
Let Vo be the initial length of rod at t1 C. If we
increase the temperature from t1C to t2C then
length of the rod will increase. This increment in
length is denoted by V. The increment in length
depends upon the following two factors.
3. Original Volume (Lo)
4. Difference in temperature t
Derivation
The increment in volume is directly proportional to
the original volume of temperature difference.

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Mathematically,
V Vo - (I)
V t - (II)
Combining eq (I) and (II), we get,
V Vo t
=> V = Vot
Where is the constant of proportionality and it is
known as coefficient of Volumetric Expansion. It is
defined as
It is the increment in volume per unit volume per
degree rise in temperature.
Its unit is 1/C or C-1. If Vt is the total volume then
Vt = Vo + V
=> Vt = Vo + Vo t
=> Vt = Vo (1 + t)

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State and Explain Boyles Law and Charles

Law.
INTRODUCTION
Gas Laws are the laws, which give relationship
between Pressure, Volume, temperature and mass of
the gas. There are two gas laws.
1. Boyles Law
2. Charles Law

BOYLES LAW

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Statement 1
According to first statement of Boyles Law:
Volume of the known mass of gas is inversely
proportional to the pressure, if temperature is kept
constant.
Mathematical Form
Mathematically,
V 1/P
=> V = K 1/P
=> PV = K (Constant)
P1V1 = P2V2 = = K
=> P1V1 = P2V2
The above equation is mathematical form of Boyles
Law.
Statement II
According to second statement of Boyles Law.
The product of the pressure and volume of the
known mass of the gas remain constant if the
temperature is kept constant.
Statement III
According to third statement of Boyles Law.
The product of pressure and volume of a gas is

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Mathematical Form
Mathematically,
PV m
=> PV = Km
=> PV/m = K
=> P1V1/m1 = P2V2/m2

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directly proportional to the mass of a gas, provided

that temperature is kept constant.

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Limitations of Boyles Law

Boyles Law does not hold good at high pressure,
because at high pressure gases convert into liquid or
solid.

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Graphical Representation
The graph between pressure and volume is a curved
line, which shows that volume and pressure are
inversely proportional to each other.
CHARLES LAW

Statement I
According to first statement of Charles Law.
Volume of known mass of gas is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature, if then
pressure is kept constant.

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Mathematical Form
Mathematically,
VT
=> V = KT
=> V/T = K
OR
=> V1/T1 = V2/T2
The above equation is mathematical form of Charles
Law.

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Statement II
According to second statement of Charles Law.
The ratio between volume and temperature of the
known mass of a gas is always constant, if pressure
is kept constant.

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Limitations of the Law

This law does not hold good at low temperature
because at low temperature gases convert into liquid
or solid.
GENERAL GAS EQUATION
It is the combination of Boyles law, Charles Law
and Avogadros Law. According to Boyles Law.
V 1/P - (I)
According to Charles Law

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V T - (II)
According to Avogadros Law
V n - (III)
Combining eq (I), eq (II) and eq (III)
V nT/P
=> V = RnT/P
=> PV = RnT - (A)
Where R is the universal gas constant, We Know
that
R = R/NA
=> R = KNA
Where K is the Boltzman constant, Its value is
K = 1.38 x 10(-23) J/K
Substituting the value of R in eq (A)
=> PV = nKNAT
=> PV = nNAKT
But nNA = N1 (Total number of molecules),
therefore,
PV = NtKT
=> P = Nt/V KT
Since Nt/V = N (Total Number of molecules in a
given volume), therefore,
P = NKT
The above equation is other form of General Gas
Equation.

Qs. What are the basic postulates of Kinetic

Molecular Theory pf Gases?

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INTRODUCTION
The properties of matter in bulk can however be
predicted on molecular basis by a theory known as
Kinetic Molecular theory of gases. The characteristic
of this theory are described by some fundamental
assumptions, which explained below:

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BASIC POSTULATES OF KINETIC

MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES

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1. Composition
All gases are composed of small, spherical solid
particle called molecules.

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2. Dimension of Molecules
The dimensions of the molecules is compared to the
separation between the molecule is very small.
3. Number of Molecules
At standard condition, there are 3 x 10(23)
molecules in a cubic meter.
4. Pressure of Gas
Gas molecules collide with each other as well as
with the wall of the container and exert force on the

walls of the container. This force per unit are is

known as Pressure.

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5. Collision Between the Molecules

The collision between the molecules is elastic in
which momentum and Kinetic energy remains
constant.

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7. Kinetic Energy of Molecules

If we increase the temperature of gas molecules,
then K.E will also increase. It means that average
kinetic energy of the gas molecules is directly
proportional to the absolute temperature.

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8. Forces Of Interraction
There is no force of attraction or repulsion between
the molecules.
9. Law of Mechanics
Newtonian mechanics is applicable to the motion of
molecules.
THERMODYNAMICS
DEFINITIONS
The branch of Physics that deals with the conversion
of heat energy into mechanical energy or work or

transformation of work into heat energy is known as

Thermodynamics.

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Laws of Thermodynamics
There are two laws of thermodynamics.
1. First Law of Thermodynamics
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics

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State and explain first law of Thermodynamics.

What are the application of first law of
Thermodynamics?

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FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

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First Statement
Whenever heat energy is converted into work or
work is transformed into heat energy, the total
amount of heat energy is directly proportional to the
total amount of work done.
Mathematical Expression
Mathematically,
QW
=> Q = JW
Where J is the mechanical equivalent of heat or
joules constant. Its value is 4.2 joules.

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Second Statement
If Q is the amount of heat supplied to any system,
then this heat will be utilized to increase the internal
energy of the system in the work done in order to
move the piston.

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Mathematical Expression
Mathematically,
Q Au + w
The above equation is the mathematical form of first
law of thermodynamics.
Where
u = Internal energy of the system.
w = Amount of work done.
Q will be positive when heat is supplied to the
system and it is negative when heat is rejected by the
system.
w will be positive when work is done by the
system and it will be negative when work is done on
the system.
Third Statement
For a cyclic process, the heat energy supplied to a
system and work done on the system is equal to the
sum of heat energy rejected by the system.

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{Shows cyclic process

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Mathematical Expression
Mathematically,
Q(IN) + W(IN) = Q(OUT) + W(OUT)
Q(IN) Q(OUT) = W(OUT) + W(IN)
Q = W
{dQ = {dW

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Fourth Statement
For a system and surrounding the total amount of
heat energy remains constant

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APPLICATIONS OF THE LAW

There are four applications of first law of
Thermodynamics.
1. Isometric or Isocohric Process.
2. Isobaric Process
3. Isothermal Process
4. Adiabatic Process
1. Isometric or Isocohric Process
The process in which volume of the system remains
constant is known as Isometric Process.
In this process all supplied amount of heat is utilized
to increase the internal energy of the system.

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Mathematical Form
In this process first law of thermodynamics take the
following form.
Q = u + W
But,
W = 0
=> Q = u = 0
=> Q = u

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2. Isobaric Process
The process in which pressure is kept constant is
known as isobaric process.
In this process, all supplied amount of heat is
utilized for the following two functions.
i. To increase the internal energy of the system.
ii. In work done in order to move the piston upward.
3. Isothermal Process
A process in which temperature is kept constant is
known as Isothermal Process.
There are two parts of isothermal process.
i. Isothermal Expansion
ii. Isothermal Compression
i. Isothermal Expansion
In this process cyclinder is placed on a source and

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piston is allowed to move upward. When we do so

temperature and pressure of the working substance
will decrease while volume will increase. In order to
keep the temperature constant, we have to supply
required amount of heat from source to cylinder.
Since in this expansion, temperature is constant
therefore it is known as Isothermal Expansion.

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ii. Isothermal Compression

In this process, cylinder is placed on a sink and
piston is allowed to move downward. When we do
so temperature and pressure of working substance
will increase while volume will decrease. In order to
maintain the temperature, we have to reject required
amount of heat from cylinder to the sink.
Since in this compression, temperature is kept
constant therefore it is known as isothermal
compression.
SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Introduction
It is inherit tendency of heat that it always flows
from hot reservoir to cold reservoir. Rather than to
flow in both the directions with equal probability.
On the basis of this tendency of heat a law was

proposed that is known as Second Law of

Thermodynamics.

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Statement
It is impossible to construct a process which reserves
the natural tendency of heat.
This law is also known as Law of heat and can also
be stated as
Efficiency of heat engine is always less than unity.

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Explanation
Many statements of this law has been proposed to
cover similar but different point of vies in which two
are given below.
1. Lord Kelvin Statement
2. Clausius Statement

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1. Lord Kelvin Statement

According to this statement,
It is impossible to construct a heat engine which
extract all heat form the source and convert it into
equal amount of work done and no heat is given to
the sink.
Mathematically,
Q1 W
Q2 O

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2. Clausius Statement
According to Clausius Statement,
Without the performance of external work heat
cannot flow from cold reservoir towards, the hot
reservoir.

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Example
In case of refrigerator flow of heat is unnatural but
this unnatural flow of heat is possible only when we
apply electrical power on the pump of the
refrigerator.
ENTROPY
Definition

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Qs. Define the term Entropy and Give its Uses

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It measures the disorderness of any system.

Mathematically,
S = Q/T
Where s shows change in entropy.
Units
Joule per degree Kelvin J/K.
Explanation
As we know that incase of isometric process volume

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is constant. In case of Isothermal process

temperature and pressure is constant, but in case of
adiabatic process neither temperature, nor pressure
or volume is constant but one thermal property is
constant which is known as Entropy.
There are two types of Entropy.
1. Positive Entropy/
2. Negative Entropy

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1. Positive Entropy
If heat is supplied to the system the entropy will be
positive.

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2. Negative Entropy
When heat is rejected by the system the entropy will
be negative.

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Qs. What is carbot engine an carnot cycle?

CARNOT ENGINE
Definition

Carnot engine is an ideal heat engine which

converts heat energy into mechanical energy.
Working of Carnot Engine
It consists of a cylinder and a piston. The walls of

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the cylinder are non-conducting while the bottom

surface is the conducting one. The piston is also nonconducting and friction less. It works in four steps.
Which are as follows.
1. Isothermal Expansion
2. Adiabatic Expansion
3. Isothermal Compression
4. Adiabatic Compression

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1. Isothermal Expansion
First of all, cylinder is placed on a source and allow
to move upward as a result temperature and pressure
of the working substance decreases, while volume
increases. In order to maintain temperature we have
to supply more amount of heat from source to the
cylinder. Since in this expansion temperature is kept
constant.
2. Adiabatic Expansion
Secondly cylinder is placed on an insulator and
piston is allow to move downward as a result
temperature and pressure of working substance will
decrease. While volume will increase but no heat is
given or taken of the cylinder.

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3. Isothermal Compression
In this state cylinder is placed on a sink and piston is
allow to move downward as a result temperature and
pressure of the working substance will increase
while volume will decrease. In order to maintain
temperature we have to reject extra heat from
cylinder to the sink. Since in this compression
temperature is constant.

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4. Adiabatic Compression
Finally cylinder is placed on an insulator and piston
is a flow to move downward, when we do so neither
temperature nor pressure or volume is constant. But
no heat is given or taken out of the cylinder.
CARNOT CYCLE

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Definition

By combining the four processess Isothermal

Expansion, Adiabatic Expansion, Isothermal
Compression and Adiabatic Compression which are
carried out in carnot engine, then we get a cycle
knows as Carnot cycle.
Qs. How can we increase the efficiency of Heat
Engine?

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If we want to increase the efficiency of any heat

engine then for this purpose we have to increase
temperature of source as maximum as possible and
reduce the temperature of sink as minimum as
possible.
Qs. Define Specific Heat and Molar Specific Heat.

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SPECIFIC HEAT

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Definition

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Specific heat is the amount of heat required to raise

the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one
degree centigrade.

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Different substances have different specific heat

because number of molecules in one kg is different
in different substances. It is denoted by c.
Mathematical Expression
Consider a substance having mass m at the
temperature t1. The amount of heat supplied is Q,
which raises the temperature to t2. The change in
temperature is t.
The quantity of heat is directly proportional to the
mass of the substance.

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Q m
And the temperature difference
Q t
Combining both the equations
Q mt
=> Q = cmt
=> c = Q / mt - (I)
Where c is the specific heat of the substance. Its unit
is Joules / KgC.

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MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT

Definition

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Molar specific heat is the amount of heat required to

raise the temperature of one mole of a substance
through one degree celsius.
Almost all the substances have the same amount of
molar specific heat because the numbers of
molecules in all substances are same in one mole. It
is denoted by cM.
Mathematical Expression
Mathematically,
No. of Moles = Mass / Molecular Mass
=> n = m / M

=> nM = m
=> nM = Q / nt
Where n is the number of moles. The unit of molar
specific heat is J/KgC.

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Qs. Define Molar Specific Heat at Constant

volume and at Constant Pressure.

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MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT

VOLUME

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Definition

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The amount of heat required to raise the

temperature of one mole of any gas through one
degree centigrade, at constant volume is known as
molar specific heat volume.

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It is denoted by Cv.

Mathematical Expression
Mathematically,
Qv = nCvt
Where Qv is the heat supplied at constant volume.
MOLAR SPECIFIC HEAT AT CONSTANT
PRESSURE

Definition

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The amount of heat required to raise the

temperature of unit mass of a substance through one
degree centigrade at constant pressure is known as
Molar Specific Heat at Constant Pressure.
Mathematical Expression

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It is denoted by Cp.

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Mathematically,
Qp = nCpt
Where Qp is the heat supplied at constant volume.