BENDING FREQUENCIES OF BEAMS, RODS, AND PIPES

Revision R
By Tom Irvine
Email: tom@vibrationdata.com
July 6, 2012
_________________________________________________________________________________________________________

Introduction
The fundamental frequencies for typical beam configurations are given in Table 1.
Higher frequencies are given for selected configurations.
Table 1. Fundamental Bending Frequencies
Configuration

Frequency (Hz)
f1 =

Cantilever

1 3 . 5156

2 L2

EI

f2 = 6.268 f1
f3 = 17.456 f1

Cantilever with
End Mass m
Simply-Supported
at both Ends
(Pinned-Pinned)

f1 =

fn =

1
2

Free-Free

0 . 2235

1 n

2 L

f1 = 0
f2 =

3 EI
L m L

EI

, n=1, 2, 3, .

(rigid-body mode)

1 22 . 373

2 L2

f3 = 2.757 f1
f4 = 5.404 f1

EI

Table 1. Fundamental Bending Frequencies (continued)

Configuration

Frequency (Hz)

Fixed-Fixed

Same as free-free beam except there is no rigid-body

mode for the fixed-fixed beam.

Fixed - Pinned

f1 =

1 15 . 418

2 L2

EI

where
E

is the modulus of elasticity

I
L

is the area moment of inertia

is the length
is the mass density (mass/length)
is the applied force

Note that the free-free and fixed-fixed have the same formula.
The derivations and examples are given in the appendices per Table 2.
Table 2. Table of Contents
Appendix
A
B
C
D
E
F

Title
Cantilever Beam I

Mass

Solution

End mass. Beam mass is

negligible

Approximate

Beam mass only

Approximate

Cantilever Beam III

Both beam mass and the

end mass are significant

Approximate

Cantilever Beam IV

Beam mass only

Beam Simply-Supported at
Both Ends I
Beam Simply-Supported at
Both Ends II

Center mass. Beam mass

is negligible.

Cantilever Beam II

Beam mass only

Eigenvalue
Approximate
Eigenvalue

Table 2. Table of Contents (continued)

Appendix
G
H
I
J

Title

Mass

Free-Free Beam

Beam mass only

Eigenvalue

Beam mass only

Approximate

Beam mass only

Approximate

Beam mass only

Eigenvalue

Steel Pipe example, Simply

Supported and Fixed-Fixed
Cases
Rocket Vehicle Example,
Free-free Beam
Fixed-Fixed Beam

Solution

Reference
1. T. Irvine, Application of the Newton-Raphson Method to Vibration Problems,
Revision E, Vibrationdata, 2010.

APPENDIX A

Cantilever Beam I
Consider a mass mounted on the end of a cantilever beam. Assume that the end-mass is
much greater than the mass of the beam.
g

EI
m
L

Figure A-1.
E
I
L
g
m

is the modulus of elasticity.

is the area moment of inertia.
is the length.
is gravity.
is the mass.

The free-body diagram of the system is

L

MR

mg
R

Figure A-2.
R is the reaction force.
MR is the reaction bending moment.
Apply Newtons law for static equilibrium.

forces 0

(A-1)

R - mg = 0

(A-2)

R = mg

(A-3)

At the left boundary,

m om ents 0

(A-4)

MR - mg L = 0

(A-5)

MR = mg L

(A-6)

Now consider a segment of the beam, starting from the left boundary.
V
y
x

MR

M
R

Figure A-3.
V is the shear force.
M is the bending moment.
y is the deflection at position x.

Sum the moments at the right side of the segment.

m om ents 0

(A-7)

MR - R x - M = 0

(A-8)

M = MR - R x

(A-9)

The moment M and the deflection y are related by the equation

M E I y

(A-10)

E I y M R R x

(A-11)

E I y m gL m g x

(A-12)

E I y m g L x

(A-13)

mg

y
L x
EI

(A-14)

Integrating,

x2
mg

y
Lx 2 a
EI

(A-15)

Note that a is an integration constant.

Integrating again,
2
mg x

y(x)
L
E I 2

x3

ax b
6

(A-16)

A boundary condition at the left end is

y(0) = 0

(zero displacement)

(A-17)

Thus
b=0

(A-18)

Another boundary condition is

y ' 0 0

(zero slope)

(A-19)

Applying the boundary condition to equation (A-16) yields,

a=0

(A-20)

The resulting deflection equation is

2
mg x

y(x)
L
E I 2

(A-21)

2 3
mg L L

y(L)

L
E I 2 6

(A-22)

x3

6

The deflection at the right end is

m g L3
y(L)
3E I

(A-23)

Recall Hookes law for a linear spring,

F=ky

(A-24)

F is the force.
k is the stiffness.
The stiffness is thus
k=F/y

(A-25)

The force at the end of the beam is mg. The stiffness at the end of the beam is

mg

3
m gL

3 E I

(A-26)

3E I
L

(A-27)

The formula for the natural frequency fn of a single-degree-of-freedom system is

fn

(A-28)

The mass term m is simply the mass at the end of the beam. The natural frequency of the
cantilever beam with the end-mass is found by substituting equation (A-27) into (A-28).
fn

1
2

3 EI
mL

(A-29)

APPENDIX B
Cantilever Beam II
Consider a cantilever beam with mass per length . Assume that the beam has a uniform
cross section. Determine the natural frequency. Also find the effective mass, where the
distributed mass is represented by a discrete, end-mass.

EI,

Figure B-1.
The governing differential equation is
4
y

EI

2
y
t

(B-1)

The boundary conditions at the fixed end x = 0 are

y(0) = 0
dy
dx

(zero displacement)
0

(zero slope)

(B-2)
(B-3)

x0

The boundary conditions at the free end x = L are

2
d y
dx

(zero bending moment)

(B-4)

xL
3
d y
dx

(zero shear force)

xL

Propose a quarter cosine wave solution.

(B-5)


x
y ( x ) y o 1 co s

2 L

(B-6)

x
yo
sin

2L
dx
2L

(B-7)

dy

2

x
yo
c o s

2
2L
2L
dx
d

(B-8)

3
d y

3
x
x
yo
s in

3
2L
2L
dx

(B-9)

The proposed solution meets all of the boundary conditions expect for the zero shear
force at the right end. The proposed solution is accepted as an approximate solution for
the deflection shape, despite one deficiency.
The Rayleigh method is used to find the natural frequency. The total potential energy
and the total kinetic energy must be determined.

The total potential energy P in the beam is

2
2
L d y
P
dx

2 0 d x 2
EI

(B-10)

By substitution,
2
2
L

x
P
y o 2 L c o s 2 L d x
2 0

EI

2
EI

P
yo

2L
2

2
EI

y o
P

2L
2

2
L
x
0 co s 2 L d x

L 1
x
2 1 c o s L d x

10

(B-11)

(B-12)

(B-13)

2 2
EI
1
L
x
y o
P
x s in

2L 2

L
2

(B-14)
0

EI
2

y o

64

(B-15)

EI
2

yo
3
L

(B-16)

3 2 L4

The total kinetic energy T is

1
2

1
2

1
2

0 y

2
n

L
x
0 y o 1 c o s 2 L

(B-17)

dx

L
x
2 x
co s
dx
1 2 co s
2 L
2L

(B-19)

L
x
2 x
co s
dx
1 2 co s
2 L
2L

(B-20)

1
1
L
x
x
co s
dx
1 2 co s
L
2L
2
2

(B-21)

2
2
n yo

1
2

L 3
x
x
co s
dx
2 co s
L
2L
2

2
2
n yo

4L
x L
x
2 3
2
n yo
sin
sin

x
2L
L
2

2
1

(B-18)

dx

2
2
n yo

2
2
n yo

2
n

4L
2 3
2
n yo

L
2

2
1

(B-22)

(B-23)
0

(B-24)

11

8
2
2
n yo
L 3

4

(B-25)

Now equate the potential and the kinetic energy terms.

1
8
2
2
2
4 EI
n yo
L 3

yo
3

4

64

L
1

(B-26)

1 4 EI

8
2
n L 3

3

16

(B-27)

4 EI

L
2
n

1 6 L 3

(B-28)

4 EI

L
n

1 6 L 3

1/ 2

4 EI

1
L
fn

2
8
1 6 3

1/ 2

4 EI

1
L
fn

2
8
1 6 3

1/ 2

(B-29)

(B-30)

(B-31)

12

1
fn

2 4 L2

1 3 .6 6 4
fn

2 L2

EI

1/ 2

EI

(B-32)

(B-33)

Recall that the stiffness at the free of the cantilever beam is

k

3E I
L

(B-34)

The effective mass meff at the end of the beam is thus

m e ff

m e ff

2 fn

(B-35)

3E I

1
3
L 2
2

m e ff

3 .6 6 4

L2

E I

3E I

(B-37)

EI
1 3 .4 2 5
4

L
L

(B-36)

m eff 0 .2 2 3 5 L

(B-38)

13

APPENDIX C
Cantilever Beam III
Consider a cantilever beam where both the beam mass and the end-mass are significant.
g

EI,
m
L

Figure C-1.

The total mass mt can be calculated using equation (B-38).

m t 0 .2 2 3 5 L m

(C-1)

Again, the stiffness at the free of the cantilever beam is

k

3E I
L

(C-2)

The natural frequency is thus

fn

3E I

0 .2 2 3 5 L m L 3

(C-3)

14

APPENDIX D

Cantilever Beam IV
This is a repeat of part II except that an exact solution is found for the differential
equation. The differential equation itself is only an approximation of reality, however.

EI,

Figure D-1.
The governing differential equation is

EI

4
y
x

2
y
t

(D-1)

Note that this equation neglects shear deformation and rotary inertia.
Separate the dependent variable.
y( x, t) Y ( x)T( t)

EI

Y ( x )T( t)
x

(D-2)

Y ( x )T( t)
t

d4

d2

EI T(t)
Y (x) Y (x)
T(t)
d x 4

d t 2

15

(D-3)

(D-4)

 d4

Y (x)

EI
dx

Y (x)

d2

T(t)

dt

(D-5)

T(t)

Let c be a constant
d4

Y
(
x
)

E I d x

Y (x)

d2

T
(
t
)

d t 2

T(t)

(D-6)

Separate the time variable.

d2

T(t)

2
d t

T(t)

d
dt

(D-7)

2
2

T(t) c

T(t) 0

(D-8)

Separate the spatial variable.

d4

Y (x)

E I d x
2
c

Y
(
x
)

dx

Y (x) c

(D-9)

Y ( x) 0
EI

(D-10)

A solution for equation (D-10) is

Y ( x ) a 1 sinh x a 2 cosh x a 3 sin x a 4 cos x

16

(D-11)

dY (x)
dx

Y (x)
2

dx

Y (x)

dx

Y (x)

dx

a 1 co sh x a 2 sin h x a 3 co s x a 4 sin x

(D-12)

a 1

s in h x a 2

c o s h x a 3

s in x a 4

c o s x

(D-13)

a 1

c o s h x a 2

s in h x a 3

c o s x a 4

s in x

(D-14)

a 1

s in h x a 2

c o s h x a 3

s in x a 4

c o s x

(D-15)

Substitute (D-15) and (D-11) into (D-10).

a 1 4 sin h x a 2 4 c o sh x a 3 4 sin x a 4 4 c o s x
c

a 1 sin h x a 2 c o sh x a 3 sin x a 4 c o s x 0
EI

(D-16)

a 1 s in h x a 2 c o s h x a 3 s in x a 4 c o s x
c

a 1 s in h x a 2 c o s h x a 3 s in x a 4 c o s x 0
EI

(D-17)
The equation is satisfied if

EI

(D-18)

1/ 4
2
c

EI

(D-19)

17

The boundary conditions at the fixed end x = 0 are

Y(0) = 0

(zero displacement)

dY
dx

(zero slope)

(D-20)
(D-21)

x0

The boundary conditions at the free end x = L are

2
d Y
dx

(zero bending moment)

(D-22)

(zero shear force)

(D-23)

xL

3
d Y
dx

3
xL

Apply equation (D-20) to (D-11).

a2 a4 0

(D-24)

a4 a2

(D-25)

Apply equation (D-21) to (D-12).

a1 a 3 0

(D-26)

a 3 a1

(D-27)

Apply equation (D-22) to (D-13).

a 1 sinh L a 2 cosh L a 3 sin L a 4 cos L 0

(D-28)

Apply equation (D-23) to (D-14).

a 1 cosh L a 2 sinh L a 3 cos L a 4 sin L 0

(D-29)

Apply (D-25) and (D-27) to (D-28).

a 1 sinh L a 2 cosh L a 1 sin L a 2 cos L 0

18

(D-30)

a 1 sin L sinh L a 2 cos L cosh L 0

(D-31)

Apply (D-25) and (D-27) to (D-29).

a 1 cosh L a 2 sinh L a 1 cos L a 2 sin L 0

(D-32)

(D-33)

(D-34)

a 1 cos L cosh L a 2 sin L sinh L 0

Form (D-31) and (D-33) into a matrix format.

sin L sin h L

c o s L c o sh L

c o s L c o sh L a 1

sin L sin h L a 2

By inspection, equation (D-34) can only be satisfied if a1 = 0 and a2 = 0. Set the

determinant to zero in order to obtain a nontrivial solution.

sin 2 L sin h 2 L

co s L co sh L

(D-35)

sin 2 L sin h 2 L c o s 2 L 2 c o s L c o sh L c o sh 2 L 0
(D-36)
sin

L sinh 2 L cos 2 L 2 cos L cosh L cosh 2 L 0

(D-37)
2 2 cos L cosh L 0

(D-38)

1 cos L cosh L 0

(D-39)

cos L cosh L 1

(D-40)

There are multiple roots which satisfy equation (D-40). Thus, a subscript should be
added as shown in equation (D-41).
cos n L cosh n L 1

(D-41)

19

The subscript is an integer index. The roots can be determined through a combination of
graphing and numerical methods. The Newton-Rhapson method is an example of an
appropriate numerical method. The roots of equation (D-41) are summarized in Table D1, as taken from Reference 1.

Table D-1. Roots

Index
n L
n=1

1.87510

n=2

4.69409

n>3

(2n-1)/2

Note: the root value formula for n > 3 is approximate.

Rearrange equation (D-19) as follows

EI
n4

(D-42)

Substitute (D-42) into (D-8).

2

EI
T ( t ) n 4
T(t) 0
2

dt
d

(D-43)

Equation (D-43) is satisfied by

T ( t ) b 1 s in n 2

EI

t b 2 co s n 2

20

EI

(D-44)

The natural frequency term n is thus

EI

n n2

(D-45)

Substitute the value for the fundamental frequency from Table D-1.
1.8 7 5 1 0
1

f1

EI

(D-46)

1 3 . 5156

2 L2

EI

(D-47)

Substitute the value for the second root from Table D-1.

4 . 69409
2

2
L

f2

EI

(D-48)

1 22 . 034

2 L2

EI

(D-49)

f 2 6 . 268 f 1

(D-50)

Compare equation (D-47) with the approximate equation (B-33).

SDOF Model Approximation

The effective mass meff at the end of the beam for the fundamental mode is thus
m e ff

2 fn

(D-51)

21

m e ff

3E I

1
3
L 2
2

3 .5 1 5 6

L2

E I

3E I

m e ff

(D-53)

EI
1 2 .3 5 9 6
4

L
L

m eff 0 .2 4 2 7 L

(D-52)

(SDOF Approximation)

(D-54)

Eigenvalues

n L

1.875104

4 . 69409

7.85476

10.99554

(2n-1)/2

Note that the root value formula for n > 5 is approximate.

Normalized Eigenvectors
Mass normalize the eigenvectors as follows
L

Y n ( x ) dx 1

(D-55)

22

The calculation steps are omitted for brevity. The resulting normalized eigenvectors are

Y1 ( x )

cosh 1 x cos 1 x 0.73410

L

sinh 1 x sin 1 x

(D-56)

Y2 (x )

cosh 2 x cos 2 x 1.01847

L

sinh 2 x sin 2 x

(D-57)

Y3 (x )

cosh 3 x cos 3 x 0.99922

L

sinh 3 x sin 3 x

(D-58)

Y4 (x )

cosh 4 x cos 4 x 1.00003

L

sinh 4 x sin 4 x

(D-59)

The normalized mode shapes can be represented as

Yi ( x )

cosh i x cos i x D i sinh i x sin i x

L

(D-60)

where
Di

cos i L cosh i L
sin i L sinh i L

(D-61)

Participation Factors
The participation factors for constant mass density are
n

L
0

(D-62)

Y n ( x ) dx

23

The participation factors from a numerical calculation are

1 0 . 7830

(D-63)

2 0 . 4339

(D-64)

3 0 . 2544

(D-65)

4 0 . 1818

(D-66)

The participation factors are non-dimensional.

Effective Modal Mass
The effective modal mass is

eff , n

Y n ( x ) dx

(D-67)

Y n ( x ) dx
2

The eigenvectors are already normalized such that

L

Y n ( x ) dx 1
2

(D-68)

Thus,
m

eff , n

Y n ( x ) dx

(D-69)

The effective modal mass values are obtained numerically.

m eff , 1 0 . 6131 L

(D-70)

m eff , 2 0.1883 L

(D-71)

m eff , 3 0.06474 L

(D-72)

m eff , 4 0.03306

(D-73)

24

APPENDIX E

Beam Simply-Supported at Both Ends I

Consider a simply-supported beam with a discrete mass located at the middle. Assume
that the mass of the beam itself is negligible.
g

EI
m
L1

L1
L

Figure E-1.

The free-body diagram of the system is

L
L1

L1

mg

Ra

Rb

Figure E-2.
Apply Newtons law for static equilibrium.

forces 0

(E-1)

Ra + Rb - mg = 0

(E-2)

Ra = mg - Rb

(E-3)

At the left boundary,

25

 m om ents 0

(E-4)

Rb L - mg L1 = 0

(E-5)

Rb = mg ( L1 / L )

(E-6a)

Rb = (1/2) mg

(E-6b)

Substitute equation (E-6) into (E-3).

Ra = mg (1/2)mg

(E-7)

Ra = (1/2)mg

(E-8)

L1

Ra

mg

Sum the moments at the right side of the segment.

m om ents 0

(E-9)

- Ra x + mg <x-L1 > - M = 0

(E-10)

26

Note that < x-L1> denotes a step function as follows

for x L 1
0,

x L1
x L , for x L
1
1

(E-11)
M = - Ra x + mg <x-L1 >

(E-12)

M = - (1/2)mg x + mg <x-L1 >

(E-13)

M = [ - (1/2) x + <x-L1 > ][ mg ]

(E-14)

EI y [ - (1/2) x x - L 1 ][ mg ]

(E-15)

mg
y [ - (1/2) x x - L 1 ]
EI

(E-16)

y [ -

1
4

1
2

x - L1

2 mg
]
a
EI

1
1 3
3 mg
y(x ) x
x - L1
ax b
12
EI
6

(E-17)

(E-18)

The boundary condition at the left side is

y(0) = 0

(E-19a)

This requires
b=0

(E-19b)

Thus
1
1 3
3 mg
y(x ) x
x - L1
ax
12
EI
6

(E-20)

The boundary condition on the right side is

y(L) = 0

(E-21)

27

1
1 3
3 mg
L
L - L1
aL 0
12
EI
6

(E-22)

1 3 mg
1 3
L
L
aL 0
12
EI
48

(E-23)

1 3 mg
4 3
L
L
aL 0
48
EI
48

(E-24)

3 3 mg
L
aL 0
48
EI

(E-25)

1 3 mg
L
aL 0
16
EI

(E-26)

aL

1 3 mg
L
16
EI

(E-27)

1 2 mg
L
16
EI

(E-28)

Now substitute the constant into the displacement function

1
1 3
3 mg 1 2 mg
x
y(x ) x
x - L1

L
12
EI 16
EI
6

(E-29)

1
1
1 3
2
3 mg
y(x ) x
xL
x - L1
12
EI
16
6

(E-30)

The displacement at the center is

1 L
L
y
2 12 2

1 L 2
1
L
3 mg

- L1
L

16 2
6
EI
2

28

(E-31)

1 mgL
L 1

32 EI
2 96

3
L 1
y

96
2 96

L 2
y

2 96

(E-32)

mgL

EI

(E-33)

mgL

EI

L 1 mgL

2 48 EI

(E-34)

(E-35)

Recall Hookes law for a linear spring,

F=ky

(E-36)

F is the force.
k is the stiffness.
The stiffness is thus
k=F/y

(E-37)

The force at the center of the beam is mg. The stiffness at the center of the beam is

mg

k
mgL 3

48 EI

(E-38)

48 EI
L

(E-39)

The formula for the natural frequency fn of a single-degree-of-freedom system is

29

 1
fn

(E-40)

The mass term m is simply the mass at the center of the beam.
1
fn

48 EI
mL

1
fn
6 . 928
2

(E-41)

EI
mL

(E-42)

30

APPENDIX F
Beam Simply-Supported at Both Ends II
Consider a simply-supported beam as shown in Figure F-1.
EI,

Figure F-1.

Recall that the governing differential equation is

EI

4
y
x

2
y
t

(F-1)

The spatial solution from section D is

Y ( x ) a 1 sinh x a 2 cosh x a 3 sin x a 4 cos x

Y (x)

dx

a 1

s in h x a 2

c o s h x a 3

s in x a 4

(F-2)

c o s x

(F-3)

The boundary conditions at the left end x = 0 are

Y(0) = 0

(zero displacement)

(F-4)

d Y
dx

(zero bending moment)

x0

31

(F-5)

The boundary conditions at the free end x = L are

Y(L) = 0
2
d Y
dx

(zero displacement)

(zero bending moment)

(F-6)

(F-7)

xL

Apply boundary condition (F-4) to (F-2).

a2 a4 0

(F-8)

a4 a2

(F-9)

Apply boundary condition (F-5) to (F-3).

a2 a4 0

(F-10)

a2 a4

(F-11)

Equations (F-8) and (F-10) can only be satisfied if

a2 0

(F-12)

a4 0

(F-13)

and

The spatial equations thus simplify to

Y ( x ) a 1 sinh x a 3 sin x

Y (x)

dx

a 1

s in h x a 3

s in x

(F-14)

(F-15)

Apply boundary condition (F-6) to (F-14).

a 1 sinh L a 3 sin L 0

32

(F-16)

Apply boundary condition (F-7) to (F-15).

a 1

s in h L a 3

s in L 0

a 1 sinh L a 3 sin L 0

s in h L

s in h L

(F-17)
(F-18)

0
s in L a 1

0
s in L a 3

(F-19)

By inspection, equation (F-19) can only be satisfied if a1 = 0 and a3 = 0. Set the

determinant to zero in order to obtain a nontrivial solution.
sin L sinh L sin L sinh L 0

(F-20)

2 sin L sinh L 0

(F-21)

sin L sinh L 0

(F-22)

Equation (F-22) is satisfied if

n L n ,

n 1, 2 , 3 , ....

(F-23)

n 1, 2 , 3 , .. ..

(F-24)

n
L

The natural frequency term n is

n n2

n
n

1 n
fn

2 L

EI

(F-25)

EI

n 1, 2 , 3 , ...

EI

(F-26)

n 1, 2 , 3 , ...

33

(F-27)

 1 n
fn

2 L

EI

n 1, 2 , 3 , ...

(F-28)

SDOF Approximation
Now calculate effective mass at the center of the beam for the fundamental frequency.

1
L

EI

(F-29)

Recall the natural frequency equation for a single-degree-of-freedom system.

k

(F-30)

Recall the beam stiffness at the center from equation (E-39).

k

48EI
L

(F-31)

Substitute equation (F-31) into (F-30).

1

48EI
mL

(F-32)

Substitute (F-32) into (F-29).

3
L
mL

48EI

3
L
mL

48

(F-33)

3
L
mL

48EI

EI

EI

(F-34)

(F-35)

m
4 8 L
1

(F-36)

34

The effective mass at the center of the beam for the first mode is
m

48 L

(SDOF Approximation)

(F-37)

Normalized Eigenvectors
The eigenvector and its second derivative at this point are
Y ( x ) a 1 sinh x a 3 sin x

Y (x )

dx

a 1

sinh x a 3

(F-38)
sin x

(F-39)

The eigenvector derivation requires some creativity. Recall

Y(L) = 0
2
d Y
dx

(zero displacement)

(F-40)

(zero bending moment)

(F-41)

xL

Thus,
2

d Y
dx

Y 0

for x=L and

a sinh n
1

n L n,

n=1,2,3,

a sin n 0
3

(F-42)

, n=1,2,3,
(F-43)

The sin(n) term is always zero. Thus a 1 = 0.

The eigenvector for all n modes is

Y n ( x ) a n sin n x / L

(F-44)

35

Mass normalize the eigenvectors as follows

L

a n

a n
2

Y n ( x ) dx 1

2 L

sin

n x / L dx

0 1 cos(

(F-45)

(F-46)

2 n x / L ) 1

(F-47)

L
2

1
sin( 2 n x / L )
1
x
2
2 n

a n

a n

(F-48)

(F-49)

an

an

(F-50)

(F-51)

Yn (x )

2
L

sin n x / L

(F-52)

36

Participation Factors
The participation factors for constant mass density are
n

L
0

sin n x / L dx

(F-53)

sin n x / L dx

(F-54)

2 L
L
cos n x / L

0
L n

(F-55)

(F-53)

Y n ( x ) dx

2 L

1
cos n 1
n

, n=1, 2, 3, .

(F-56)

Effective Modal Mass

The effective modal mass is

eff , n

Y n ( x ) dx

0 Y n ( x )

(F-57)

dx

The eigenvectors are already normalized such that

L

Y n ( x ) dx 1
2

(F-58)

37

Thus,
m

eff , n

m eff , n

Y n ( x ) dx

1
cos n 1
2 L
n

m eff , n 2 L

(F-59)

cos n 12 , n=1, 2, 3, .

38

(F-60)

(F-61)

APPENDIX G

Free-Free Beam
Consider a uniform beam with free-free boundary conditions.

EI,

Figure G-1.
The governing differential equation is

EI

4
y
x

2
y
t

(G-1)

Note that this equation neglects shear deformation and rotary inertia.
The following equation is obtain using the method in Appendix D
d

dx

Y (x) c

Y ( x) 0
EI

(G-2)

The proposed solution is

Y ( x ) a 1 sinh x a 2 cosh x a 3 sin x a 4 cos x
dY (x)
dx

Y (x)

dx

3
d Y (x )
dx

(G-3)

a 1 co sh x a 2 sin h x a 3 co s x a 4 sin x

a 1

s in h x a 2

c o s h x a 3

a 1

cosh x a 2

sinh x a 3

39

s in x a 4

cos x a 4

(G-4)

c o s x

sin x

(G-5)

(G-6)

Apply the boundary conditions.

2
d Y
2

dx

(zero bending moment)

x0

a2 a4 0

(G-8)

a4 a2

3
d Y
dx

Y (x )

dx

3
d Y (x )
dx

a 1

a 1

(G-7)

(G-9)

(zero shear force)

(G-10)

x0

a1 a 3 0

(G-11)

a 3 a1

(G-12)

sinh x sin x a 2 2 cosh x cos x

(G-13)

cosh x cos x a 2 3 sinh x sin x

(G-14)

2
d Y
dx

(zero bending moment)

xL

40

(G-15)

a 1 sinh L sin L a 2 cosh L cos L 0

3
d Y
dx

(G-16)

(zero shear force)

(G-17)

xL

a 1 cosh L cos L a 2 sinh L sin L 0

(G-18)

Equation (G-16) and (G-18) can be arranged in matrix form.

sinh L sin L

cosh L cos L

cosh L cos L

sinh L sin L

a1
0

a 2
0

(G-19)

Set the determinant equal to zero.

sinh L sin L sinh L sin L cosh L cos L 2

sinh

L sin 2 L cosh 2 L 2 cosh L cos L cos 2 L

(G-20)

(G-21)

2 cosh L cos L 2 0

(G-22)

cosh L cos L 1 0

(G-23)

The roots can be found via the Newton-Raphson method, Reference 1.

The free-free beam has a rigid-body mode with a frequency of zero, corresponding to
L 0.

41

The second root is

L 4.73004

EI

n n2

4.73004
2

22.373
2

2
L

(G-24)

(G-25)

EI

(G-26)

EI

(G-27)

The third root is

L 7.85320

n n

(G-28)

EI

(G-29)

7.85320
3

61.673
3

2
L

EI

EI

(G-30)

(G-31)

3 2.757 2

(G-32)

L 10.9956

(G-33)

The fourth root is

42

 n n

EI

(G-34)

10.9956
4

120.903
4

2
L

EI

(G-35)

EI

(G-36)

4 5.404 2

(G-37)

Eigenvalues

n L

4.73004

7.85320

10.9956

n L n

for n 5

(G-38)

The following mode shape and coefficient derivation applies only to the elastic modes
where L 0 .
Equation (G-18) can be expressed as
cosh L cos L
a 2 a1

sinh L sin L

(G-39)

Recall
a4 a2

(G-40)

43

a 3 a1

(G-41)

The displacement mode shape is thus

Y ( x ) a 1 sinh x sin x a 2 cosh x cos x

(G-42)

cosh L cos L
Y ( x ) a 1 sinh x sin x
cosh x cos x
sinh L sin L

(G-43)

Modify the mode shapes as follows.

Y (x )

cosh L cos L
sinh x sin x
cosh x cos x
L
sinh L sin L

a 1

(G-44)

Normalize the eigenvectors with respect to mass.

Y n ( x ) dx 1
2

The eigenvectors are mass-normalized for

(G-45)

a 1 =1.

Thus
Y (x )

cosh L cos L
sinh x sin x
cosh x cos x
L
sinh L sin L

(G-46)

44

The first derivative is

dy

dx

cosh L cos L
cosh x cos x
sinh x sin x
L
sinh L sin L

(G-47)

The second derivative is

2

d y
dx

cosh L cos L

cosh

cos

x
sinh x sin x

L
sinh L sin L

(G-48)

The participation factors for constant mass density are

L
0

(G-49)

Y n ( x ) dx

The participation factors are calculated numerically.

As a result of the rigid-body mode,

n 0

for n > 1

(G-50)

45

APPENDIX H
Pipe Example
Consider a steel pipe with an outer diameter of 2.2 inches and a wall thickness of 0.60
inches. The length is 20 feet. Find the natural frequency for two boundary condition
cases: simply-supported and fixed-fixed.
The area moment of inertia is
I

64

D i

(H-1)

D o 2 . 2 in

(H-2)

D i 2 .2 2 ( 0 .6 )
D i 2 .2 1 .2

D i 1 .0

in

2 .2
32

1 .0

I 1 . 101

(H-3)

in

(H-4)

in

(H-5)
4

in

(H-6)

in

(H-7)

The elastic modulus is

lbf

E 30 10

in

(H-8)

The mass density is

mass per unit length.

0 . 282

(H-9)

lbm
2
2
2
2 . 2 1 . 0 in

3 4

in

46

(H-10)

lbm

0 . 850

(H-11)

in

lbf

30 10
EI

in

1 . 101

0 . 850

in

1 slug ft / sec 2 12 in

1 ft
1 lbf

lbm 1 slug

in 32 . 2 lbm

(H-12)
EI

1 . 225 10

in

(H-13)

sec

The natural frequency for the simply-supported case is

1 n
fn

2 L

EI

1
f1

12 in
2
20 ft

1 ft

f 1 3 . 34

Hz

n 1, 2 , 3 , ...

(H-14)

1 . 225 10 5

in

(H-15)

sec

(simply-supported)

(H-16)

The natural frequency for the fixed-fixed case is

1 22.37
f1

2 L2

EI

(H-17)

47

1
22 . 37

f1

2
2
12 in

20 ft

1 ft

f1

7 . 58 Hz

5
1 . 225 10

in

(H-18)

sec

(fixed-fixed)

(H-19)

48

APPENDIX I
Suborbital Rocket Vehicle
Consider a rocket vehicle with the following properties.
mass = 14078.9 lbm (at time = 0 sec)
L = 372.0 inches.

14078 . 9 lbm
372 . 0 inches

37 . 847

lbm
in

The average stiffness is

6
EI = 63034 (10 ) lbf in^2

The vehicle behaves as a free-free beam in flight. Thus

f1

1 22 . 37

2 L2

1 22 . 37
f1

2 372 in 2

EI

(I-1)

63034e

06 lbf in

slug

ft / sec

37 . 847

lbf

2
12 in 32 . 2 lbm

ft

slugs

lbm
in

(I-2)

f1 = 20.64 Hz

(at time = 0 sec)

(I-3)

Note that the fundamental frequency decreases in flight as the vehicle expels propellant
mass.

49

APPENDIX J
Fixed-Fixed Beam
Consider a fixed-fixed beam with a uniform mass density and a uniform cross-section.
The governing differential equation is

EI

4
y
x

2
y
t

(J-1)

The spatial equation is

2
Y (x ) c
Y (x ) 0
EI

(J-2)

The boundary conditions for the fixed-fixed beam are:

Y(0) = 0

dY ( x )
dx

(J-3)

(J-4)

x0

Y(L)=0

dY ( x )
dx

(J-5)

(J-6)

xL

The eigenvector has the form

Y ( x ) a 1 sinh x a 2 cosh x a 3 sin x a 4 cos x
dY (x)
dx

a 1 co sh x a 2 sin h x a 3 co s x a 4 sin x

50

(J-7)
(J-8)

Y (x)

dx

a 1

s in h x a 2

c o s h x a 3

s in x a 4

(J-9)
(J-10)

a2+a4=0

(J-11)

-a2=a4

(J-12)

dx

(J-13)

x0

a1 + a3 = 0

(J-14)

a1 + a 3 = 0

(J-15)

- a1 = a 3

(J-16)

Y ( x ) a 1 sinh x sin x a 2 cosh x cos x

dx

c o s x

Y(0) = 0

dY ( x )

dY ( x )

a 1 cosh x cos x a 2 sinh x sin x

Y(L) = 0

dx

(J-18)

(J-19)

a 1 sinh L sin L a 2 cosh L cos L 0

dY ( x )

(J-17)

(J-20)
(J-21)

xL

a 1 cosh L cos L a 2 sinh L sin L 0

51

(J-22)

a 1 cosh L cos L a 2 sinh L sin L 0

sinh L sin L

cosh L cos L

cosh L cos L a 1 0

sinh L sin L a 2 0

sinh L sin L
det
cosh L cos L

(J-24)

cosh L cos L
0
sinh L sin L

[sinh L sin L ][sinh L sin L ] [cosh L cos L ]

sinh

(J-23)

(J-25)

L sin 2 L cosh 2 L 2 cos L cosh L cos 2 L

(J-26)

(J-27)

2 cos L cosh L 2 0

(J-28)

cos L cosh L 1 0

(J-29)

The roots can be found via the Newton-Raphson method, Reference 1. The first root is
L 4 . 73004

n n

(J-30)

EI

(J-31)

4.73004
1

22.373
1

2
L

EI

(J-32)

EI

(J-33)

52

f1

1 22.373

2 L2

EI

(J-34)

a 1 cosh L cos L a 2 sinh L sin L

Let a 2 = 1

(J-36)

a 1 cosh L cos L sinh L sin L

a1

(J-35)

sinh L sin L

(J-37)

(J-38)

cosh L cos L

sinh L sin L
Y ( x ) cosh x cos x
sinh x sin x
cosh L cos L

(J-39)

sinh L sin L
Y ( x ) cosh x cos x
sinh x sin x

cosh

cos

(J-40)

The un-normalized mode shape for a fixed-fixed beam is

( x ) cosh x cos x sinh x sin x
Y
n
n
n
n
n
n

(J-41)

where
sinh L sin L
n

cosh L cos L

(J-42)

53

The eigenvalues are

n L

4.73004

7.85321

10.9956

14.13717

17.27876

For n> 5
n L

n
2

(J-43)

Normalized Eigenvectors
Mass normalize the eigenvectors as follows
L

Y n ( x ) dx 1

(J-44)

The mass normalization is satisfied by

Yn (x )

1
L

cosh n x cos n x n sinh n x sin n x

(J-45)

where
sinh L sin L
n

cosh L cos L

(J-46)

54

The first derivative is

d

Yn (x )

dx

1
L

n sinh n x sin n x n n cosh n x cos n x

(J-47)

The second derivative is

d
dx

Yn (x )

1
L

n 2 cosh n x cos n x n n 2 sinh n x sin n x

(J-48)

Participation Factors
The participation factors for constant mass density are
n

(J-49)

Y n ( x ) dx

0 cosh n x cos n x n sinh n x sin n x dx

sinh n x sin n x n cosh n x cos n x

(J-50)

L
0

(J-51)

sinh n L sin n L n cosh n L cos n L 2 n

(J-52)

sinh n L sin n L n 2 cosh n L cos n L

(J-53)

55

The participation factors from a numerical calculation are

1 0.8309

(J-54)

2 0

3 0.3638

(J-55)
L

(J-56)

4 0
5 0.2315

(J-57)
L

(J-58)

The participation factors are non-dimensional

56