CHAPTER 2

PRESSURE MEASUREMENT

PRESSURE DEFINITION
PRESSURE is force exerted per unit area
of surface.
P = F/A

FORCE

P = pressure
F = force
A = surface area exposed to the force

Pressure Units:
Pound / Square Inch = P / SI = PSI
Newton / Square Meter = N / m2
100 000 N / m2 = 1 Bar
100,000
14.5 psi = 1 Bar
Inches of mercury inch
inch. Hg
Hg , mm
mm.Hg
Hg

AREA

TYPES OF PRESSURE

The pressure at
point X can be
expressed as:
o 10 of mercury
absolute
o 20
20 of mercury
vacuum
o -20
20 inches
i h off
mercury gauge

PRESSURE SENSING ELEMENTS

A basic instrument system consists of three elements:

1. SENSOR or INPUT DEVICE
2 SIGNAL PROCESSOR
2.
3. RECEIVER or OUTPUT DEVICE

The block diagram of a sensor is shown below.

Pressure sensors either convert the pressure into

mechanical
h i l movementt or into
i t an electrical
l t i l output.
t t
Complete gauges not only sense the pressure but indicate
them on a dial or scale.

1) Bourdon Tube
Bourdon tube is a flattened metal tube has an oval cross-section with one end of the
tube connected to the process pressure. The other end is sealed and connected to the
pointer or transmitter mechanism. When a pressure difference exists between the inside
and outside,, the tube tends to straighten
g
out and the end moves.
C-type bourdon
o Range as low as 0 - 15 psi up to 0-1500
psi.
o They are simple and accurate, but they are
bulky and get damaged with over-ranging.
Helical bourdon
o Range as low as 0 - 200 psi up to 0 - 6000
psi.i
o Heavy-duty helical bourdons can
sometimes tolerate as high as ten times
the
h maximum
i
range pressure.
Spiral bourdon
o Range as low as 0 -10
10 psi up to 0-100,000
0 100 000
psi.
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Designed by Rao KV

16/03/2006

2) Bellows sensor

A bellows sensor is an axially

flexible cylindrical enclosure
flexible,
with folded sides. When
pressure is applied through an
opening, the closed end
extends axially.
A bellows sensor can
accurately
t l measure much
h
lower pressures than a
bourdon tube.
tube
Bellows elements can measure
absolute pressure, gauge
pressure, vacuum, or
differential pressure.
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10

3. Diaphragm sensor
o Diaphragm is usually metallic and comes in two different
configurations;
fi
ti
single
i l and
d capsular.
l
o The single diaphragm is either flat or with concentric corrugations.
o Th
The capsular
l diaphragm
di h
consists
i t off two
t
diaphragms
di h
welded
ld d together
t
th att
their perimeters.
p
are used for absolute p
pressure reference and single
g
o Evacuated capsules
diaphragms for very sensitive measurements.

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12

ELECTRONIC PRESSURE SENSORS

This table shows the ranges of pressures and vacuums that various
sensor types are capable of detecting.
detecting

13

4. Strain-Gauge Pressure Sensor

o Strain
Strain-gauge
gauge pressure sensors are
used in most types of electronic
pressure transmitters. When metallic
conductors or semiconductors are
subjected to mechanical strain,
there is a change in resistance
resistance. This
resistance is then electrically
converted into a 4-20 mA signal
proportional to the pressure.
o There are many different designs of
strain-gauge pressure sensors. The
most common designs use a metallic
di h
diaphragm
to
t iisolate
l t th
the process
fluid and exert a force on a force
bar.
o Most of the strain elements in

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current use are semiconductor type.

15

Strain-Gage Based Pressure Cell

16

5. Capacitive Pressure Sensor

o Capacitive pressure sensors are also used in electronic pressure
transmitters. With these devices the change in capacitance
resulting from the movement of an elastic element is
proportional to the pressure applied to the elastic element.

17

o The elastic element is usually a stainless steel diaphragm. As shown, a

high-frequency
high
frequency oscillator is controlled by the sensing element.
Changes in pressure deflect the diaphragm and the resultant change in
p
changes
g the oscillator frequency.
q
y
capacitance
o The variation in oscillator frequency is converted to a 4-20 mA signal,
proportional to the pressure.
pressure

18

19

PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Certain
C t i applications
li ti
will
ill b
be so severe and
d th
the
pressure sensor will not remain functional for
reasonable amount of time.
The following protection devices can be used to
protect the pressure
p
p
sensor.

20

1) Diaphragm Seals
o Diaphragm
Di h
seals
l are used
d to
t
isolate the pressure sensor from
the process fluid.
o This is done when the fluid is
toxic, corrosive, dirty, solidifies at
ambient temperature, or is
extremely cold and may freeze
the instrument..
instrument
o The diaphragm seal is a thin,
flexible disk, which separates the
pressure sensor from the process
media.
21

22

2) Siphons
Siphons are generally used to isolate a hotprocess media from the p
p
pressure sensor.
The siphon is a metal, tubular device shaped
in a loop.
l
It can either
h b
be ffilled
ll d with
hah
highh
boiling-point liquid or process condensate
which acts as a barrier to the heat contained
in the hot gases or steam.
The path the hot vapor takes to the pressure
sensor is relatively long and narrow with a
lot of surface area for cooling siphons.

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24

3) Throttling Devices
o Throttling devices are commonly used to dampen high-frequency
pressure fluctuations by putting a restriction in the inlet to the
pressure sensor.
a) Throttling Screws
o Throttling screws are the simplest
means of providing a restriction.
o Throttling screws have several
orifice sizes.
o They
Th
are inserted
i
t d into
i t a tapped
t
d
hole in the base (socket) of the
pressure sensor to provide a flow
restriction

25

b) Pressure Snubbers
o Pressure Snubbers are very common for
reducing pressure fluctuations and filtering
the media. Snubbers have a porous
element, which restricts the velocity and
filters the fluid.
o The pulsation dampener is also sometimes
called a pressure Snubbers,
Snubbers but does not
have a filtering element.
o The most common design has a bar-stock
fitting. As the pressure pulse comes
through the dampener, the piston is forced
up and restricts the flow from the large
chamber
h
b by
b closing
l i
the
th outlet
tl t off th
the
chamber.

26

c) Pressure-Limiting Valves
o Pressure-limiting valves protect the pressure
sensor from overpressure by blocking the
process fluid at a preset limit.
o There are several designs of pressure
pressurelimiting valves. One has the fluid coming in
the inlet,
inlet passing through a filter,
filter and out to
the pressure sensor.

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PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES

1 MECHANICAL DEVICES
1.
In mechanical pressure measurement devices the measuring
elements (sensors) can never separate it from the rest of the
system
y
(signal
( g
p
processor and receiver/output
/
p device)) as in many
y
cases they are all integral (e.g. a mechanical pressure gauge
incorporates all of these elements).

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PRESSURE GAUGE

Precautions
o Tubes for gauges to be
used on Acetylene must
b made
be
d off steel.
t l
o Associated Fittings for use
on oxygen must be kept
entirely
y free of oil.
o Gauges used on
Hydrogen plants must be
gold plated.

30

Gauge errors
oA gauge with a zero error will always read high or low by a
constant amount.
oA
A gauge with a span error has an internal magnification error,
error
where the error increases as long as the measured pressure
increases.
c eases
oA gauge with a linearity error may read correctly at 0 and
100% but will not follow a linear path between these points.

PRESSURE TRANSMITTER
a) Pneumatic transmitter
Supply: 20 Psi OR 1.4 Bar
Output: 3 to 15 Psi OR 0.2 to 1.0 Bar

32

33

b) Electronic transmitter
Supply: 24 V DC
Output: 4 to 20 mA

34

1. Pressure is applied to the sensor.

2. A change in pressure is measured by a change in the sensor
output.
output
3. The sensor signal is conditioned for various parameters.
4. The conditioned signal is converted to an appropriate analogue
output (i.e. 4 20 mA)

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c) Smart Transmitter

HHC ((Hand Held

Communicator).

o Smart Transmitter can be programmed with a HHC (Hand

Held Communicator).
o They come with addressable and communication facility.
o Transmitter can be re
re-ranged
ranged and zero checked without
disconnecting from the line.

36

Electronic Transmitter Wiring Connections

37

PRESSURE SWITCHES

o An electric pressure switch

senses pressure and opens or
closes
l
an electrical
l t i l switch
it h
element at a set pressure to
signal another electrical device.
o Most pressure switches trip at a
pressure above atmospheric, and
are called g
gauge
g p
pressure or
simply pressure switches.
o Switches can also be
manufactured to trip at pressure
referenced to a complete
vacuum and this is called
absolute pressure switches.
switches
o Pressure switches are set to trip
at a certain point with rising or
f lli
falling
pressure.
o The difference in the trip point
and the set point is called dead
band or reset or switch
differential.

38

Electrical Switch Contacts

The electrical switch is
usually:
y
single-pole doublethrow
or
double-pole doublethrow.

39

PRESSURE SWITCHES
Switch Terminology

40

PRESSURE REGULATOR
o Pneumatic regulators are used
with every pneumatic
Instrument.
Instrument
o Regulator maintains a steady
outlet pressure irrespective of
variation in the upstream
pressure.
o Regulator comes with a filter to
remove wet the dust.
o A drain valve remove any
condensation of air.
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