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Materi Kuliah Morphology & Syntax

June 12, 2010 at 7:23 am | Posted in Uncategorized | 1 Comment

Koesnandar, 0923385P1, STKIP PGRI SIDOARJO

Language is a system for the communication of meaning through sounds.
Linguistic is the scientific study of language.
Language as system consist of three subsystem: Semantic, Sysnantic,
Phonological
Language is a system of symbols. Why?
Each language has different pronunciation.
e.g: Could you tell me where the station is?
/kud yuw tel miy hwer ./
Phonology is the study the smallest units of speech sounds that make a difference
in meaning.
Morphology is the study of meaningful form or the smallest meaningful units of
language.
There are two basic divisions in morphology :
(1) lexical or derivational morphology; studies word formation which produces
new words such as nation national.
(2) inflectional morphology; studies word formation related to grammatical
affixes: prular, past tense and possession.
A word is a unit which is a constituent at the phrase level and above.
A morphene is the smallest unit of language that has meaning. For example Cats
has to morphemes- cat (singular) and cats (plural). Uneventful has three
morphemes. event, eventful, and uneventful. Each morpheme changes the
meaning of the word.
Morphemes are defined as the smallest meaningful elements in a language.
There are two types of morpheme. They are free morpheme and bound

morpheme.
Free morpheme is the one that can stand alone such as: cat, dog, horse, car, bike,
bus etc.
Bound morpheme is the one that cannot stand alone such as in affixation namely
prefix, infix and suffix. Prefixes occur before the base, e.g. (un)tidy, pre(school),
(dis)like. Suffixes occur in the middle of the base, e.g. kind(ness), angri(ly),
judge(ment), teach(er).
Inflection is modification of words in accordance with their forms.
English verbs consists of five forms, namely: infinitive (see), the third singular
present (sees), past form (saw), past participle (seen) and gerund or present
participle (seeing).
eg.: I love a peaceful life. love is a verb.
Love is blue. love is a noun.
Do you like love potion? love is an adjective.
Analysis of inflections.
We must determine (1) the patterns of selection, (2) the arrangement of inflected
elements and (3) any modifications involved.
Selection means parts of speech. These are classified by word patterns of
inflection.
e.g: The verb live (regular) and give (irregular).
live is inflected by means of suffix: lives [z], lived [d], living [i] while give
is inflected by means of patterns underlying forms, namely irregular verbs. give,
gives, gave, given, giving.
Derivation is the process of adding derivational morphemes, which create a new
word from existing words, sometimes by simply changing grammatical category
(for example, changing a noun to a verb).
Paradigmatic
A dissimilar thing that can be exchanged for the thing of which the value is to be
determined
Syntagmatic
Similar things that can be compared with the thing of which the value is to be
determined
PARADIGMATIC AND SYNTAGMATIC. Contrasting terms in (structural)
LINGUISTICS. Every item of language has a paradigmatic relationship with
every other item which can be substituted for it (such as cat with dog), and a
syntagmatic relationship with items which occur within the same construction (for
example, in The cat sat on the mat, cat with the and sat on the mat). The
relationships are like axes, as shown in the accompanying diagram.

syntagmatic
The cat sat on the mat.
paradigmatic His dog slept under that table.
Our parrot perched in its cage.
Paradigmatic contrasts at the level of sounds allow one to identify the phonemes
(minimal distinctive sound units) of a language: for example, bat, fat, mat contrast
with one another on the basis of a single sound, as do bat, bet, bit, and bat, bap,
ban. Stylistically, rhyme is due to the paradigmatic substitution of sounds at the
beginning of syllables or words, as in: Tyger! Tyger! burning bright / In the
forests of the night.
On the lexical level, paradigmatic contrasts indicate which words are likely to
belong to the same word class (part of speech): cat, dog, parrot in the diagram are
all nouns, sat, slept, perched are all verbs. Syntagmatic relations between words
enable one to build up a picture of co-occurrence restrictions within SYNTAX,
for example, the verbs hit, kick have to be followed by a noun (Paul hit the wall,
not *Paul hit), but sleep, doze do not normally do so (Peter slept, not *Peter slept
the bed). On the semantic level, paradigmatic substitutions allow items from a
semantic set to be grouped together, for example Angela came on Tuesday
(Wednesday, Thursday, etc.), while syntagmatic associations indicate compatible
combinations: rotten apple, the duck quacked, rather than *curdled apple, *the
duck squeaked.
PARTS OF SPEECH: WHAT ARE THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF
WORDS?
a. Verb : swim : swims, swam, swum, swimming
b. Noun : chair : chairman, head : headmaster; cloud : cloudy
c. Pronoun : I : me/my/mine; we : our/ours/us
d. Adjective : happy : happily/happiness/happier/happiest
d. Adverb
e. Preposition
f. Conjunction
g. Interjection
Syntax: The study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form
sentences in a language.
Syntactics: Science which studies the elements of sentence structure and
interrelationshios with the rules governing the arrangement of sentences in
sequences.
Affixation is the process of attaching an inflection or, more generally, a bound
morpheme to a word. This can occur at the beginning or end and occasionally in
the middle of a word form.
Affixes are classified into three types:

(1) Prefixes: Those which are added to the beginning of root or stem such as
unhappy
(2) Infixes: Those which occur within a root/stem. They are not commonly found
in European languages.
(3) Suffixes: Those which follow a root/stem such as happiness.
4 level of linguistic analysis:
Sound level
Morphological level
Syntactic level
Semantic level
The morphological level of analysis is concerned with meaningful units. These
units are called morphemes. It is defined as the smallest meaningful units of
grammatical description, since they cannot by analyzed any further at this level.
Morphology studies the internal structure of words, that is the ways in which
morphemes function as constituents of word structure. For example, the word
unconditionally may be said to consist of four morphemes: un condition al
ly. Condition is a free morpheme, since it can occur on its own. The other three
morphemes are bound, since they must always co-occur with free morphemes.
English words consist of one or more free morphemes (book, bookcase,
bookshop, bookworm) or of combination of free and bound morphemes (kindness,
unkind, kindly, unkindly).
Having established the structure of words at the morphological level, we can go
on to examine how words can be put together to form larger grammatical units.
Words combine to form larger units called phrases, which, in turn to combine to
form sentences. This is the business of syntax to establish the set of rules that
specify which combinations of words constitute grammatical strings and which do
not.
In short, morpheme is the minimal unit of grammatical description in the sense
that it cannot be segmented any further at the grammatical level of analysis. While
Syntax is a part of linguistic, this studies rearrangement and interrelationship of
word, phrases, clauses, and sentences. In other words, it is the study of how
combine words become a larger unit.
Words : The smallest units or the smallest free form.
A group of phoneme/letter that has meaning, e.g. car, book, pen
Phoneme : The smallest meaningful unit, e.g. book /bUk/ 3 phoneme
Phrase : Group of words that doesnt has S and P but has meaning.
A group of word that has meaning
Clause : Consist of S and V but can not stand alone because it is part of sentence
and has meaning, e.g. what she knows
Sentence : The largest grammatical unit consisting phrase, clause, sentence that
used

to express a statement, question and comment.

Consist of S and V, can stand alone and has meaning and sometimes
consist more than one clause, e.g. I wrote a letter yesterday
There are five signals of syntactic structure:
1. word-orderthe linear of time sequence in which word appear in an utterance,
or the positions of words relative to each other in time.
2. prosodymusical pattern of stress, pitch and juncture in which the words an
utterance are spoken, or combination or patterns of pitch, stress and juncture.
3. function wordwords with little or no lexical meaning which are used in
combining other words into larger structures.
Words largely divide of lexical meaning that used to indicate various functional
relationship among the lexical words of an utterance (doesnt have meaning in
grammatical but in lexical), e.g. Does she go there?
There are nine types of function word:
noun determiner; all, twice, one, third, a, an, this, that, these, those, etc.
auxiliaries; verb, is, am, are, has, have, do, does, did, will
qualifiers/ compare; fairly, merely, very, pretty, quite, etc.
preposition; in, on, at, of, over, etc
conjunction/ coordinator; and, but, noror, not onlybut also, etc
interrogator; who, which, what, etc
includes; when, like, that, whatever, etc
sentence linkers; consequently, accordingly, however, even though, as a result
miscellaneous/ interjection
There are two kinds of meaning:
a) lexical meaning : the meaning of morphemes and words considered in isolation
(dictionary meaning).
b) Grammatical/structural meaning: the meaning of the way words are combined
in larger structures (sentence)
* the word am does not has meaning if stand alone, but has meaning if we
combine with other words or we put in a sentence.
e.g. I am being interviewed
4. inflectionsuffixes, always final, which adapt words to fit varying of structural
positions without changing their lexical meaning or part of speech.
Morphemic changes without changing the lexical meaning, e.g. ed, plural (s/es)
work worked (change in the form of word to show a past tense)
book books ( to show a plural)
5. derivational contrastderivational prefixes and suffixes which change words
from one part of speech to another. In short, addition of the prefixes or suffixes
that change the world class.
e.g. managemanagementmanager

leadleaderleadership
testpre-test
morphophoneme (linguistics) the phonemes (or strings of phonemes) that
constitute the various allomorphs of a morpheme.
Eg. imperfect = in + perfect
Irregular = in + regular
linguistics the scientific study of language
allomorph a variant phonological representation of a morpheme; the final
sounds of `bets and `beds and `horses and `oxen are allomorphs of the English
plural morpheme
Assimilation is a common phonological process by which the phonetics of a
speech segment becomes more like that of another segment in a word (or at a
word boundary). A common example of assimilation would be dont be silly
where the /n/ and /t/ in dont are assimilated to /m/ and /p/ by the following /b/,
where said naturally in many accents and discourse styles (dombe silly).
Progressive assimilation; changes with reference to a preceding segment are
traditionally.
Regresive assimilation; if a sound changes with reference to a following segment.
Dissimilation; opposite of assimilation; is the change of one or more sounds to be
articulated like another sound or is a phenomenom whereby similar consonant or
vowel sound in a word become less similar.
e.g. turtle tur-tur
Branches of phonetic study:
1. Articulation phonetics: The study of the way speech sounds are made by vocal
organ.
2. Acoustic phonetics: The study of speech sounds related to physical properties as
transmitted between mouth and ear.
3. Auditory phonetics: The study of speech sounds based on the perceptual
response of auditory nerve and brain: using physical apparatus such as devices for
measuring airflow or for analyzing sound waves.
Stress: The use of significant intensity in speech.
e.g: naturally (naetserlly)
nat surely will come (naet serliy el kem)
Pitch: Intonation which gives contribution to meaning varieties of the sentence.
Timing: Juncture (the type of connection or pause we get between syllables or
words)

Definition of sentence:
A sentence is sequence of selected syntactic items combined into a unit in
accordance with certain patterns of arrangement, modification, and intonation in
any given language.
A sentence is any string of morphemes ending with a final intonation pattern.
To provide the means for analyzing sentences or any other syntactic entities, two
terms are used: construction and constituent. A construction is any complete
group of words or morphemes. A constituent is a morphemes, a combination of
morphemes, or a construction that is a component of a construction.
Basic elements of the sentence.
Subject + Predicate.
Subject:
The subject of a sentence is the person, place, thing, or idea that is doing or being
something. You can find the subject of a sentence if you can find the verb. Ask
the question, "Who or what verbs or verbed?" and the answer to that question
is the subject.
Predicate:
A predicate is the completer of a sentence. The subject names the "do-er" or "beer of the sentence; the predicate does the rest of the work. A simple predicate
consists of only a verb, verb string, or compound verb:
The glacier melted.
The glacier has been melting.
The glacier melted, broke apart, and slipped into the sea.
Coordination (conjoining) is one of the basic syntactic devices from which
parallel entities are arrangeed side by side.
e.g: John takes cream. John takes sugar.
The two sentences above can be coordinated into : John takes cream and sugar.
Subordination (embedding) is combining two sentences into one sentence by
using English relatives and subordinating conjuction.
e.g: John, who likes sugar.
Endocentric construction is one in which the primary constituent(s) are
comparable to the complete construction.
e.g: Good old John. John and Mary
Exocentric construction is one in which the primary constituent(s) do not
function like the complete construction.
e.g: in the house
Substitution (pro-form), stand for the central entities of basic patterns.
As substitutes for nouns: John likes cream. He likes cream. He likes it.

Substitutes may also be used for verbs: He likes coffee and she does too.
Modals are also widely used as substitutes: Hell take coffee and so will she.
Entities used as substitutes generally fall into the set of items known as function
words. These convey relationships among the content words, such as nouns and
verbs, in a language. Examples of function words are auxiliaries, conjunctions,
determiners, interjections, postpositions, prepositions and relatives.
Concord, or congruence, is the agreement in form of one word with an other. For
example, this must be modified to these before plurals, as in this tie, these
ties.
Government is the determination of one from by another. For example, her
rather than she is required in He saw her and to her.
The two basic favorite sentence types of English, verb sentence and BE sentence.
Verb sentence:
They came. N1 V
They became friends. N1 V N(1)
They saw her. N1 V N2
They gave her candy. N1 V N2 N3
They elected her mayor. N1 V N2 N(2)
BE sentence:
It is cold. N BE Adj
It is here. N BE Adv
It is Jack. N BE N
Intransitive verbs that do not require a following noun or adjective.
Transitive verbs are subdivided here into two large groups, one of which requires
only an object, the other an object plus a noun or a pronoun and those that do.
Some grammars call verbs like become and seem linking verbs.
Overt selection classes, the subject performs an action affecting the object,
whereas in I saw her, there is no such effect.
Covert selection classes, the relationship expressed by verbs like stop is hidden
in They stopped the car, with the former object as subject: The car stopped.
Subclasses of English function words are often specified according to gross sets:
those used with verbs as auxiliaries and those used nouns as determiners and
prepostions.
e.g: His car broke down and His broke down.
Subclasses of English noun.
The use of determiners, in turn, permits subclassification of nouns. Proper nouns
may be distinguished from common nouns by the impossibility of placing

determiners before proper nouns. For example, Jack is a proper noun in Jack
dealt the cards but not in He dealt a jack to each of the players.
Some eggs > count nouns
Some sugar > mass nouns
They moved last week > move is intranstive verb
They moved the last house on the block > move is transitive
Expansion of the verb phrase:
They may give her candy.
They have given her candy.
They are giving her candy.
They may have given her candy.
They may be giving her candy.
They have been giving her candy.
They may have been giving her candy.
Expansion of the noun phrase:
their old neighbors
their fine old neighbors
their fine old retired neighbors
their many fine old retired neighbors
all their fine old retired neighbors
Alterations of simple sentences:
1. Question
with change of intonation, for example, He came?
with wh-words, for example, Who came?
with auxiliaries or do, for example, May he come? or Did he come?
2. Negative
They didnt come.
3. Emphatics
They came
4. Requests
Will you come?
5. Passives
She was seen by him
Compound sentences; the clauses so modified are referred to as coordinate and
subordinate clauses, and the resulting sentences.
Example: They came and saw her.
Minor sentence types.
Completive; consist of subject plus auxiliary. For example: (Did they come?)
They did.
Elliptical; consist of any single sentence component. For example: (How did he

come?) Slowly.
Aphoristic; consist of parallel comparison. For example: First come, first served.
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Materi Kuliah Intro to Linguistics
Materi Kuliah Semantics
Materi Kuliah SociolinguisticsWith 3 comments

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1.
alhamdulilah artikel tsb bermanfaat bagi anda. thanks
Comment by koesnandar1964 May 19, 2011 #

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