( )

&

2006

1.1

6
1.1.1

6
1.1.2

6
1.1.3

10
1.1.4

13
1.1.5
ISO
.
14
1.1.6

15
1.1.7

16
1.2

1.2.1

1.2.2

1.2.3

1.2.4

17
17
18
20
30

1.3

32

33

2 :

33

2.1

2.1.1

2.1.2

2.1.3

2.1.4

2.1.5

2.1.6
(Multiplexing)
2.1.7

33
33
34
37
39
40
42
42

2.2

2.2.1

2.2.2

2.2.3

44
45
45
46

2.3

2.3.1

2.3.2

2.3.3

2.3.4
-

48
48
48
49
50

2.4

2.4.1

2.4.2

2.4.3

2.4.4

2.4.5

50
51
51
53
55
61
2

2.4.6

64
69

3.1

3.1.1

70
70

3.2

73

3.3

74

3.4

LED
3.4.1
laser

75
76
77

3.5

79

3.6

3.6.1

3.6.2

81
81
82

3.7

83

4
4.1

84
85

4.2

4.2.1

4.2.2

4.2.3
block
4.2.4
block
4.2.5
Reed-Solomon
4.2.6

4.2.7

4.2.8
bit rate bit

88
88
92
93
94
95
96
97
100

103

5.1

5.1.1
(PAM)
5.1.2
(PCM)
5.1.3
PCM
5.1.4
PCM PAM

103
103
104
106
107

5.2

5.2.1

5.2.2

5.2.3

108
108
113
121

121

5.3

122

(Orthogonal Frequency

5.3.1
5.4

Division Mulitplexing OFDM

122

127

5.5

5.5.1
FDMA
5.5.2
TDMA
5.5.3
CDMA

128
128
129
130

5.6
(Spread Spectrum Techniques)
5.6.1
Direct Sequence
5.6.2
Frequency Hopping
5.6.3
Spread Spectrum
5.6.4
DSSS-FHSS

131
132
136
136
137

138

6.1

6.1.1
Fixed wireless
6.1.2
FIXED WIRELESS
6.1.3

6.1.4
Internet-enabled
6.1.5

6.1.6
LMDS DS: Fixed Wireless Options in Telecom

138
139
140
143
143
144
146

6.2
E
6.2.1

6.2.2
High Definition Television

151
151
153

6.3

6.3.1
Wi-Fi
6.3.2
WiMAX
6.3.3
3G/UMTS

154
154
157
159

6.4

6.4.1

6.4.2

6.4.3

6.4.4

6.4.5

6.4.6

6.4.7

6.4.8

6.4.9

6.4.10

6.4.11

163
163
165
165
166
169
172
174
175
176
177
179

6.5

6.5.1

6.5.2

6.5.3

6.5.4

6.5.5

180
180
183
186
188
192
4

6.5.6
6.5.7
6.5.8
6.5.9
6.5.10
6.5.11
6.5.12
6.5.13
6.5.14
6.5.15
6.5.16
6.5.17
6.5.18
6.5.19

R

DWDM




FDDI
SONET/SDH
SONET/SDH

Long-Haul
(Access Networks)
(Metropolitan Networks)

194
197
202
202
204
205
207
207
208
209
211
211
212
212

1 :
1.1

,
. ,

.
1.1.1

. .
, (
), .
,
.

,
.
1.1.2


.
. ,


18 ..
, , .
6

 , ,
.
, .


.
. ,
.

. ,
,

.
Samuel Morse 1854 Graham Bell 1876
.

-1
(: ., ., 6 2003)

 20
.

(-1).

1950,
,

.
,
(internet), ,
.

,
.
H

,

data.
, ( , , .),
(multiplexing, compression, , .).

( .


, (data), .
.

 1850 -2

-2:
(: ., ., 6 2003)

-3 1800-2000.
1809 VanSoemmerring
1820 . Oersted
1831 Faraday
1837 Morse
1876 Bell
1897 Strowger
1901 Marconi
1905 Fessenden
1907
1921
1928 Farnsworth
1931
1933 FM Armstrong
1934 RADAR
1937 PCM Reeves
1937
9

1939
1945 Clarke
1948 Shannon
1962
1970
1971 ISDN
1973 Ethernet
1974
1978
1978 Global Positioning System (GPS)
1986 SONET I SDH
1991 GSM
1996 DSL
1998
1999 LMDS
2000 GPRS
2001 UMTS -data
-3:

communications),

,
(WWW

-World

Wide

Web),

(Data
Teletex,

(Telefax), (Videoconference),
(Mobile communication), ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network),
, (Electronic mail),
(Paging), Videotelephony (),
(multimedia), , ,
, , .

1.1.3
'
.
,

.
.

.
.
,
10

 (-1)/2 -1 .
100 , 4950 9900
99
. .
. ,
.
,
.

.
.

. ,

.
Data. (Data Terminal Equipment)

(dedicated) .
,
data.
.
.
, telex,
, ISDN, .
1.1.3.1
.
,
( ).
.

.
.

11

,
.
,
data, .
bandwidth on demand,

(Asynchronous Transfer Mode).
( ), ,
video demand,
, . ,

,

.
,
( , ), ,
.
1.1.3.2

data .
(data)
, , .
data ,
, . .
'
data, .
data, , .
,
data
.

, .

12

 (data transmission)
.
,
,
,
.
, ,
,

.

1.1.4

. (convergence)

.

:
1) - :

.
2) - ,
,
, .
3) - ,
,
.
4) , ( - ) .. .

13

1.1.5 ISO
.
,
.

.
. (LANs)

. ,

. ,
(Open System Interconnection, OSI),
.
OSI,
(International Standards Organisation ISO).
ISO ISO
.
[8] 1.8.

. ,
.

1.8 OSI .

,
, 1.8.
,
( )
,
, .
OSI :
1 : (physical layer).
, ,
bit bit.
2 : (link layer).
,
.
(blocks), bits
14

. , bits
.
3 : (network layer).
.
.
4 : (transport layer).
, ,

. ,
.
5 : (session layer).
. ,
on off .
6 : (presentation layer).
,
,
.
.
7 : (application layer).
. ,
, ,
.

OSI. [9-11]
OSI.
CCITT .7 .

.
. ,
, ( ),
, ( ).

. ,
.
1.1.6

,
(.. ...,
) (.. ).
,
1865, .
(International Telecommunication
Union - ITU) . 1865
, 1932 .
15

 CCIR (Consultative Committee on International Radio) CCITT

(Consultative Committee on International telephone and Telegraph).
(International Standards Organization
- ISO) 1946 89
.

ISO

(, ...) 2 3
.
:
American National Standards Institute - ANSI, Electronic Industries Association EIA, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers - IEEE, National Institute Of
Standards and Technology - NIST, Conference Europeen des Administration des
Postes et des Telecommunications - CEPT European Telecommunications
Standards Institute -ETSI.
- ISO.
1.1.7

1949 , ,

. ... 1949
.
... 1990
1993

TIM Vodafone. 1998 Cosmote 2001 Q-Telecom.

2001

(.. Tellas, Forthnet, Teledome, Vivodi, Cosmoline ..).

. 1992
()
.
1995. 1998
. 2000 ,
.
.
16

1.2

1.2.1
,
.
:

4:

.
.

,
, .
.
, .

.


.
.

17

1.2.2

1.2.2.1

.
. , ,
.

.
. , ,

. ,
.

.
,
.

1.2.2.2
m
p k , k=1,2,,q :
q

p
k =1

=1

I(m i ) > I(m j ) p i < p j

I(m i ) 0 p i 1

I(m i ) 0 0 p i 1

I(m i m j ) = I(m i ) + I(m j ), m i m j

1
I = log
pk

, ,
18

 p =

1
1
. I = log2 = log2 2 = 1. ,
1
2
2

, 1, bit (
binary digit),

.
1.2.2.3

.

:
I

1
1 q
1 q
H=
= Np i log 2 = p i log 2

t =1
pi
p i t =1

bits

:
max = log 2 q

bits

1.2.2.4

.
,
, , 0 1.
( 2.3).

19

1.2.3

1.2.3.1

.
.

.
.
y = y 0 (t )
y 0 , t =2
,

. -6

: u = ,
.

-6: t=0, t.
(: Haliday D., Resnick R., .. 2 )

t x
y = y 0 2 y = y 0 2 (ut x )
T
.
,

,
.

20

 .
.

.
:
t x
t x
E = E 0 2 B = B 0 2
T
T
E 0 , B 0 .

-7:

c = c
,
.

( )
( ) (-8).

-8:

21

 : )
) . ), )
.
: )
)

= = 1 = n c 1 , c 2

c2

1, 2. n . ), )
.


(, ,
).

.
.

.

.
,
.
,
:
, ,
, ,
,
. ,
c= 3 10 8

m
, , .
sec

,
0 10 24 Hz. 5, 6

22

-5:
(: Haliday D., Resnick R., .. 2 )

-6:
(: .., .., - 1 1993)

0 10 12 Hz
10 13 10 24 Hz
.

(, , , , ).

. .
,
. .
:

.
.
.
:

:
100 350 Km
.

23

 : ) )
.
(-9).

.
. ,
.
, ,

-9

-10

.
.
. ,
.

, . '
-10,
, ,
.
. ,
, .
,
.
,
(). ,
.
',
,
,
24

,
( ),
( ).

. , ,
.
100 m , 1
m ( 300 m).
:

:
) (>600 m)
.
) (100 m<<600 m) (=200-600 m =1,5-0,5 z)

.
.
) (10 m<<100 m) (=18-50 m =6-16 z)



.
) (1 m<<10 m) (<10 m >30 z)
.

. , ,
.
(60 Km 100 m).
X VHF
(Very High Frequency) 47-68 z 174-230 z.
UHF (Ultra High Frequency) 470-960 z.
25

 (C.B. = Citizen's Band) 27

z, , , , .
) (0,1 mm < < 1 m) >300 z
.
. .

500-1500
KHz

6-25 MHz

VHF 30-300 MHz

UHF 470-960
MHz

UHF 4-6 GHz

( II)

21-60

5-11

( IV&V)

( )

-11: .

,

. ,
.

, ,
10.000- 36.000 Km.

.


( ).

1.2.3.2 -

.

26

 , . ,
(, , , ...),
.
.

(carrier) . :

( )

( )

1)

S(t ) = A (t + )

:
=2f f S(t)
: ,

.
:

(- Amplitude Modulation)

(FM-Frequency Modulation)

(PM-Phase Modulation)

2) :

(SK- Amplitude Shift Keying)

(FSK-Frequency Shift Keying)

FSK (CPFSK- CONTINUOUS Phase FSK)

(PSK-Phase Shift Keying)

BPSK-Binary PSK PSK 4 (QPSK-Quad PSK)

PSK 8 (8PSK)
(DPSK-Differential PSK)

QAM-Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

TCM-Trellis Code Modulation

3)
Non Return to Zero (NRZ) Return to Zero (RZ).
27

4) , . H
.
,

, ,
:

PWM-Pulse Width Modulation/PDMPulse Duration Modulation/PLM- Pulse Length Modulation

PPM-Pulse Position Modulation

PAM-Pulse Amplitude Modulation

PCM-Pulse Code Modulation

Delta Modulation

(sampling)
().
(Nyquist):
S(t) fmax
.
2fmax ,
S(t).

1.2.3.3

,
, .

(). ,
.


.
28

 ( , 0
1). , ,
0 1.
1.2.3.4

,
.
,

. ,
. ,

.
,
.
.

.
1.2.3.5 Fourier

.

.
. ,

.

. '

.

.
29


. Fourier (1768-1830),

. y(t)
, :
y(t ) = A 0 + A 1(t ) + A 2 (t ) + 3 (t ) + ... + 1 (t ) + B 2 (t ) + B 3 (t ) + ...

Fourier.
y(t). ,
,
Fourier.
1.2.4

,

.
, .
1.2.4.1

.
,


bit .
bits
. bits,

2.
, bits
:
21 < N 2
30

 bits ,
.
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange. 7 bits

128 .
928,

ASCII
. 8 bits, 256
ISO (International Standardization
Organization). EBCDIC-Extended Binary Coded
Decimal Interchange Code. 8 bit 256

,
. data parity bit

.
1.2.4.2

1
0. (pure binary)
,
.
.
.
(line code)

.
:

,
.

.
31

(error detection and

error correction) .

(crosstalk).

( 4.2).

1.3

50 .
,
, ,
( , (),
). :

3 :
Si

32

 2
2 :

2.1

2.1.1

(data).
,
, .

,
: ,
.
2.1.1.1 - Wide Area Network - WAN

,
.
.
.
2.1.1.2 - Local Area Network - LAN

, .


.
2.1.1.3 - Metropolitan Area Network - MAN

1990
.
33

: WAN, LAN, MAN.

2.1.2

2.1.2.1 - Star

/.
.

: Star.

2.1.2.2 - Ring

. ,

.
(repeater) ,
, .

34

 : Ring.

2.1.2.3 - Bus

.
.

: -bus.

2.1.2.4 Mesh -

, .


.

: mesh-.

35

2.1.2.5

Broadcast (): ,

.
, (LAN).

Switched ():

, .

. :
, .
.

Networked

():

.
. Internet.
2.1.2.6

: bit

, .
bit (LSB - Least Significant Bit)
bit (MSB Most Significant Bit).
modem,

.

: , bit .

bit
. ,
36

 .
.
2.1.2.7

.


, .

2.1.3

.
.

.

2.1.3.1

, -

. start bit
0
data bit . start bit
1 (idle). bit
start bit, (LSB) bit
(parity) .
bit .

1 (idle) bit
stop bit
1,5 2 bit. stop bit idle
start bit .
/ , PC PC, telex,
.
37

- :

- :

2.1.3.2

block

(clock).
. data
.
. (idle) bit
.
bit
.
block block


pad.
pad
. block bit
block
flag (01111110) .

38

- :
(: ., ., 6 2003)

- :

2.1.3.3

data bit
bit, start, stop bit ,
,
(PC).

block
, .
2.1.4

.
2.1.4.1 Simplex ( )

,

. .

simplex

- : simplex: data / .

39

2.1.4.2 Half Duplex ( (HDX))

.
.
.
data communication.
.
.
/
t1
/

t2
- : Half duplex

- t 1 ,
t 2 t 1 .
2.1.4.3 Full Duplex ( (FDX))

.

- : Full duplex

,
. , .

2.1.5

, ,
:
40

2.1.5.1 Point to Point

.

, half full duplex.
.

- :Point to Point

2.1.5.2 Point to Multipoint

point to point .
. point to multipoint
,
().

- : Point to Multipoint
(: ., ., 6 2003)

41

- : Point to Multipoint -
(: ., ., 6 2003)

- : Point to Multipoint -

2.1.6 (Multiplexing)

.
:
- CDM (Code Division Multiplexing)
- WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexing)
-TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
- FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing)
.
2.1.7

42

 bit
.

(bit rate),

(baud rate), (infonnation rate)

(channel capacity).

2.1.7.1 (bit rate)

bit bit
, bit per second (bps).
:
S=

1
log 2 M
T

S bps, bit
sec .
0 1, = 2
:
S=

1
T

, :
S=

K
log 2 M
T

,
sec
.
50, 75, 1200, 2400, 800,
7200, 9600, 12000, 14400, 16800, 19200, 24000, 28800, 33600, 38400 bps, 48 Kbps,
56, 64, 128 Kbps.
2.1.7.2 (Baud rate)

baud
modem bit
rate bit
. bit rate
baud rate.

43

- :baud rate bit rate

- :baud rate bit rate

2.1.7.3 (Information rate)

bps

.

2.2
4.1.1

.
:

(Circuit switching)

(Message switching)
44

(Packet switching).

2.2.1

,

.
5 (1, 2, 3, 4, 5) 1
2.
2
1

3
5

1 1 2. 1
3
2 2 . 1
2. ,
1, 3, .

.

,
, .

2.2.2

, .

.
,
. ,
45



.

,
. ,


.

.
2.2.3

. ,
. :

Datagram (

Virtual circuit ( )

2.2.3.1 Datagram

2
1

4321

32

32

3
1

1
5

32
6
4321
2

: datagram.

46

To 1 4 , 2. 1 ,
2, 3, 4, .
. 1 -4-6-2, 2, 3 12-3-6-2 4 K1-K5-6-T2.
, 2
. datagrams
connectionless (
).
2.2.3.2 Virtual circuit

,

connection oriented ( ).
:

2
1

4321

3
1
4321
4
4321
5

4321
6

: virtual circuit.

47

o T1 2 4 . 1 2
.
11462.
.

2.3
2.3.1

,
.
, ( 5).
:
1. (bandwidth) ( 4.2.2)
2. : .
3. :
,
.
4. (noise) ( 4.2.3)
5. (crosstalk):
.
:

. .

6. (echo):
.
.
.
2.3.2

o (bandwidth)

48

.
.
(Channel capacity)
.
bit/sec.

: .

Shannon:
Shannon: R
C , R C,
,
,
. , R > C, .

2.3.3

.. :
, , ,
,
. dB
,
.
Decibel (dB):

.
49

 (1)

(2)

: .

decibel (dB) .
1 2 :

10 log10 1
2

. 2 >
1 , , 2 <
1 , .
2.3.4 -

Nyquist :
C = 2 B log 2 M

C bps,
.
Shannon, Hartley

S
= (Signal to Noise) :
N

C = B log 2 1 +
N

S ,
z.
o.

S

N

dB.
2.4

50

 ,
.
. :
()





,
.
2.4.1

( 4.2)
.
, o (bandwidth),
,
,
,
, ,
, ,
2.4.2

2.4.2.1

'
.
.
,
.
(twisted pair), 1 mm

, .

,
51

 (repeaters).
z z.
(UTP-Unshielded Twisted Pair)

- : (UTP-Unshielded Twisted Pair) ) 3, ) 5

(shielded)
.

1) , 2) ,
3) , 4)

- : (STP-Snshielded Twisted Pair)

.
1 dB .
,
.
3
16 z. 1988
5
3 100 z,
.
6 7 250 z 600 z .
UTP.
:

.
,
/ - Electronic/Telecommunication Industry Association.
52

2.4.2.2 -

(coaxial cable)
, .


. ,
.

. 0,6-2 cm
1 Gz.
,
.

, 50 hm
75 hm
Internet.

- :
(: Tanenbaum A.S. , 4 2003)

2.4.3

(fiber optic)

: ,
(core)
. , (cladding)
(buffer) .

53

 . ,
(core)
.

- : ) , )

,
.
.
:

,



.
,
5 Gbps,
, (errr rate)
,
,
(
, 300 ).

.

,
, data
, (Metropolitan Area Network)
.

54

2.4.4

.

,
.


.
2.4.4.1

dB = 10 log10 (P1 / P0)

0 dB = 1
+ 0.1 dB = 1.023
+ 3 dB = 2
+ 5 dB = 3
+ 10 dB = 10
-3 dB = 0.5
-10 dB = 0.1
-20 dB = 0.01
-30 dB = 0.001
dBm = 10 log10 (P / 1 mW)

0 dBm = 1 mW
3 dBm = 2 mW
5 dBm = 3 mW
10 dBm = 10 mW
20 dBm = 100 mW
-3 dBm = 0.5 mW
-10 dBm = 100 mW
-30 dBm = 1 mW
-60 dBm = 1 nW

( )

dB/km.
3 dB/km,
50% 1km.
:
I. (absorption).
.
-, .


. ,
.

2.1 .
-.

55

II. (Scattering).
.
,
.
4,
Rayleigh.


.
(O-band,
S,C,L,U-band) 1.3 m 1.5
m, . ,

.
0.8 m
. 1.3 m 12 THz
1.55 m 15 THz,
,
.
(macro bending) (micro bending)
.
2.4.4.2

.
.
(dispersion)

.

(SI Inter Symbol Interference).

.

2.2

2.4.4.3 (modal dispersion).

H ,
,
. ,
.
56

 L ( .. Step Index) m(SI) :

m ( SI ) = n c

c
(0.1)

,
(
.. graded index).
. m(GI)
:
m ( GI ) = n c2

L 2

( ).
.
. .
2.4.4.4 .

,


. ,
.
.
(Material Dispersion)
Rb L,
S
.
mat :
mat

2
L 2 d n c

=
c
d 2

(0.2)

( ).

.
.
1.3 m .

57

 ,

.
1.3 m
mat
,


( ). 1.3
m mat ,
( ).

:
,
. ,
neff
nc ng (ng< neff < nc).
.

wg
.
, :
L
wg = n g
VD
(0.3)
c
VD .

, 2.4
H .

.

.
.
1 10 nm.


,

.

2.3

58

.
1.3 m
1.55 m .

1.3 m 1.6 m (
).

,
1.55 m ( , ).

. ( ),
.

.

ps

nm km
D
[nm] L [km]
, [ps] :
= D L
( 0)

[ps]
:
Dchr L
=
2 c

c (= 3 105 nm/ps) .
D
. (SMF) Dchr = 0 {ps/nmKm]
=1.3 m D =17 [ps/nmkm] = 1.55m.
Rbmax [bps]
,
. ,
bit b (
bit) , :
1
b =
Rb

Rb [bps] = 0.25 . ,

59

 ,
(.. = 0.306 = 0.4911).
: D= -15 ps/nmkm nc=1.48
ng=1.47 Rb=100Mb/s. =10
nm. .

laser

D=

-20ps/nmkm

0 nm) 1550nm.

Rb

BW=2Rb

L km.

:
2

L = m +

L
L

step index (SI) (2.7) (2.10) :

2

L ( SI ) =

nc
=33.3
c

n
2
L = c + (D )
c
103

ps/km

D =150

ps/km

L = L ( SI ) , (2.11)

step index Rb :

L=
Rb =100Mbps L =

(2.7)

0.25
Rb L

0.25
km
100 10 33.3 103 10 12

L ( GI ) =

(2.12).

n c2 2
2c

= 0.075 km

=166.5 ps/km graded index

L = 224 ps/km L =11.2 km

(2.10)

L.

. :

c
c
2
2
= 2 f =
f =
BW
f
c
c
f

(2.10) (2.11) :

Rb

0.25

L = 11.2 km :

= 2

2
c

Rb

c
2 D L

Rb=5.9 Gbps

1
(power penalty) 1dB 2 dB .
Optical Networks a Practical Perspective R. Ramaswami K. N. Sivarajan.

60

2.4.4.5

(Polarization Mode Dispersion PMD)

(Polarization Mode Dispersion PMD)

. ,
(State Of Polarizations SOPs)
, . ,
PMD
.
<>
(differential time delay) SOPs :
< > = DPMD L
L [km] DPMD [

ps
km

] PMD . H

DPMD 0.5 2
0.1

ps
km

ps
km

PMD,
10%
bit Tb.
< > DPMD L < 0.1 Tb

0.4 PMD
2.10 .
DPMD = 2

ps
km

10 Gbps 25 km.
PMD .

2.4.5

:
61





2.4.5.1

, (step index)
, (graded index).

( ) ( ) .

(~ 5 - 8 m),
.

. silica ( ), PCS
( ) 1980
( )

. silica, .

.

2.4.5.2

.

ITU-T :
(Non Dispersion Sifted Fiber
NDSF), G.652
(Dispersion-Shifted Fiber
DSF), G.653
(Non Zero
Dispersion Sifted Fiber NZ-DSF), G.655

. ,
850 nm,
. NDSF, (Single
Mode SMF), ,
1310 nm.
.
1550 nm ( C)

Step Index
MM

Graded Index
MM

Step Index SM

62

 :

(Erbium-Doped Fiber Amplifiers EDFAs). ,
laser
. ,
1310 nm,
-,
1550 nm.
1550 nm,

, .
, DWDM .
, NZ DSF,
DWDM .
1550nm .
,
,
, DWDM .
, ,
, .
2.1

[m]

0.63

0.85

Silica, PCS

1.30

Silica

1.55

Silica

100-1000/200-1200
: 0.50 - 0.66

50/125, 85/125,
100/140
: 0.3 - 0.5

50/125, 85/125
: 0.2 -0.35

8.5/125
: 0.1

2.4.5.3

63

 2.5 ) )

,
. ,
,
.

.
.
,
.
,
.

.
. 2.7
.
15 mm 12.5 kg/km.
2.4.6

.
,
, .

1950.
,
,
, .

.
,
.
64

 , ,
.
, , ,
(directional omni directional:
).
( 2.3.1).
.

2.4.6.1

,
.
( )
.
,
.
.
2.4.6.2

1930
. 1 - 50 Ghz

.. ,
, .
,
. ,
,
.

2.4.6.3

(cordless telephony)
.

.
1980

65

 ,
(mobile
telephony)

,
.
(cellular mobile
network) .

, (cells).
,
. .

.
GSM (Global System for Mobile communications).
O
(Conference of European Postal and Telecommunications - CEPT).

UHF 900 MHz, 200 kHz.

(Universal Telecommunications System UMTS)

International Telecommunications Union

ITU
. 2.000 MHz
2 Mbps
.

2.4.6.4

,
, ,
.
(satellite mobile communications)

.
1950
1942.
. 10 Km
66

 ,
,
.
:
GEO (Geosynchronous Earth Orbit)
LEO (Low Earth Orbit) (Medium
Earth Orbit)
HEO (Highly inclined Elliptical Orbit).

250 msec

,
, 0,3 sec)

,
.

:




.

:

67

LEO

MEO

GEO

HEO

785 Km

10.354 Km

35.786 Km

40.000 Km

500 Km

1 h 40 min

6h

24 h

12 h

25.560 Km/h

11.070 Km/h

700 Kgr

1.000 Kgr

1.500 Kgr

1.000 Kgr

66 (11

66 (11

80

10 min

1h

24 h

8h

3-7

10-15

10-15

7-10

66 (11
)

: .

68

. (MSc), . (PhD), . (PhD)

20 .
,
.
,
, ,
, laser.

.

.

50 . 1950

,


(chip).

,
,
, .
,
() 3.
(. ),
.

. ,
.
.

(.. , ).
:
3

:
.

69

3.1
3.1.1

, 50,
.
, , ,
.
, ,
100 m
(0,1mm)

To
(1948)

10 m

1980

1 m

0,10 m

Io

1997
20

10 nm
11 nm
0,10 nm

DNA

1 Angstrom

, .
() 1948 ,
, (, ,
, .),
.
(.. ),

.
,
. ,
, :
,
,
,

70

3.1

SSI

(Small

Scale

Integration)

(edium

Integration)

1-100

SI

Scale

100-1000

LSI

(.

(Large

1000-100.000

),

(substrate).

CD) 30 .
(wafer).
, , , .

70

.
T

60
50

40

30

20
10
0

1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010

4 16 64 256 1G 4G 16G 64G

4.2.1.
(106, G109).

() VLSI (Very Large

Scale Integration)
.

,
3.1,
(..

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

1989 1992 1995 1998 2001 2004 2007 2010

1,2 3,1 5,5 7 13M 25M 50M 90M

.4.2.2.
, (106, G109).

71

 ).
70 7-10 m, 80 2 m,
90 0,25 m 0,18 m.

.
.
,
, (
).
1965, ,
(G. Moore)
,
. ,
Moore, (
18 ), . 4.2.1 4.2.1
.

O ()

.
,

()

SiO2

.

.
() .
, ,
,

GaAs

SFET

MESFET

. 4.2.3. .

()
,

72

( ),
0,18 m.
-
0,1 m.


.

3.2
T

(Si)

Gas.
(.
, , .),
p (
) n
( )
.


(chip)

(
).

, .
, BJT
(Bipolar Junction Transistor) FET (Field Effect
Transistor),
. FET
() . FET,
MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET)
MESFET (MEtal Semiconductor FET),
.

73

3.3


.


. MIC

,
,


.

.

,
()

.

O
1 GHz
30 GHz,
30 cm 1 cm.

.

.
,

(.. ,
, .),
.
,
.
1960-1980,
(Microwave Integrated
Circuits, MIC), (.. FET)
( , , , )
() ( ,
Al2O3).
H
(Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits, MMIC),

,



(microstrip)
(.. .
)
.

(.. (GaAs).
)

.
.


.
, , ,
.

M

, , .
12
Al2O3
4 GHz, ,
M
900 1800
. .3.1. .
MHz MMIC. ,

74

MMIC ,

100 GHz.

MESFET

.
. 3.2. MMIC.


, , ,
.

3.4
( )
:
. 2
1
, ,
2

()

1
,
CD 2

(Digital Video Disk, DVD)

1
.

.
() : E2-E1

. 1
2.
() :

(E2-E1).

, .
, .
, .
() :
(E2-E1)

.
.

1014 z
4-5
,

GHz (109 Hz). ,
. 3.3. LED Laser.

75

 10 100

(.. ).
laser 1960,
,
.
LED (Light Emitting Diode)
Laser.
.
. ,
,
(.. ) .
LED
P
LED

(mW)

, ,
( )
P0

.
LED
LED p-n,
(mA)
0
,

p
n (
. 3.8.
). LED.
LED
,


p-n : , .
,
.
.

LED
.

3.3
, .

,

( /
+

GaAlAs/GaAs
750-870 nm

GaAs/GaAs
904 nm
3.9
InGaAsP/InP
1100-1650 nm

AlGaAsSb/InGaAsSb
2,0-3,0 m

76

.
.
(Al), (Ga), (In)
(P), (As), (Sb), .. GaAsP, GaAlAs GaInAsP.

.
3.3 ,

.
0,85 , 1,3 1,55 m.
LED mW. LED

.
,
10%. LED .

.
,

.
.

Mbit/s.
laser
( ).
LED .
LED
. . 3.8
LED .
,

3.4.1

laser

laser . laser
1962, 1970,

. 3.10. laser.

laser

. laser .
Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation ( )

77

 laser
.
laser LED (.
p-n), ( )
-. . laser
,
. (
)

. , :
) ()
)
,
()
,
. )


. ,
,

LED.
laser .

300
m

( ).
laser
p-n

10 m

laser
.
.
P
(mW)

Laser

p-GaAs

1. LED

n-GaAs

P0

p-GaAs

2.
laser

(mA)

n-GaAs

. 3.11
Laser.
Laser
,

.

3. Laser
DFB

4. Laser
DBR

. 3.11. laser LED.

.
laser .
300-400 m, 10 m,
.

78


.
laser Watts. LED
, ,
. laser 30%.
laser LED
10 Gbit/s.
, laser.
laser, ,
.
.
laser
(. ).
laser DFB (Distributed FeedBack) DBR
(Distributed Bragg Reflector) ,
. laser DFB
, laser DBR
() .
.

3.5

.
,
.

(. )
(.. 1,3 1,55 m), ,
,
.
,
. : PIN
(APD: avalanche photodiode).

.

p, n

SiO2
p
(intrinsic).

i
.
+
n

(.

. 3.12 . .79

 -n -p)
5V. ,
-.
,

.

A

. Si

(0,8-0,9 m), Ge

InGaAs
(1,3 m) InGaAs ( -
- )
(1,55 m).

R
(Responsivity)

(nm)

3.13
Si, Ge, InGaAs.
P

R=

I
P

.
0,75 0,9 /W.

.

nWatts mWatts.
( =
RP) .
,
.
A,
.
FET
PIN FET,
PIN-FET.

80

3.6

,
-
,
-


,
. ,

:
.
()
,

, .
,


,
.

,

-

.

.

,

(
)
.
.
,

,
.
.

:
) , laser
,
) ,

,
) ,

.
(nm)
, :
. 3.14.
1550 nm, (semiconductor optical amplifiers
SOA) (erbium
.
doped fiber amplifiers - EDFA).

3.6.1

laser ,

. (.
)

1
LASER
ANT,

2
.3.15 .

.

81

 35 nm, 240 nm.

,
.

3.6.2

().
,
1
( 1).

2
laser, laser (
.3.16 , 2).
laser (2 )
(1 ),
.
laser, .
,
. )
( laser ) ) (
).
.
2 1.
, ,
.

(Er)
1,55 m
.
laser
. 3.17. .
, 0,98 1,48 m.
laser .
()
30 dB 40 nm.
:
) ,
) ,
) .
,
( 12/13),
, ... 10 Gbit/s.

82

3.7

: 1948
1958. ,
: .
, -
.
, :
) laser,
) laser,
) ,
) ,
) ( , .)


.
.

83

(), 1.
,
.
(codewords).
. (source
codewords) .
,
(channel codewords). ,
,
, bit
(redundancy bits).
.
(modulator)
( ) . ,

. ,
.
,
. , ,
, bits
.
.
.
,
,
.
.
.

.
.

 1:

4.1 :

.

, , .
X
p(x)=Pr(X=x), x X. ()
:

bits. , P(x=1)=p P(x=0)=1-p,

:

(-)
1. p=0.5
( ). ,
0p(x)1, log2 p(x)0.

85

 X a,b,c,d
1/2,1/4,1/8,1/8. ,
.
. a.
, , b;, , ,
c.
. :
0.5*1+0.25*2+0.25*3=1.75

, H(X)=1.75.
H(X) H(X)+1.

.

.
Huffman,

C X
X Y*, Y*
s- , .. Y*= {y1,y2,...,ys}. C(x)
x l(x) C(x). L(C)
C p(x),

, Huffman
C={0,10,110,111}, C(a)=0, C(b)=10, C(c)=110,
C(d)=111, L(C)=1.75.

86

 (prefix code)
,
.
,
(concatenated) ,
, ,
. C,
H(X)/log2 s.

: Huffman.
H(X) H(X)+1:

,
X : {0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.08, 0.02}.

2 ,

4 . C(x1)=0
0.4 1 .
bit 0 C(x2)=10 0.3
3. 0.6, 0.3 , 11. 2
11 bit 0 C(x3)=110 111
1 bits 0 1 C(x4)=1110
C(x5)=1111 .

,
. ,
87

, bits,
.
, ,
. ,
.
,
.
.
(.. program codes)
,
(Quality of Service - QoS).

4.2
4.2.1

.
M n ,
(channel codewords).
M=2k , k . block k
bits , (message),
, , , (n,k)
. (5,2) ,
C = {00000, 10101, 01111, 11010}

(1)

, bits

.
q {0,1,2,...,Q-1}.
q=2, .

(convolutional) .

block. (blocks)
k bits . block

88

 . R block
:
R=k/n,

0R1

.
. block
bits (blocks)
,
. k bits ,
m bits

bit .

k=1
m=2
code rate = 1/2

2 :

R :
R=k/m,

0R1

block : n,
k dmin.
C(n,k, dmin). Hamming d(x,y)
.

89

 Hamming
. (1), dmin=3.
r :
(r0, r1, , rn-1) = (c0, c1, , cn-1) + (e0, e1, , en-1)

, r c (error vector).
01111
01011.
e=(00100).

.
,
.
, ,
. ,
,

.
dmin,
tdet = dmin 1 .

, ,
. (1)
.
, dmin,
tcorr = int[(dmin-1)/2] , int(x)
, x.
, ,

.
.

90

 - ,
, .
(erasure). dmin,
teras=dmin-1 .

,
.
(1) .

(simple parity check code), C(n, n-1, 2), q=2. bit

. .
C={ 0000, 0011, 0101, 0111, 1001, 1010, 1100, 1110},
C(4,3,2).

(simple repetition code), C(n, 1,n), q=2.
, 0 1.
bit: 0 .
C={00000. 11111} C(5,1,5)
2 , 4. : R=1/5.
(2-dimensional parity check code),
, .
.
bit : , , 33 :

3:

91

 4 4 bits . bit
(parity of parities),
bits
bits . 4,
. :
(indices)
.
4.2.2

.
(finite fields).
F
,

(associativity) (commutativity),
, (0)
(1) ,
,
0.
: (1) Q . (2)
R . (3) C . (4)
GF(q) q .
,
, q=pm.
q=p, m=1.
GF(5). 5 : 0,1,2,3,4.
modulo 5, .. 3+4=5+2=2 mod 5.
4 4 : 4*4=16=3*5+1 mod 5. GF(2),
modulo 2. GF(p)
m>1. ,
,
.

92

4.2.3 block

C(n,k, dmin), GF(q)

, C .
block
q- n. qk ,
, , k.
:
. G

kxn, (
,
).
:
(c0, c1, , cn-1) = (m0, m1, , mn-1) * G

, m = (m0, m1, , mn-1),

G, c.
(parity check matrix) (n-k)xn.
: c C HcT=0, cT
c,
.
,
.
c=(m0, m1, , mk-1, p0, p1, , pn-k1),

. .
:
,
, .
(1) :

93


Hamming .
: ) ,
) Hamming
Hamming ) ,
.
, .
,
:
dmin. H
(2),
,
. 0,2
4 . , 3 (
3).
,
Hamming C(7,4,3) GF(2):

4.2.4 block

C(n,k, dmin), GF(q) ,

(cyclic permutation)
, .

94

 .
:
c = (c0, c1, , cn-1)

<---> c(x)= co + c1 + + cn-1 xn-1

,
: g(x), , h(x).
g(x) n-k, h(x) k.
g(x) :
c(x)=m(x)g(x)

(4)

, m(x)= m0 + m1 x + + mn-1 xn-1 .

g(x) h(x) : g(x) h(x) = xn 1.
Hamming C (7,4,3) GF(2)
g(x)=x3+x+1 . , m = (1011) <---> m(x)=1+x3+x4 ,
c(x)=1+x+x5+x6+x7 <--->

c=(1,1,0,0,0,1,1,1).

(generation) (4) -.
:
:
r(x) = -xn-km(x) mod g(x)

(5)

, :
c(x) = xn-km(x) + r(x)

(6)

(6) CRC (Cyclic Redundancy Check)

: g(x) CRC .
4.2.5 Reed-Solomon

Reed-Solomon -
block . Reed-Solomon C(n,k,dmin) , GF(q),
n=q-1 :
g(x) = (x-a) (x-a2) (x-an-k-1)

(7)

95

 a GF(q) n, n
an = 1. Reed-Solomon ,
MDS (Maximum Distance Separable) :
dmin = n-k+1
, , n-k .
, Reed Solomon C(12,8,5), GF(13)
:
g(x) = (x-2) (x-4) (x-8) (x-3)
2 .
: C(255,255- 2t,2t+1), GF(256), t
byte.
4.2.6

.
(maximum likelihood (ML) decoding).

P(r|c) c

r. r', c',
P(r'|c'). c'
ML .
. ,
,
( ) .
:

Hamming

Hamming.

.
,

(syndrome decoding). s

r, :
96

s = HrT
, r=c, s=0,
H.

.
.
(1), (2)
:

4 :

111.
01000,
bit .
,
.
.
PetersonGorenstein-Zierler-algorithm (PGZ).
Berlekamp-Massey.

, ,
4.2.7

:
(shift registers) modulo-2 (mod 2 adders).

97

 5 bits bit
, , R=1/2. bit
. block,

().

5 : [x2+x+1, x2+1]

bits modulo 2
(XOR) bit .
taps .
,
c1 c2 m1 m2, ,
.

(minimum nonzero weight). bits
.

5,

00 1000 . ,
11 10 11 00 00 , (
) 5.
(maximum likelihood
decoder), Viterbi.
trellis.
98

 . ,

, .
.
(DM-BSC), bits

6: trellis

0-->1 1-->0 ,

Hamming. bits
10 01 11 00 00 ... .
,
.
DM-BSC Hamming.
7.
. ,
. Viterbi
, trellis.

99

 7 : trellis

:
bits x log[p(y|x)], y
.
4.2.8 bit rate bit

,
.
. S
. Rb [bit/sec] bit rate
bit Eb=S/Rb . Shannon
C [bit/sec] Gauss (additive gaussian
noise):
C=W log2(1+S/N0W)

(8)

, W ,
s(t) S=Eb Rb,
[-W/2, W/2]. , No [watts/Hz]
. (8)
C bits/sec
, bit (bit
error rate). , Shannon

100

 . (8)
.
(8) . ,
-1.6 dB
bit.

bit, Eb/N0 12 dB (
).
(coding gain),
Eb/No
bit. , -
, Eb/N0 ,
bit error rate (.. BER = 10-5)
.
turbo (turbo codes).
, Eb/N0
1 dB (!) BER, .

.
bit rate ,
, r=Rb/W
[bit/sec / Hz]. r Eb/No
. (8) ,

bit Eb/N0 2r-1/r.
o Eb/N0
f(r)=(2r-1)/r.

101

 8: Eb/N0
BER

1.3.3 [r, Eb/N0],

, bit .
f(r). ,
r 0 ( W )
bit 0,69 (-1.6dB).

102

5.1
(baseband)
( f=0),
( ).
, .

, .
, (Pulse Amplitude
Modulation) (Pulse Duration Modulation)
(Pulse Position Modulation).
, PAM,
PCM (Pulse Code Modulation).

5.1.1 (PAM)

.
PAM
.

.4. 1 PAM

 .
AM, .
PAM AM,
.
(transmission path)
.
PAM ,
.. PAM
. PCM
.

5.1.2 (PCM)

PAM. PCM
(sampling), (quantizing),
(encoding), 2 :

. 4.2 : PCM

PAM
. H
PAM
(code word).
,
.
,

(quantum)
(step-size) PAM
, .
( binary code word
). n bits 2n PCM.
PAM
(quantization noise).
SNR .. PCM
!

104

 PC
11 P
8 ,
:

3
PAM .
.
3-bit
.

4..3

PCM :

101 111 110 001 010 100 111 100 011 010 101
33 bits. bits
. 4

105

 . ,
.

. 4.4

5.1.2.1 PCM

PCM :

Bit Rate : R = nfs

n- bits PCM ,

fs -

n .

PCM R = nfs

Minimum BW : R = nfs

5.1.3 PCM

PCM : video,
(CD) .

106

200 3400 Hz , 4000 Hz.

Nyquist :

Fs 2BW = 2 x 4000 = 8000 samples/sec

(code word) 8 bits
PCM 8 x 8000= 64000
bits/sec 64 kbps. minimum bandwidth : R = 64 = 32 kHz .
T1 24 () PCM bit rate =
24 x 64000 + 8 (framing bits) = 1544 kbps.

5.1.4 PCM PAM

.
,
.
( ).
TDM.
.

107

 PCM.
PAM .

5.2

, ..
. (baseband)
(passband),
.
,
, (carrier signal).

. baseband
:

(.. /2, /4). = c/f , c f
. ,
.
100 z = 3km, 100MHz =
3m.
, ..
,

.

, .

5.2.1

f

108

 :
C (t ) = A ( t + )

(4. 1)

t = 2f .
,
, , .

.

5.2.1.1 (Amplitude Modulation-AM)

/ ,
(amplitude modulation) ,
.
o 6.2.1
d(t),
d(t),
. 5,

. ,
.
, d(t)

(, ) ,
.

.

d(t)

s(t)

. 4.5 (AM)

109



fc .
(
) (Upper and Lower Side Band- USB
and LSB).
6.
( )
.

.4. 6 AM

BW (Bandwidth)
fmax d(t) :
BW = 2 f max

(4.2)

.
:

(Double Sideband Suppressed Carrier- DSSC).

110

(Single Side Band SSB).

,
.

7 AM.

. 4.7 AM, DSBSC, SSBSC

( ),
.

5.2.1.2 (Frequency Modulation-FM)

/
, (Frequency modulation) F.
111

,
d(t) ( ) C(t)
( 4.1).

.
8 FM .
,
.

.

s(t)
A
t

d(t)
A
t

FM
A
t

. 4.8 (FM)

FM
.
FM
,
.
,
, .
FM
9.

112

fm

fc (>fm)

FM

fc

. 4.9 FM

FM
(Bandwidth) BW FM
95%
:
BW = 2 (f s + f m )

(4.3)

, fs (frequency deviation) FM.

. fm d(t).


FM
.
FM ,
, FM
( 100
MHz). ,
,
( ).

5.2.2

. :
( )


( )

113

 (.. 3G )
bit rate
symbol ( baud) rate. Bit rate
(bit). Baud rate
. n bits,
, M=2n . Baud rate = bit rate / bits

(spectrum efficiency).

bps/Hz.
. .. bitrate 140
Mbits/sec 52.5 MHz 140 bps/52.5
MHz =2.7bps/Hz.

BER (Bit Error Rate). BER
bits
bits .
10. .. 4 bits 100.000 bits
4 x 10-5, BER 3 x 10-6 3 bits
1.000.000 .

5.2.2.1 (Amplitude Shift Keying- ASK)

ASK
, .
,

, , ASK
10 :

114

ASK
A
t

4.10 ASK

,
ASK .
ASK
.

5.2.2.2 (Frequency Shift Keying- FSK)

FM ,
FSK,
.
1
0.
11 :

FSK
A
t

4. 11 FSK

115

 FSK ASK,

RF = baud rate + f2 - f1

(6.2.4)

f1 f2
0 1 (f2 ).
FSK, bit rate baud rate 6.2.4 :

RF = RB + f2 - f1

FSK ,
FSK

4.12 FSK

5.2.2.3 (Phase Shift Keying- PSK)

. PSK
(Binary Phase Shift Keying BPSK)
0 1.
:

116

 4.13 PSK

s0 = Acos (ct + ) s1 = Acos ct .

M-PSK M
M n (n =
log2M). .. 4-PSK QPSK (Quaternary Phase Shift Keying)
00, 01, 11, 10 /4, 3/4 , 5/4 7/4 .
(constellation diagrams)
BPSK, QPSK 8-PSK.

117

 4.14 8-PSK

PSK minimum BW= baud rate.

BPSK BW = Rb (bit rate) QPSK BW = Rb/2 8-PSK BW = Rb /3.
bits (M)
(bandwidth efficiency).
BER. PSK
RF ASK FSK.
PSK

4.15 PSK
5.2.2.4 (Gaussian) Minimum Shift Keying (G) MSK

MSK FSK,
bitrate.
.. bitrate 1200 bps, fmax fmin =1200/2=600 Hz. GMSK
MSK

(Gaussian filter). GMSK BER
MSK. 2 GSM
DECT.

118

5.2.2.5 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)

QAM PSK
. QAM
. .. 2
4 2 x 4 = 8 .
8-QAM,
(constellation diagram) 4-QAM
4- QPSK :

4.16 4- 8-QAM

8-QAM log28 = 3 bits/.

16-, 32-, 64- 256-QAM.
16-QAM
1100:

4.17 Constellation diagram 16 - QAM

M (M-QAM) ,
BER
BER.
119

 (
) :

4.18 BER SNR QAM

, BER.

1)
BER

2)

BER.
3)
BER,
.

19 SNR, BER

120


QAM. QAM PSK

( ).
BER ( M > 64). QAM
modems,
V.34 modems ADSL VDSL.


2

5.2.3

121

5.3 (Orthogonal
Frequency
5.3.1

Division Mulitplexing OFDM

(OFDM)

. OFDM

(multipath effect).
.
(InterSymbol Interference - SI)
.

.4. 22 (multipath effect)

OFDM
.
.

122

 4.23

ISI (delay spread).

(4 .5)
, ISI = max/Ts,sc
max Ts,sc
.
OFDM, Ts = N x Ts,sc.
ISI = max/ Ts = max/ N x Ts,sc

(4 6)

ISI OFDM.

(FDM)
.

. 4.24 OFDM FDM

OFDM (orthogonal
subcarriers),
(overlapping) .
123

 (xk(t)*xj(t) dt = 0)---- .
, ,
, ,
25.

. 4.25 OFDM

PSK,
QAM BER .
OFDM
FFT.
OFDM
SNR,
.
OFDM FEC (Forward Error Correction)
COFDM (Coded OFDM).
, bits
bits . , VOFDM (Vector OFDM),
OFDM .
3-14 dB.

124

 4.26 VOFDM

OFDM TDMA:

4.27 OFDM TDMA

OFDM

NLOS (Non-Line Of Sight)

ISI

125

,

.

PARP (Peak-ToAverage Power Ratio),

ADCs (Analog to Digital Converters).

. 4.28 PARP OFDM

5.3.1.1 OFDM

OFDM
. xDSL cable
modem OFDM
. OFDM
, digital audio broadcast (DAB) terrestrial digital
video broadcast (DVB-T). OFDM
MMDS.
LANs, 802.11a IEEE
HiperLAN/2 ETSI, OFDM .
WiMAX (IEEE
802.16). OFDM
OSI.

126

5.4


.
,

(space
division).
,
(cells).
, .
(spread spectrum), duplexing

.
5.4.1.1 (Space Division)

.
. 29
n = 7 ,
.

127

. 4.29

. macrocell
(13 km ) microcell (1 km
) picocell ( 50m).

5.5
:
(Frequency Division Multiple Access FDMA),
(Time Division Multiple Access
TDMA) (Code Division Multiple
Access CDMA).

5.5.1 FDMA
FDMA .
. FDMA ,
.
FDMA , 60
.
.
FDMA

TDMA. FDMA
,
:

128

 4.30 FDMA

5.5.2 TDMA

TDMA PCS .
Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM) Time Division
Multiplexing (TDM). .
TDM
.
TDMA GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications),
UWC (Universal Wireless Communications), JDC (Japanese Digital Cellular).
GSM 8 ,
/ (time slot).
FDMA

(smart devices).

129

4. 31 TDMA
5.5.3 CDMA

CDMA
. CDMA
.
.
.
.
CDMA
.
, .
.

() .
32 33 CDMA:

130

 4.32 CDMA
4. 33 CDMA

2 CDMA. 1.25 MHz.

CDMA Wideband CDMA (WCDMA), 5, 10
15 MHz. WCDMA ,
CDMA.
CDMA ,
(clocking devices) TDMA. .
FDMA TDMA .
10-20 .
CDMA .

5.6 (Spread Spectrum

Techniques)

, CDMA.
.
,
.
(Code Division Multiple Access)
. spread spectrum Frequency Hoping Spread
Spectrum (FHSS) Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS).

131

5.6.1 Direct Sequence

spread spectrum .
bits, chips .

.
/ DSSS:

. 4.34 DSSS

35
DSSS:

132

. 4.35 DSSS

,
,
.

133

. 4.36 DSSS

DSSS Near-Far.

.

( 35).
DSSS spread spectrum
.
spread spectrum
FSK BPSK.
37 DSSS
BPSK.

134

. 4.37 DSSS BPSK

. 4.38 CDMA DSSS

135

5.6.2 Frequency Hopping

.
.

. 4.39 Frequency Hopping

,
bits.

5.6.3 Spread Spectrum

136

5.6.4 DSSS-FHSS

DSSS FHSS
.
(, Near-Far). point-to-multipoint
point-to-point .
DSSS LANs , point-to-point
, POP (Point Of Presence) .
FHSS ,
.
DSSS.

.
fixed BWA (Broadband Wireless Access)
DSSS.

137

6.1


.
,
, ,
,
.
, lap-top
Ethernet.

,
.
,
.

.
: ,
, ,

. ,
(FCC)

2, 4, 11 GHz.
,
(STLs), ,

138


.
, multihop ( )

,
.
,
,
(
) round-trip,
35.700
.
, 42 GHz
,
. fixed wireless
.
,
,
hardware

350 GHz ,
,
.
6.1.1

Fixed wireless

LMDS (local
multipoint distribution service), MMDS (multi-channel multipoint distribution
service), / PC ( ), DBS (direct
broadcast satellite), . point-to-point LMDS

,
150 Mbps 620 Mbps
2 . point-to-multipoint
150 Mbps
1 3 . LMDS
24 GHz, 28 GHz, 39 GHz ()
100Mbps, 45 Mbps
.
. point-to-point
megabit
T1/E1 PDH .
gigabit
139

 OC-192
SONET/SDH. MMDS
2.1GHz 2.7GHz, 50km, 128 Kbps 10
Mbps.
DSL cable (modems).
Fixed wireless
,
.
,
(hardware),
. ,
-

,

. LMDS MMDS
-
, /PCs, DBS

.

.
6.1.2

FIXED WIRELESS

, Fixed wireless
.

.
6.1.2.1 Point-to-point (PTP)

point to point (PTP)

PTP ,
, 1.2.
,
AT&T 4-gHz
1951.
, (tandem)
, end-to-end

.

140

6.1.2.2 Point-to-multipoint (PMP)

PMP hub and spoke

1.4. (hub)
.

.
,
, - -
.

LOS (line of site )
, , ..
.
PMP
Fixed wireless .

, , ,
, .
,
LOS
.

141

6.1.2.3 NLOS point-to-multipoint

non-line-of-sight ( ) PMP
PMP .
.
(
),
, (
) .
,
,
non-line-of-sight.

NLOS ,


.
, ,
,

.

. ,
:
142

 ,
Internet-enabled ,
.
,

, ,
, ..... ,


6.1.3

, ,

.

.
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS). Global
System for Mobil Communications (GSM), Time Division Multiple Access
(TDMA -), Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA ).
, ,
, .
AT&T, Sprint, Verizon,
, ..
, FCC.
, ,
16 Kbps.
, ("Third Generation
Services") 3G, 2004, 30
.
, ,
, . ,
.
6.1.4

Internet-enabled

( )
Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs)
.
, Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), ,
WML (Wireless Markup Language)
, . ,

143

 , , stock
quotes, , nd transaction-oriented
. (
14 Kbps), , ,
,
. ,
, .
6.1.5

(WLANs) , ,

.
Bluetooth, .
6.1.5.1 (WLAN)

(WLAN)
LANs
.
WLANs 802.11 .
WLANs: (RF - direct
sequence and frequency hopping spread spectrum) (IR).
WLANs 2,4 GHz
, 2 Mbps.
, 802.11b direct sequence ,
11 Mbps. ,
Cisco, Lucent, Apple, .....
2002, , 802.11a,
5 GHz ( )
54 Mbps.
WLAN -, , peer-to-peer
-,
, . - (point-to-point) -- (point-to-mutipoint).
point-to-point ,

( 30 ). point-tomutipoint ,
. point-to-point point-to-multipoint
802.11b
144

 622 Mbps
( Oc- 12). WLAN,
:

(Access Points) - /
LAN Ethernet .
,
WLAN .

20 , (,
, ) 100 .


.
WLL
WLL .
, WLL
. ,
-3 (45 Mbps)
, , .

LAN.
PC , ISA PCI
, .
E1/T1 STM-1/OC-3
WLL. LMDS, ,
,.

145

6.1.5.2 Broadband Wireless

(BW)
, , .
BW Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)
. line
of sight . W : Local multipoint distribution service (LMDS) Multi-channelmulti-point distribution
service (MMDS). FCC-
.
LMDS
28-31 GHz
,
over-the-air ,
(full duplex).
LMDS ..
MMDS ,
2.5 GHz. MMDS LMDS,
35 ,
. ,
, .
6.1.6

LMDS DS: Fixed Wireless Options in Telecom

LMDS MMDS .
MMDS, (MDS),
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) 1972.
MDS
. ,
.
,
, MDS
, .
1983 ITFS (instructional
television fixed service) MDS.
MMDS. MDS MMDS
ITFS
. (wireless
cable).

146

6.1.6.1 LMDS

H LMDS , point-to-multipoint,
.
( 24-40GHz),
.
( )
.
, LMDS
,
CPE .
CPE $5.000 LMDS 26 GHz. LMDS

, .
-.
, ()
30 . .
("Transceiver Unit")
.
ATM IP
LMDS . LMDS (
) .
, ,
.
147

, LMDS ( )
.
LMDS;
LMDS
.
, .


. LMDS

. ,


.
6.1.6.2 MMDS

MMDS ,
. LMDS
( 2- 10GHz)
LMDS. MMDS
..

, CPE
. -

. ,
LMDS ,
.

148


, VOFDM (Vector
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) ,
.
non-line-of-sight ( ) ,
Sprint, 60 90
.
.
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing)
,
. -
,
,
( ).
OFDM,
, IEEE 802.11a, LAN
54 Mbps.

. .

,
, VPN.

, .

LMDS MMDS

, .
(
), CPE
(NIU) .
(downstream) ,
- bitstream ( bit) ,
-
.
bitstream NIU
.
(upstream).
bitstream,
, "", ,
.
149

 , LMDS
MMDS
.
23,5 GHz. WAN (WIDE AREA
NETWORK) (POP) ,
( ), . ,
,
( ).

.
backbone . , ,

. LMDS/MMDS :


.
,
' , ,
( )

, .
,

scalable


,

Bluetooth
Bluetooth ,
, PCs,
, , .
Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) ,

3Com, Ericsson, , Intel, Lucent, Motorola, Nokia, 1.800
150

Adopter/Associate 128 . Bluetooth

2.4GHz. 802.11 WLANs
,
. Bluetooth
2001,

,
.

.

, ,
, , , , ..

6.2 E

,
.
,

( ).

, CD,
. HDTV (high definition television)

Cd .


.
Federal Communications Commission (FCC) HDTV
2008,
.
6.2.1

151

 1992 Federal
Communications Commission (FCC) 2,3 GHz
Digital Audio Radio Service (DARS), .
,
. :
Sirius Satellite Radio .
XM Satellite Radio .
Worldspace ,
.

. uplink
Cd, ,
22.300
.
,
.
100 (
) (Cd-)
.

. BBC, CNN, Weather Channel ( )


.

$10 ,

.

152

 . Sony, Sharp,
Pioneer
.
..
6.2.1.1 High Definition Television (HDTV)

1987 The FCC indicates that HDTV standards should be compatible with
SDTV service.
1988 The FCC receives 23 different proposals for potential HDTV service.
1990 The FCC requests simultaneous broadcasting of HDTV and SDTV
services.
1993 The FCC narrows down the ensuing technology to four contenders and
creates a "grand alliance" among all four of them.
1995 The HDTV standard is tested and adopted.
1987 FCC HDTV
SDTV.
1988 FCC 23 HDTV
.
1990 FCC
HDTV SDTV.
1993 FCC
.
1995 HDTV .
6.2.2

High Definition Television

HDTV
525-.
HDTV
. 1957,
. (SDTV)

.
SDTV HDTV . ,
: HDTV 20 MHz, SDTV 6 MHz.
: SDTV 4/3 ( ),
HDTV 16/9 (letterbox) . : SDTV
, HDTV

153

 . : HDTV
SDTV.
, HDTV
SDTV ( ).
HDTV
SDTV . HDTV 60
, SDTV.

.
5,1 AC3
.
HDTV
(DBS) .

HDTV.

;

. ,
HDTV
, ( )
Phillipsburg, ( ).
SDTV ( )
Phillipsburg, . on off,

HDTV. HDTV
.
, FCC,
SDTV 2008.
HDTV .
HDTV
.

6.3
6.3.1 Wi-Fi

Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity ( )

(WLAN).
154

 ,
Internet.

(Ethernet)
.
(WLANs) IEEE 802.11,
.
802.11 Wi-Fi.
802.11 :

(Access Point - AP): AP

,
.
.
(Distribution System): AP
, . 802.11
.
(Wireless Medium):

.
(Stations):
( laptops PDAs)
.

802.11 Basic Service Set (BSS)

. BSS
, Basic Service Area (BSA).
BSS BSS.
- .
(Infrastructure) (Ad-hoc).
WLANs ISM (Industrial,
Scientific and Medical) 2,4 GHz UNII (Unlicensed National Information
Infrastructure) 5 GHz.

802.11b WLANs 2,4 - 2.4835 GHz.

IEEE 802.11a 5 GHz UNII.
300 MHz .
5,15 MHz 5,35 MHz. 5.725 MHz
5.825 MHz.

( ):
155

FHSS (Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)

DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

1 11Mbps
2.4 - 2.4835GHz. 5GHz
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM).
54Mbps.

, .
:

802.11a: 5 GHz OFDM.

54bps.
IEEE 802.11b ( ): 2.4 GHz
DSSS. 11 bps
IEEE 802.11e: (Quality of Service - QoS).
IEEE 802.11f: IP (Intra - network
Handover).
IEEE 802.11g: 802.11b
54bps.
IEEE 802.11i: WLANs.
IEEE 802.11h: 802.11a
.

Ultra - Wideband (UWB).
.
UWB,

.
.

. ,
Wi-Fi Alliance Wi-Fi
. logo
,
Wi-Fi

.

, W-LAN
. ,

( , )
(roaming),
W-LAN (.. W-LAN
). ,
roaming
(roaming brokers).
156

6.3.2 WiMAX

2003 802.16 WiM,

( ) .
802 , 802.16
.

2 66 GHz. 72 Mbps
Ethernet 50 Mbps.
50 Km .
802.16 802.11

50 Mbps.
WiM Point-to-Multipoint (PTM)
point to point .
OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing).
2 GHz .
, (802.16e)
QoS (802.16b) . chip,
Intel, 802.16a ,
2005
(Access Points - AP).
, WiM
.

, WiMAX ,
.
:

.

,
, .

.
Broadband on Demand.

802.11 .

.

.

157


. 64 QAM
, 16 QAM QPSK
.
802.16 . MAC
,
, best effort
base station 802.11
. , Base Station,

IP best effort 802.11
. Access Point
.

WiMAX
DES (Data Encryption Standard, )
Triple DES. DES 1970
.
( )
. DES
56 bit. "" DES
,
. , DES,
. Triple - DES, ,
, .
, 802.16
10-66 GHz.
.
802.11 c.
158


802.16 a. 2003
2-11 GHz
- .
802.16 a. WiMAX

.

,
. , video
.
,
802.16 d.
802.11 a, c, d 802.16-2004

2-66 GHz.
802.26-2004
base station .
base station .
802.16 e base
station .
120
Km / h . - ,
802.16 e
.

6.3.3 3G/UMTS

UMTS "Universal Mobile Telecommunications

System" ( ).
, ,
. , 3G/UMTS
WCDMA 25 .
Third
Generation Partnership Project (3GPP)
.
UMTS

. , UMTS ,
384 kbps
. ,
2 Mbps.
.
, 3GPP standard . High Speed
Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) High Speed Uplink Packet Access (HSUPA)
. UMTS,
14,4 Mbps downlink 5.8 Mbps
uplink.

159

 UMTS
. ,
UTMS : (CN - core
network) (UTRAN - UMTS terrestrial radioaccess network).
. ,
UTRAN . CN
domain: ) circuit -switched (CS - ), ) packetswitched (PS - ). CS domain PSTN/ISDN ,
PS domain IP . PS domain.
, PS UMTS GPRS :
gateway GPRS support node (GGSN) serving GPRS support node (SGSN). SGSN
SGSN Gn UTRAN Iu.
UTRAN (RNC - radio network controller)
Node B .
Node B (user equipment - UE) Uu
( W-CDMA) RNC Gi . ,
broadcast/multicast (BM-SC broadcast/multicast service center),
.
:

PDN (Public
Data Network), PDN.
,
, packet data protocol (PDP),
UMTS. PDP PDP
context
.
PDP context
IP . PDP context
- (UE) GGSN. PDP
context GPRS tunneling protocol (GTP)
. GTP GGSN SGSN
Gn, SGSN RNC
Iu. IP ,
GTP contexts, PDP
160

 SGSN. SGSN IP , PDP context

UE PDP RNC. , RNC
(RAB - radio access bearer). PDP
context, RAB context RNC
GTP. , RNC ,
Node B. , tunnel endpoint identifier (TEID)
Gn Iu tunnel
.

, UE
( ). , PS domain UMTS,
(RAs - routing areas),
UTRAN registration areas (URAs). ,
( - mobility management)
:
() radio resource control (RRC). H packet MM (PMM)
PS domain UMTS SGSN UE
CN, RRC UTRAN UE
UTRAN. ,
UE PS domain, PMM
: PMM idle PMM connected.
RRC : RRC idle, RRC cell connected RRC URA connected.
UE CN, UE PMM idle RRC idle .
UTRAN UE UE
SGSN RA.
UE SGSN, UE PMM connected.
PS , RRC
UE RNC . RRC
UE RRC cell - connected.
, SGSN UE RNC
UE. RNC UE
. UE
. PMM connected/RRC cell - connected ,
UE / , RRC
RRC URA connected. , RCC
, UE RNC .
PMM
UE. PMM connected / RRC URA connected , UE
/ , RRC RRC cell connected. , PS RRC (
)
, RRC RRC cell 161

connected RRC idle . , PMM

PMM idle . , UE
, PMM detached.

, 4G .

, .

, , .
, media .

.
, , ..
5 .

162

6.4
H
.

Arthur C. Clarke. Extra -Terrestrial Relays (Wireless World

1945), V2,
, .
35.860 km .
.
1200,
.
. Clarke .
.

6.4.1

Sputnik 1 .
58 4 O
1954 21 20 40
MHz. Explorer I (31 1958)
360/2500 km. T
Van Allen.
Score Telstar I.
.
,

10 km .
,
.
SYNCOM I 1963
35.786 km.
, ,
. 1964 SYNCOM III,
. .
Clarke .
Telstar SYNCOM

163

 COMSAT, 1963.

. 1964
, ELSAT. ,
, ,
.
NTELSAT 140 ,


.

INTERSPUTNIK 14
. 1979,
INMARSAT (mobile) (
) , .
,
, ;
ARABSAT , USSAT
, EUTELSAT ,
, ,
ASIASAT .

. 6.1 EUTELSAT 2001

, .
:
.
.
,
.
164

 :
.
300 ms,
.
.

( 7 - 10 ).
,
.
(mobile)
.
6.4.2

. 8.2

,
fd (downlink)
fu
(uplink),
.
GHz.
H
.

. 6.2 . (
)

(point/multipoint to multipoint), ,
,
:

6.4.3

,
165

 .
5
18 , ,
.
,

,
.
6.4.4

. ,

. h
, :
T = 2 ( h + R)3 GM
[h]
R = 6.378 km , G = 6,67 10-11 Nm2/kg2
= 5,94 1024 kg .
eppler,
..
.
.
- .
- ,
h,
,
, Van Allen.
( )
:
. (LEO - Low Earth Orbit): 500 km < h < 2000 km.
Van Allen. RF
, ( 6 ms)
. ,
( 10 12 min). 40 80
. 1/3 LEO
,
(5 -7 ).
. (EO - Medium Earth Orbit): 2000 km < h < 12000 km.
Van Allen.
70 ms
60 min.
166

 10 .
LEO RF
.
. (GEO - Geostationary Earth Orbit): h 35.800 km.
GEO ,
.
.

(Tracking). M
( )
. 8.3

. 6.3
LEO
MEO, 540 ms (
).
.
,

, (buffer)
. ,
, RF
,
.
IV. . (EO - Highly Elliptical Orbit):
.
, (
MOLNIYA) .
, 12
.

167


. LEO MEO
.
. 8.4.

. 6.4
( )
.
(GTO Geostationary Transfer Orbit). GTO,
GEO .
.
(Space
Shuttle) NERGIA.

RRIANE ELV,
DELTA ATLAS, LONG
ARCH H-2.

. 50%
Kourou
. 6.1
RIANE
( 1997).

168

. Canaveral ,
Kagoshima , aiyan Baikonour
.
6.4.5

:

(payload). O

(, )
:
-

. 6.5 EUTELSAT II

.
.
,
(CFRP).

, ,
( , ).


. ,
(spin stabilized),
.
, ,
(three-axis stabilized).
, (&C)
To TT&C (Telemetry, Tracking & Control)

, ,
.

TT&C
.
( ,

169

 ,
).


.

.
1 kW 2
kW 100W 1kW
.
NiCd
. 6.6 W

EUTELSAT
.

,
.

.
.

170

6.4.5.1

. 500 MHz,
40 80 MHz.
/, (HPA), (IMUX),
(OMUX) transponder
. . 8.7
. :

fu
fd
.
transponders .
transponder
.

LNA

fd

LO

I
M
U
X

pA

HPA

O
M
U
X

fu
fu/fd

fd

. 6.7

transponder :
.
(LNA - Low Noise Amplifier).
FET GaAs .

(downconverter).
uplink fu,
downlink fd. ,
.
171


(MUX)
.
(pA) (HPA).
WT
10 W, (SSPA - Solid State
Power Amplifier) 10 W.
(OMUX)
,
. ,

.
.

6.4.6

( ) , video
.
,
. ,

(diplexer)
.
. 8.8.

fIF

fd

IF

LNA

D
E
M

U
X

LO

fIF
fu

PA

M
U
X

IF

. 6.8 .

( DCM).
fIF, (up converter)
fu. fIF 70 MHz 140 z
172

 transpoder.
(HPA). HPA
(TWT)
100 W 3 kW.
FET GaAs IMPATT.
To RF fd
. LNA, fd
fIF
( ).
:
.
. (gateway hub)

. 30 m.
.
1.8 4.5 m VSAT (Very Small Antenna Terminal)
USAT ( Ultra Small Antenna Terminal) 0.2 1.2 m.
(V,
)
. ,
.

. 8.8 .
VSAT , .
6.4.6.1 - (satellite footprint)

To downlink
.

,
transponder. . 8.10
.

EIRP . 8.2
. EIRP
dBW. . 8.10
EIRP, HOTBIRD2 EUTELSAT.

173

. 6.9 . ) (global)
(spot). ) IRP RD2
EUTELSAT .

6.4.6.2 -

6.4.7

.


.
:
4 GHz (3.7 - 4.2 GHz)
6 GHz (5.925 -6.425 GHz) .
C.

174

 12 GHz (10.95 - 11.2 GHz) (11.45 - 11.7 GHz)

14 GHz (14.0 - 14.5 GHz)
. Ku.
17
GHz fd 30 GHz fu.
Ka.
6.4.8

S/N .

.
(8.2)
Pt , Pr ( LNA) :
GG
2
Pr = Gt Gr
P = t r Pt
(8.3)
2
2 t
16 R
L fs
L fs =

16 2 R 2

(8.3)

Gt Gr
, Lfs
. (8.3)
.
downlink uplink.

Lft,
Lga, Lr Lp, Lfr.
:
L = Lfs LftLgaLrLpLfr
(8.4)
(8.3) :
GG
(8.4)
Pr = t r Pt
L
S/N
, C/N ,
(8.2) (8.4).
C Gt G r
=
Pt
(8.5)
N LkTB

.

175

6.4.9

.
FM
RF
.
(PSK).
(Multiple Access - MA)
.

.

.

.
.

.

.
RF .
:
(FDMA Frequency Division MA).
b B transponder.
b
n = B/b . b
.
(DMA Time Division MA).
, j tj
() TF sec. H . o
transponder
TF ( ). tj
n = TF/tj .
TDMA
.
(CDMA Code Division MA).
.
transponder
.

, .
176

6.4.10

( , , ,
).
, . 8.13
.

. 6.10 . )
(FSS), ) (- ) )
(SS)

(FSS - Fixed Satellite Services)

FSS ,
, .

FSS
. FSS , /telex,
, , ISDN
177

 ( , ).
VSAT VSAT
.
(DBS - Direct Broadcast
Satellite Services)
DBS

. (CATV)
1m. (
DTH - Direct To the Home).
(SS - Mobile Satellite Services)
MSS
(

, .
INMARSAT (
) EUTELSAT.
SS
. 1998
IRIDIUM. 66 LEO ( 780
km) 12 .
. 1999
Iridium LCC 20000 , IRIDIUM
.
, . GLOBSTAR (52 LEO
), ICO (10 ) TELEDESIC (288 ).

:
(GPS).

.
.
.


.
.
,
, .

178

6.4.11

INMARSAT

. RSAT -A
INMARSAT-C INMARSAT-M/B/phone
.
.
12
NTELSAT, EUTELSAT INMARSAT.

.


EUTELSAT INTELSAT.

Technology and Maximum Bandwidth

Technology

Maximum Bandwidth

Fibre Optics

10 Gbps (and beyond with DWDM)

Laser

1 Gbps

Ethernet

1 Gbps

ATM

622 Mbps (and beyond)

Microwave

155 Mbps

Satellite

155 Mbps (experimental 622 Mbps)

LMDS

100 Mbps

VDSL

52 Mbps

Cable modems

30 Mbps

ADSL

9 Mbps

HDSL

2 Mbps

E1 leased line

2 Mbps

ISDN PRI

2 Mbps

Frame Relay

2 Mbps, 45 Mbps specs up to 622 Mbps

ISDN BRI

128 Kbps

Analog modems

56 Kbps

179

6.5

, .
,
( 0.4 m
3 m).
( - ) (
) .
(Optical fibers) ,

.
,
.

.
-8 (
, 1988)
.

6.5.1

.
.
,
, , radar, ,
. ,

, .

.
,
(, )
.

, (bps)

180

 (S/N).

, .

,
.
fc fm
, ,
fc fm fc + fm 2 fm.

5 MHz, fc = 150 MHz,
145 MHz 155 MHz.
, (
). ,
(, , ,
) B = 30 GHz

n=

2 fm

5.4.1

1.55 m 1.3 m.
193 z 5-10%
, B
30.000 GHz,
, 1000.
.
181


,
.

,
.
laser
1960. laser ,
, ,
.
,
.
, ,
-FET LED.
. laser
.
. ,
.

. 1960
Standard Telecommunications Labs
.
,
.
1000 dB/Km, ( 10100
km)

5-10 dB/Km.
(
) 20 dB/Km. 1975
2 dB/Km 1980 0.25 dB/Km ( 5%
km!). T
.
laser
0.8 1.6 m.
,
.

182

6.5.2

.

Laser -LED

APD - PIN

.
.
(driver).
.
, .

.

.
, .
( )
, .


.. on-off.
.
(S/N)
,
.

( TV).

183

Laser -LED

APD - PIN

5.4.2

(, )
,
, .
. ,

. ,

( , ),
.
:
.
.
. , ,


.
. ,

.

.
.
.
.
.
.
184

 /
.
.
4 .
.
.
. WDM ( ),

.


.

Twisted

Pair


Cable

,


Coaxial

(

Cable

, .)

Fiber


Optic

Cable



,

,
.

), ,
,
.
.

.
,
,
, . ,
25 THz ( 2.5).
2.5 Hz/bit,
10.000 Gbps,
10.000
(HDTV) 1000 STM-64.


,
. , ,

. , (Er)
, 35 nm
5.000 GHz, 2.000 Gbps.

185

 , ,
.
(Bit Error Rate - BER)
10-9,
10-5.

.
(line coding) RZ (Non Return to Zero)
.
. ,
, ,
,
.
,
. ,

.
,

.

,

.
6.5.3

,
,
.

.
6.5.3.1

laser
, , .
laser
. ,
() Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK) laser
On-Off Keying (OOK).
, ,
.

186

6.5.3.2 (n Off Keying)

(On) (Off),
. (On/Of Keying)

bit BER S/N
. BER = 10-9 ( bit
) .

6.4.3
.
(Non Return to Zero - NRZ)

(Return

to

Zero

RZ).

6.). bit 1
bit (bit interval) bit 0.
bit 1 bit
bit 0. NRZ
RZ
. NRZ
bit 1 0
(bit clock).
P0 0
.
187

 P1 1.
(extinction ratio) rex :
P
rex = 0
( 6.1)
P1

,
0 1.
6.5.3.3 (Subcarrier modulation SCM)

(, FM, PM) (PCM, FSK, PDM ).
RF. H
(10MHz-10GHz)
, FM, SK, FSK PSK.
, ,
. 5.4.4
.

6.4.4

.

.

.

6.5.4

,
, :

, laser
(continuous wave)
.
188


.
6.5.4.1

LED LASER,
( ).
( )
.
(Intensity
Modulation).

()

()

6.2 )LED )Laser

189

()

()

6.2, LED LD .
LED
(bias current)
.
Laser,

th. ,
,
LED , ( 1)
( 0).
laser

2.5 Gbps.

,
laser .

, .
(turn-on delay)
laser nsec.

laser ,
.

(relaxation
oscillations) 10 GHz.
190


laser. laser

.
(Chirping)
laser
.
, (linewidth) laser,
, .
( 10 Gbps).
6.5.4.2

,
.
,
.

.
6.21


( >40GHz),

.

.

Mach Zehnder (MZ)

,

.

LiNbO3

6.3
Mach Zehnder (MZ)

191

 , ,
6.3.
RF ,
.
, .

(LiNbO3 -V In,
Ga, As, P), .
( splitter)
, ( )
.
.
(~5dB) (>10V)

(Electro Absorption EA)

laser
(CW)


.
6.4
,
EA .
laser
.
6.5.5

M ,
.

. ( )

.

bit R ( BER > 10-9). H
S/N
dBm.
.

192

6.5.5.1

6.5
APD.

PD

6.5 PIN APD.

, 0
1.

.

.

.
6.5.5.2

6.6
.

fc

IF
Laser

fL=fc + fIF

6.6 PIN APD ( ).

fIF = 0

( ) .

.
fL
, fsc .

fIF fL fsc
().
S/N
BER .

193

 .
,
.
6.5.6

bit 0 1 .
I ID
bit.

6.7.
, Gaussian .
1 1 1
0 0 0.

6.7 ) (), () .
) 0 1

i2
( ) :
194

 i2 =

i N2

sh

+ i N2

( 6.2)

th

iN, iN+diN :
p (i N ) d i N =

1
2 i

exp(

i N2
)d i N
2 i2

( 6.2)

Pe
0 1, 1
0. :
Pe = P(0 | 1) P(1) + P(1 | 0) P(0)
( 6.2)
1
P(1) = P(0) =
2
P(0|1) P(1|0)
(5.8) :
ID
I1 I D
(I I1 ) 2
1
1

=
(6.3)
P (0 | 1) =
I
erfc
exp(
d

2
1 2
1
1 2
P (1 | 0) =

0 2

exp(

ID

I I0
(I I 0 )2
1

dI = erfc D
2
2
2
2 0
0

erfc(x) :

2
erfc ( x ) =
exp( y 2 )dy

(6.3)

(6.3)

,
u x.
bit
(5.2) (5.3) :
I I 0
I ID
1

+ erfc D
(6.4)
Pe = BER = erfc 1

2
4
1 2
0

:
I1 I D I D I 0
(6.4)
=
Q
1 2
0 2

BER :
I 1I 0
(6.4)
ID = 0 1
1 + 0
Q:
Q=

I1 I 0
0 + 1

(6.4)

195

1
Q exp( Q 2 2)
erfc
(6.5)

2
Q 2
2
Q
SNR.
BER. ,
Q SNR
.
o BER 10-6
10-8

-9
10 10-12
.
R Q

Q
R .
(5.4) (5.5)
BER =

6.8 R -Q

BER

D . rex ( 5.1).

rex 1=RP1 0=RP0 R

P1,2 1
0 . bit Prec =

P1 + P0

2

, : 1 = 0 =

i th2 = T .

(5.4) bit rex

Q BER:
1 + rex
Prec =
1 rex

TQ

(6.6)

Q.
rex=0 (Power penalty) r dB.

r = 10 log

1 + rex
= 10 log
Prec ( rex = 0)
1 rex
Prec ( rex )

(6.6)

196

 Error! Reference source not found. .

0.12 1 dB
bit 0
. H
5 dB rex=0.5

.

(Laser)

. (Intensity
6.9 -

Noise)

6.5.7

2.5 Gbps
, 1550
nm.
( 10 Gbps) .
.
100% 15

. , , java
.
,
,
.
,
, .
, ,
,
.

. .
,
.
(Space Division Multiplexing),
.
197

 (Time Division Multiplexing),

, ,
.
(Wavelength Division Multiplexing),
.
,

.
6.5.7.1 (Space Division Multiplexing - SDM)

.

.

.
.


.

,
. TDM WDM
. SDM


.
6.5.7.2 (Time Division Multiplexing - TDM)

(Time Division Multiplexing - TDM)

, bit

bit ,
6.10.
,
.

6.10

198

 ,
(Synchronous Optical Network - SONET) ...
(Synchronous Digital Hierarchy - SDH) ,
.
- ,
TDM.

,
.

.
,
10 Gb/s (
electronic bottleneck), TDM
. ,

,
.
TDM
(Polarization Mode Dispersion PMD).
(Dispersion-Shifted Fiber - DSF).
60Km 10 Gbps 1000Km
2.5 Gbps. .

.
PMD 10 Gbps 16
2.5 Gbps.
PMD 2

ps
Km

25 Km 10 Gbps
.
PMD, ,
.
PMD ,
0.1

ps
.
Km

199

 TDM
DSF.
,
TDM
.
TDM 10 Gbps
TDM 20 40 Gbps.
6.5.7.3 (Wavelength Division Multiplexing
- WDM)

(Wavelength Division Multiplexing

- WDM) ( ),

() , ,
6.11

6.11

, WDM,

.

.
,
.
TDM, SONET/SDH,


(),
.
() . ,
SONET/SDH WDM
,
. .


.
.

200


.
, ,

1nm.
.

,
.
, WDM DWDM (Dense Wavelength Division
Modulation) ,

( 8).

WDM TDM

bit,
WDM TDM
. , PMD
2.5 Gbps.

TDM .
WDM , 2.5
Gbps 10 Gbps 2.5 Gbps. TDM 10
Gbps .
WDM .
bit
.
WDM TDM
.
""
(drop-add),
(Optical Add-Drop Multiplexer OADM)
TDM .
WDM
TDM : WDM

. WDM
. ,


.
SDM, WDM
laser
201

. TDM ,
. ,
(streams)
.
WDM
TDM
.
-BER
. WDM
.
WDM
.
6.5.8 DWDM

( )

.
.
:
Raman
Brillouin

6.5.9

,


, .
:
. - .

.

.
. /,
Video FM/IM.
/ FSK/IM.
SDM, D FDM. H
(point to point)

202

. .

,
.
.
LED
.
Laser
.

.
LB L
[km] [ Hz bps],
.
PIN APD. APD
.
1 mW, o
PIN.
III.
L
Rb bps, BER
( BER < 10-9).
L 2,
S/N ( S/N
> 10).

BER < 10-9, n0 =
10 bit. Pr :
c
Pr = n0 h B0 =n0 h Rb [W]
(6.7)

h = 6.6262 10-34 Js Planck, c = 3 108 m/s

, [Hz]
[m]. Ps [dBm],
[dB/km], Pc
, L Pr.
:
Ps Pc Pm aL = Pr [dBm]
(6.8)
Pm ( 3-6 dBm).
n h R
(7.2) Pr dBm Pr =10log10 0 3 b [dBm] :
10
L = L0

10
log10 Rb
a

(6.9)
203

 L0 = [Ps Pc Pm 30 10log10( n0 h)] a .

.
.
1/Rb
bit .
= (1/ Rb) ( = 0.25),
LB0 LB

:
c
.. : LB =2
(6.10)
nc
.. :

LB =4

c
nc 2

LB =

1
D

(6.4)
(6.4)

c , nc, ng

, =

nc ng
, D
nc

( = 0.1- 80 nm).
(7.1) - (7.3) .
B0 2B
. BER = 10-9 o
S/N 10. 1 km
2 Gbps R 10-9,
1 Gb/s S/N
10. ,
10.
Video S/N = 60 dB S/N = 106. H (7.2)
n0 S/N = 106.

.
6.5.10

,
. ,
X.25, IPX (
204

1980), ATM, SDH/SONET

( 1990) . ,

. ,
, .
,

- (.. 100 Gb/s). ,

(transport),
(optical switching).

(switching) (throughput) . ,

,

. ,
.
6.5.11

.
,
(Plesiochronous Digital Hierarchy)
(Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy). ,
(Synchronous Optical Network),
.
,
TDM.
,
.
.
.

205

 6.12

,
. 10
TDM ,
.
.

6.13 TDM

, ,
10 Gbps TDM
.
(electronic bottleneck). ,

,
.
,

.

10Gbps,
.
,
HBT (Heterojunction Bipolar Transistor),
. ,
,
,

.

206



, (SDM).
,
, ,
100Km
. , ,
.
6.5.12

,
,
.
. ,

.
.
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface)
(LAN) 100 bps SDH (Synchronous Digital
Hierarchy) (WAN)
SONET (Synchronous Optical
Network) 155 Mbps
Gbps.

(Time Division Multiplexing) .


. SONET Bellcore 1985
1988 BISDN
, SDH 1989 (ITU).
, IP over WDM
,
I
.
6.5.13 FDDI

FDDI LAN
80. Token Ring
100Mbps 1 Gbps (G Ethernet).
.
, . ( 6.14)
207

 6.14 FDDI

.
. (, )
.
FDD 100 ,
200 km. ( ),
,
,
.
6.5.14 SONET/SDH

SONET/SDH (TDM)
. SONET/SDH
,.

,
8kHz, 125sec.
SONET
OC-1 51.84 Mbps (OC-1 STS-1 Optical carrier
Synchronous Transport Signal), SDH
STM-1 ( - Synchronous Transfer Module),
155.52 Mbps.
. SONET 155.52 Mbps
3x51.84 Mbps.
SONET/SDH ,
.

8.1
SONET/SDH

208

SONET

(Mbps)

SD

Synchronous
Payload Envelope

Overhead

OC-1
OC-3
OC-9
OC-12
OC-18
OC-24
OC-36
OC-48
OC-96
OC-192

SS-1
SS -3
SS -9
SS -12
SS -18
SS -24
SS -36
SS -48
SS -96
SS -192

51.84
155.52
466.56
622.08
933.12
1244.16
1866.24
2488.32
4976. 64
9953.28

50.112
150.336
451.008
601.344
902.016
1202.688
1804.032
2405.376
4810.752
9621.504

1.728
5.184
15.552
20.736
31.104
41.472
62.208
82.944
165.888
331.776

----STM-1
STM -3
STM -4
STM -6
STM -8
STM -12
STM -16
STM -32
STM -64

SONET
Synchronous Transport Signal (STS-n) (levels),
Optical Carrier (OC-n) . n STS-n
, STS-1
51.84Mbps STS-3 3x51.84=155.52 Mbps.

STS-1

51.84Mbps

STS-48

2.5Gbps . OC
n
STS. STS-3 OC-3.
Synchronous Payload Envelope
byte
,
(overhead bytes).
SDH
. Intraoffice
, 2 . Short haul (S)
15 ,
Long haul 40
1310nm 60 1550 nm.
6.5.15 SONET/SDH

(point to point)
SONET/SDH
() .
(regenerator).

6.15 a) , ) A

(point to multipoint)
.
, ()
209

 (ADMs)
.
(Hub Network), hub
,
(reprovisioning) .
point to point ,
.

6.16

SONET/SDH
(Ring). ADMs,
, ,

.

6.17 SONET/SDH

(ADM)
,
ATM, SONET .

. ADM
,
.
.

.
SONET/SDH

210

. . SONET/SDH
. ,
,
. ,
,
.

frame-relay, SMDS, B-ISDN
ATM .
6.5.16

DWDM (Dense
Wavelength Division Multiplexing),
,
.

6.18

, DWDM
(Long-Haul Networks), DWDM
(Metropolitan Networks)
(Access Networks),
.
8.6
. Long-Haul
.
.
6.5.17 Long-Haul

.
, 7.1.
211

 (transport capacity).
Long-Haul SDH/SONET,

DWDM .
DWDM ,
.
(OptoElectronic Conversion) .
Long-Haul
.
(, , isolators,
), Long-Haul
.
6.5.18 (Access Networks)

DS-1
STM-64.
(,
). ,

: (Internet
Protocol), ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode),
SONET/SDH,

video,

TDM, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit

Ethernet, ,
FDDI (Fiber Distributed Data Interface),
ESCON (Enterprise System Connectivity) Fiber
Channel.
IP .
6.19
IP ,
. ,
internet video,
. ,
-, .
8.8
.
(transparency).
6.5.19 (Metropolitan Networks)

(Metropolitan Networks)

212

 .
Long-Haul ,

.
( , ..) Points of
Presence (POPs) Long-Haul.
,
SONET/SDH
. TDM (Time Division Multiplexing)
. ,

.
,
SONET-SDH ,
.

,
.

213