Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Suppression of Auditory Cortical Inhibition Induces Tinnitus
Suppression of Auditory Cortical Inhibition Induces Tinnitus
Wesley Jackson
Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute
University of California, Berkeley
Lab P.I.:
Shaowen Bao
Cognitive Science Sponsor:
David Wessel
December 2011
Jackson 2
many causes and associated changes along the auditory pathway. Although
determining which functional changes cause tinnitus has been difficult, the most
transfection of Gad2 SiRNA (to directly induce GAD65 suppression), suggesting that
reduced GABAergic function in the auditory cortex may in fact be responsible for
tinnitus.
Introduction
Tinnitus is the perception of sound in the absence of external stimuli and is
often caused by damage to the peripheral auditory system, for instance from aging
or exposure to loud sound (Eggermont & Roberts, 2004). Such peripheral damage
leads to deafferentation of A1 neurons receptive to the impaired auditory input
(Kopell & Friedland, 2009, p. 971). It is well understood that sensory
observed in the visual cortex (Chino et al., 1991) as well as the somatosensory
Jackson 3
cortex (Pons et al. 1991). Likewise, the auditory cortex undergoes reorganization
following hearing damage (Dietrich et al., 2001). Auditory deafferentation also
results in increased spontaneous activity in the auditory cortex (Seki & Eggermont,
2003) and the dorsal cochlear nucleus (Zhang & Kaltenbach, 1998), as well as
al., 2011). Distinguishing the functional changes that cause tinnitus from those that
plasticity may have therapeutic benefits in alleviating tinnitus (Engineer et al., 2011;
Okamoto et al. 2010), changes in cortical plasticity do not likely cause tinnitus.
tinnitus pitch (Yang et al., 2011). However, regions of the auditory cortex previously
tuned to frequencies at or above the hearing lesion frequency lose their functional
organization and frequency selectivity (Yang et al., 2011). It is unclear why
functional cortical regions with enhanced response to frequencies below that of the
hearing lesion and presumed tinnitus percept would be responsible. It is more likely
that the over-excited and disorganized regions of the cortex generate tinnitus
because these regions remain active and may still be interpreted by efferent
Jackson 4
tinnitus is that tinnitus behavior has been observed in an animal model subjected to
complete hearing loss (Su, 2011). This results in complete auditory map deletion as
the cortex no longer responds to sound, indicating that the presence of tinnitus may
not directly depend on organization of the auditory cortex. Rather, changes in
synaptic plasticity due to modulations in tonic inhibition are more likely causally
related to tinnitus.
in the hearing-impaired region of the auditory cortex following hearing lesion (Yang
et al., 2011). GAD suppression in response to hearing damage has also been
causes tinnitus, then drugs that enhance inhibition should ameliorate tinnitus.
(Brozoski et al., 2006). If tinnitus depends on the efficacy of GABA, then GABAergic
function should directly mediate tinnitus.
and are the primary inhibitory interneurons (Benes & Berretta, 2001). They
constitute about one fifth of the auditory cortex (Potter et al., 2008; Prieto et al.,
Jackson 5
1994) and regulate local neuronal activity and synaptic plasticity within the cortex
(Yuan et al., 2011). Suppressing GAD65 expression in GABAergic interneurons is
transcription of the GAD gene (GAD-65, 2011). Comparing the behavioral results
and GAD expression levels of virally-transfected mice to those of hearing-lesioned
mice should indicate whether GAD suppression can be a reliable cause of tinnitus.
Materials and Methods
Materials
12 Dlx6a-Cre mice (The Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine) aged 30-65
days were trained to an active avoidance task, subjected to either unilateral hearing
lesion or viral transfection of Gad2 siRNA lentivirus, and then tested for tinnitus. All
experimental procedures were reviewed and approved by the UC Berkeley Animal
Care and Use Committee. The test environment was an Acoustic Systems (Austin,
Texas) sound attenuation chamber divided by a barrier into two compartments
accessible by a 2x2-inch door opening. A steel rod mesh floor provided shock and a
sound stimuli. Behavioral results were observed and analyzed using LabView 7.1
(50mg/kg) and xylazine (10mg/kg) and were placed on a 37C Harvard Apparatus
heating pad. Respiratory function and hind-paw withdrawal reflexes were
Jackson 6
monitored to ensure sufficient anesthesia and sedation. Saline and Ringer were
periodically administered to maintain hydration during surgery.
Auditory Brainstem Response (ABR)
(TDT) taped to the left ear generated tone trains (3ms full-cycle sine tones of 4, 8, 16
and 32 kHz stepping from 70-0 dB at 5dB intervals 19 times per second). Three
subcutaneous electrodes inserted at the base of each ear and the vertex of the skull
recorded the evoked responses. The hearing threshold indicates the lowest sound
intensity required to evoke a discernible response.
Hearing Lesion (HL)
chamber. Long-term unilateral hearing lesions were induced in the left ear by a
continuous 8kHz pure tone at 110dB SPL for two hours generated by a calibrated
Tucker Davis Technology earphone (Alachua, FL). A Bruel and Kjaer 4135
Six trained mice were anesthetized and set in a sound attenuation chamber
for surgery, during which AI of the right hemisphere was aseptically exposed and
injected to cohere with a unilateral hearing lesion of the left ear. 1l of Gad2 siRNA
Jackson 7
lentivirus was introduced to cortical layers III and IV 1 via micromanipulator (World
Precision Instruments).
(Jastreboff & Sasaki, 1994; Active, 2011). Mice were habituated for at least two
days prior to training in the test environment in one-hour periods. Then they were
trained to actively ambulate across the barrier (shuttle) to avoid a foot-shock of at
least 0.4mA presented within seven seconds of the stimulus. Stimuli were one of
seven pure or broadband sounds ranged 4-20kHz at 40, 50, or 60dB to condition the
animals to tinnitus-like stimuli 2. The sound ended once the animal made a complete
shuttle (the entire body across the barrier, excluding the tail). Training consisted of
six 45-55 minute trials per week, for about three weeks. Testing began once
Animals were trained for thirty minutes before each testing session. Tests
consisted of nine 60-second probe trials randomly interspersed with 15-25 training
trials to maintain satisfactory performance. Eight silent probe (no-sound) trials
observed active avoidance shuttle frequency during silence (NS) and one sound
probe trial observed shuttle frequency during protracted sound stimulus (S). S
About 25% of layer III/IV neurons are GABAergic (Prieto et al., 1994), and these
layers receive thalamic and intra-cortical input (ibid; Vaughan & Peters, 1985;
Richardson et al., 2009). As deafferentation of thalamic input should directly
modulate GABAergic activity in these layers, these layers should be good targets for
inducing tinnitus.
2 Although human subjects may vary in their reports of tinnitus perception, tinnitus
is most commonly perceived as broadband sound and less commonly as sine tones
(Penner, 1995; Tyler et al., 2008).
1
Jackson 8
that may arise from the stress of surgery or tinnitus (Folmer et al., 2003; Kaltenbach
2010; Sullivan et al., 1993). NS/S indicates how strongly constant sound potentiates
shuttle frequency. This ratio only involved testing sessions of at least 75% active
testing phase ended once an individuals NS/S was consistent for at least four days,
followed by unilateral hearing lesion or exposure of Gad2 siRNA lentivirus to the
auditory cortex.
Mice recovered for at least 11 days after viral transfection before resuming
results agree with GAD expression such that the percent of GAD suppression should
positively correlate with the percent increase in tinnitus-motivated behavior
lesioned regions of the auditory cortex were prepared with TRIzol reagent (Ambion,
Austin, TX). A first-strand cDNA synthesis kit (BD Biosciences, Palo Alto, CA) reverse
transcribed 3g of RNA, with 18S rRNA as an internal standard. 50l of PCR mixture
Jackson 9
contained 10X Taq buffer, 0.3 U Taq DNA Polymerase (QIAGEN, Valencia, CA), 2.5M
of dNTPs, 5pmol of primers, and 50mg of cDNA template from each auditory cortex.
PCR reactions underwent initial denaturation at 94C for five minutes followed by
25-35 cycles at 94C for 30 seconds, 62-65C depending on the primers for 30
seconds, and 72C for 60 seconds. Amplification was optimized to prevent
32kHz, but there was no change for the preserved ear (mean threshold: lesioned ear
pre-HL: 35.9dB 7.4, lesioned ear post-HL: 67.1dB 1.7, p < 0.01; preserved ear
pre-HL: 37dB 7.4, preserved ear post-HL: 35.4dB 7.6, p = 0.75).
Hearing Lesion and Viral Transfection Result in GAD Suppression and Tinnitus
Behavior
Hearing lesion and viral transfection significantly, though differentially,
suppressed GAD expression in the auditory cortex (HL: mean suppression: 52.78%
0.72, p < 0.01; V: mean suppression: 62.75% 13.0, p < 0.05; HL versus V: p =
0.26). Figure 2 shows post-hearing lesion GAD quantification results. Because both
hearing lesion and viral transfection significantly suppress GAD expression, the
behavioral results should indicate tinnitus behavior in both cases.
Jackson 10
Figure 3 illustrates the paradigm for associating tinnitus with active shuttle
behavior and Figure 4 indicates the effects of hearing lesion and viral transfection
on shuttle behavior. Hearing lesion had no effect on active shuttle performance
(Figure 4Ai; nave: 84.8% 1.7, HL: 83.9% 2.8, p = 0.8), but caused tinnitus-
normalized mean: 141% 15.2, p < 0.01) while S decreased (normalized mean: 64%
9.2, p < 0.01). Thus the post-HL ratio NS/S significantly increased (Figure 4Ci;
mean nave: 0.27 0.04, mean HL: 0.61 0.07, p < 0.01).
Like the hearing lesion, viral transfection did not influence performance
(Figure 4Aii; nave: 82.9% 3.1, V: 83% 2.8, p = 1.), yet resulted in tinnitus
< 0.01) and was positively correlated with GAD suppression (Figure 5 shows a
logistic curve fit to this data; R2 = 0.72, RMSE = 22.7). This amplification of NS
appears to approach a limit of about 200% after GAD expression has been reduced
transfection significantly increased NS/S (Figure 4Cii; mean nave: 0.3 0.05, mean
V: 0.58 0.12, p < 0.05). The potentiation of NS/S from viral transfection is not
Jackson 11
behavioral results and the ANOVA (Tukey unpaired t) test was used for analyzing
ABR. Nave active shuttle frequencies (pre-hearing lesion and pre-viral transfection)
Discussion
hearing lesion) (Guitton et al., 2003; Jastreboff & Sasaki, 1994; Yang et al., 2011).
Arguably, tinnitus can have such varied causes because drugs and hearing lesions
reduce inhibitory activity in the auditory system. This study targets such inhibitory
activity as a potential fundamental cause of tinnitus and demonstrates that viral
vectors can disrupt auditory cortical GABAergic function to induce tinnitus behavior
damage, significantly elevating hearing thresholds obtained from the lesioned ear
across 4-32kHz. The influence of viral transfection on hearing thresholds was not
tested for in this study because ABR results are useful for determining the success of
the hearing lesion rather than determining the successful induction of tinnitus.
However, viral transfection should have had no effect on hearing thresholds 3.
3
GAD suppression is a purported effect of hearing damage rather than a cause of it.
cortical GAD expression, but it acts on peripheral and midbrain structures (Bancroft
Jackson 12
As expected, both hearing lesion and viral transfection increased the no-
sound shuttle frequency, indicating tinnitus. This may be simply attributed to the
animals failure to distinguish between their subjective tinnitus and the external
sound stimulus in both cases. The apparent limit on this tinnitus-driven crossing
than hearing lesion, as well as a greater suppression of GAD, although both methods
appear sufficient to induce tinnitus in this animal model.
hearing lesion and viral transfection, as this appears to be the main factor
frequency during constant sound, but ostensibly could be due to painful hyperacusis
et al., 1991; Guitton et al. 2003). It likely simulates a hearing lesion and causes
tinnitus via activation of NMDA receptors in the outer hair cells of the cochlea
(Guitton 2003; Puel 2007).
Jackson 13
aversion) (Duric et al., 2010), pain from the constant-sound stimulus may reduce
behavioral paradigm (as tinnitus was indicated in both cases), determining reasons
for such differences in sound-probe shuttle behavior may be an interesting avenue
for future research.
how the tinnitus is induced. This is corroborated by the fact that despite differences
Jackson 14
hearing lesion and viral transfection of Gad2 SiRNA, significant GAD suppression
consistently correlated with potentiated tinnitus behavior, indicating that GAD
vectors) should alleviate tinnitus, regardless of how the tinnitus was acquired. This
would help establish that GABAergic function is the fundamental mechanism of
tinnitus.
References
from: http://nbc.jhu.edu/behavioral_tasks/tasks/active%20_avoidance_protocol.html
Bancroft BR, Boettcher FA, Salvi RH, Wu J. (1991). Effects of noise and salicylate on
auditory evoked-response thresholds in the chinchilla. Hearing Research.
54(1):20-28.
Bauer CA, Brozoski TM, Holder TM, Caspary DM. (2000). Effects of chronic salicylate
on GABAergic activity in rat inferior colliculus. Hearing Research. 147:175-
182.
25(1):1-27.
Jackson 15
Brozoski T, Spires TJD, Bauer CA. (2006). Vigabitrin, a GABA transaminase inhibitor,
reversibly eliminates tinnitus in an animal model. JARO. 8:105-118.
Chino YM, Kaas JH, Smith EL III, Langston AL, Cheng H. (1991). Rapid reorganization
of cortical maps in adult cats following restricted deafferentation in retina.
Vision Research. 32(5):789-796.
Duric V, Banasr M, Licznerski P, Schmidt HD, Stockmeier CA, Simen AA, Newton SS,
Duman RS. (2010). A negative regulator of MAP kinase causes depressive
behavior. Nature Medicine. Doi: 10.1038/nm.2219
Folmer RL, Griest SE, Meikle MB, Martin WH. (1999). Tinnitus Severity, Loudness,
and Depression. Otolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery. 121(1):48-51.
url=http%3A%2F%2Fdatasheets.scbt.com%2Fsc-41965-v.pdf
Guitton MJ., Caston J, Ruel J, Johnson RM, Pujol R, Puel JL. (2003). Salicylate Induces
Tinnitus Through Activation of Cochlear NMDA Receptors. The Journal of
http://www.deafnessresearch.org.uk/factsheets/hyperacusis.pdf
Kaltenbach, J.A. (2010). Tinnitus: Models and mechanisms. Hear. Res. 1-9.
Jackson 16
Peckham PH, Rezai AR (Eds.) Neuromodulation (Vol 2). MA: Academic Press.
Milbrandt JC, Holder RM, Wilson MC, Salvi RJ, Caspary DM. (2000). GAD Levels and
Muscimol Binding in Rat Inferior Colliculus Following Acoustic Trauma.
Hearing Research. 147(1-2):251-260.
Penner, MJ. (1995). Tinnitus Synthesis: Fluctuant and Stable Matches to the Pitch of
Tinnitus. International Tinnitus Journal. 1:79-83.
Prieto JJ, Peterson BA, Winer JA. (1994). Morphology and Spatial Distribution of
GABAergic Neurons in Cat Primary Auditory Cortex (AI). The Journal of
Comparative Neurology. 344:349-382.
Pons TP, Garraghty PE, Ommaya AK, Kaas JH, Taub E, Mishkin M. (1991). Massive
Cortical Reorganization After Sensory Deafferentation in Adult Macaques.
Science. 252(5014):1857-1860.
Richardson RJ, Blundon JA, Bayazitov IT, Zakharenko SS. (2009). Dendritic Locations
and Dendritic Spine Morphology Determine Effectiveness of Thalamocortical
Jackson 17
Seki S & Eggermont JJ. (2003). Changes in Spontaneous Firing Rate and Neural
153(19):2251-2259.
Tyler RS, Rubinstein J, Pan T, Chang SA, Gogel SA, Gehringer A, Coelho C. (2008).
Yang S, Weiner B, Zhang L, Cho SJ, Bao S. (2011). Homeostatic plasticity drives
tinnitus perception in an animal model. PNAS.
Doi:10.1073/pnas.1107998108
Yin SH, Tang AZ, Tan SH, Chen P, Xie LH, Ren Y. (2008). Effect of sodium salicylate on
the auditory brain stem response threshold and expression of glutamic acid
decarboxylase in spiral ganglion of juvenile and adult guinea pigs. Chinese
Journal of Otorhinolaryngology: Head and Neck Surgery. 43(5):364-8.
Yuan K, Shih JY, Winer JA, Schreiner CE. (2011). Functional Networks of
Neuroscience. 31(37):13333-13342.
Jackson 18
Zhang JS & Kaltenbach JA. (1998). Increases in Spontaneous Activity in the Dorsal
Cochlear Nucleus of the Rat Following Exposure to High-Intensity Sound.
Neuroscience Letters. 250(3):197-200.
Figure 1. Unilateral hearing lesion increases the hearing threshold. A. Tone pips
(3ms full-cycle sine waves of 4, 8, 16 and 32kHz ranging from 70-0dB in 5dB
(ABR). Hearing lesion silences ABR of the hearing-lesioned (left) ear. B. Hearing
Jackson 19
for the lesioned ear. There is no significant change in ABR or hearing threshold for
the hearing-preserved (right) ear.
Jackson 20
shuttle across a barrier to avoid shock when presented with a sound stimulus
presented every 40-70s. Test probe trials were introduced after active avoidance
performance reached 80% for three consecutive days. Test trials consisted of 60
seconds of sound or silence, during which mice were allowed to freely shuttle across
the barrier and respective shuttle frequencies were recorded. The ratio of no-
shuttle behavior. A significant increase in this ratio after hearing lesion or viral
transfection of Gad2 siRNA suggests that tinnitus motivates no-sound shuttle
behavior.
Jackson 21
Figure 4. Hearing lesion and viral transfection of Gad2 siRNA result in tinnitus
behavior. Ai,ii. In either case, there was no significance change in active avoidance
performance. Bi. Unilateral hearing lesion potentiates no-sound shuttle frequency
(NS) and suppresses sound shuttle frequency (S). Bii. Viral transfection potentiates
NS but does not alter S. Ci,ii. Hearing lesion and viral transfection significantly
increase NS/S ratio.
Jackson 22
unaffected values in the contralateral auditory cortex. A logistic curve fits the data
well (R2 = 0.72, RMSE = 22.7, indicating a limited positive correlation between
tinnitus-driven shuttle behavior and GAD suppression.