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Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Theoretical Computer Science Cheat Sheet
Definitions
iff positive c, n0 such that
0 f (n) cg(n) n n0 .
f (n) = O(g(n))
f (n) = (g(n))
f (n) = (g(n))
f (n) = o(g(n))
lim an = a
sup S
inf S
lim inf an
Series
n
X
i=
i=1
n(n + 1)
,
2
n
X
i2 =
i=1
n
X
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
,
6
i3 =
i=1
n2 (n + 1)2
.
4
In general:
n
n
X
X
1
im =
(i + 1)m+1 im+1 (m + 1)im
(n + 1)m+1 1
m+1
i=1
i=1
n1
m
X
1 X m+1
im =
Bk nm+1k .
m
+
1
k
i=1
k=0
Geometric series:
n
X
cn+1 1
,
ci =
c1
i=0
n
X
i=0
ici =
c 6= 1,
ci =
i=0
ncn+2 (n + 1)cn+1 + c
,
(c 1)2
Harmonic series:
n
X
1
,
Hn =
i
i=1
n
X
1
,
1c
c 6= 1,
ci =
i=1
ici =
i=0
c
,
1c
c
,
(1 c)2
|c| < 1,
|c| < 1.
n(n + 1)
n(n 1)
Hn
.
2
4
lim sup an
lim sup{ai | i n, i N}.
i=1
n
n
n
n
X
X
n+1
i
1
n
Combinations:
Size
k
subHi = (n + 1)Hn n,
Hn+1
.
Hi =
k
m+1
m+1
m
sets of a size n set.
i=1
i=1
n
n
X
Stirling numbers (1st kind):
n
n
n
n
n!
k
n
,
2.
1.
=
3.
=
,
=2 ,
Arrangements of an n elek
k
nk
(n k)!k!
k
k=0
ment set into k cycles.
n
n1
n1
n
n n1
n
,
5.
=
+
,
4.
=
Stirling
numbers
(2nd
kind):
k k1
k
k
k1
k
k
n
Partitions of an n element
X
r+k
r+n+1
n
m
n
nk
=
,
6.
=
,
7.
set into k non-empty sets.
k
n
m
k
k
mk
n
k=0
n
n
1st order Eulerian numbers:
X
X
k
k
n+1
r
s
r+s
=
,
9.
=
,
8.
Permutations 1 2 . . . n on
m
m+1
k
nk
n
k=0
k=0
{1, 2, . . . , n} with k ascents.
kn1
n
n
n
n
,
11.
=
= 1,
10.
= (1)k
2nd order Eulerian numbers.
k
k
1
n
k
Cn
Catalan Numbers: Binary
n
n1
n1
n
n1
1,
13.
=
k
+
,
12.
=
2
trees with n + 1 vertices.
k
k
k1
2
n
n
n
n
n
14.
= (n 1)!,
15.
= (n 1)!Hn1 ,
16.
= 1,
17.
,
1
2
n
k
k
n
X
2n
n
1
n
n1
n1
n
n
n
,
= n!,
21. Cn =
18.
= (n 1)
+
,
19.
=
=
,
20.
n+1 n
k
k
k
k1
n1
n1
2
k=0
n
n
n
n
n
n1
n1
22.
=
= 1,
23.
=
,
24.
= (k + 1)
+ (n k)
,
0
n1
k
n1k
k
k
k1
n
n
n+1
0
n
1 if k = 0,
27.
= 3n (n + 1)2n +
,
25.
=
26.
= 2n n 1,
2
2
k
1
0 otherwise
X
X
n
m
n
X
n
n
x+k
n
n+1
n
k
30. m!
=
,
29.
=
(m + 1 k)n (1)k ,
,
28. xn =
m
k
n
m
k
k
nm
k=0
k=0
k=0
X
n
n
n
n
nk
n
nkm
k!,
32.
= 1,
33.
= 0 for n 6= 0,
(1)
31.
=
0
n
k
m
m
k=0
n
X
n
n
n1
n1
(2n)n
,
=
34.
= (k + 1)
+ (2n 1 k)
,
35.
2n
k
k
k
k1
k=0
X X
X
n
n
n
x+n1k
n+1
n
k
k
x
,
37.
=
=
(m + 1)nk ,
36.
=
k
2n
k
m
m
m+1
xn
n
k=0
iHi =
k=0
38.
40.
42.
44.
46.
48.
Identities Cont.
n
X
1 k
,
nnk = n!
k! m
m
X n k
n
X
k
Trees
n
X
n
x+k
n+1
x
=
39.
=
=
,
m+1
xn
k m
k
2n
k
k=0
k=0
k=0
X
X
n
n
n+1
k+1
k
n
nk
,
41.
=
(1)
(1)mk ,
=
m
k
m+1
k+1 m
m
k
k
X
X
m
m
n+k
m+n+1
n+k
m+n+1
k
,
43.
=
k(n + k)
,
=
k
m
k
m
k=0
k=0
X
X
n
n
n+1
n+1
k
k
=
=
(1)mk , 45. (n m)!
(1)mk , for n m,
m
m
k+1
m
k+1
m
k
k X
X m nm + n m + k
n
mn m+n m+k
n
=
,
47.
=
,
nm
m+k
n+k
k
m+k
n+k
k
nm
k
X
k X
k
k nk n
nk
n
n
`+m
n
`+m
,
49.
=
.
=
`
m
k
`+m
`
m
k
`
`+m
`
k
i=1
Recurrences
Master method:
T (n) = aT (n/b) + f (n),
a 1, b > 1
logb a
1 T (n) 3T (n/2) = n
3 T (n/2) 3T (n/4) = n/2
..
..
..
.
.
.
log2 n1
3
T (2) 3T (1) = 2
Let m = log2 n. Summing the left side
we get T (n) 3m T (1) = T (n) 3m =
T (n) nk where k = log2 3 1.58496.
Summing the right side we get
m1
m1
X n
X i
i
3
3
=
n
.
2
i
2
i=0
i=0
Let c = 32 . Then we have
m
m1
X
c 1
i
c =n
n
c1
i=0
Multiply
X
X
X and sum:
gi+1 xi =
2gi xi +
xi .
i0
= 2n(clog2 n 1)
= 2n(c(k1) logc n 1)
= 2nk 2n,
and so T (n) = 3n 2n. Full history recurrences can often be changed to limited
history ones (example): Consider
i1
X
Ti = 1 +
Tj , T0 = 1.
j=0
Ti+1 = 1 +
i
X
Tj .
j=0
Subtracting we find
i
i1
X
X
Tj 1
Tj
Ti+1 Ti = 1 +
j=0
= Ti .
And so Ti+1 = 2Ti = 2i+1 .
i0
i0
Note that
Generating functions:
1. Multiply both sides of the equation by xi .
2. Sum both sides over all i for
which the equation is valid.
3. Choose a generatingPfunction
j=0
Simplify:
1
G(x)
= 2G(x) +
.
x
1x
Solve for G(x):
x
.
G(x) =
(1 x)(1 2x)
Expand this
using partial fractions:
1
2
G(x) = x
1 2x 1 x
X
X
2i xi
xi
= x 2
=
i0
i+1
(2
i0
So gi = 2i 1.
i0
1)x
i+1
e 2.71828,
0.57721,
1+ 5
2
2i
pi
General
1
2
2
4
2
3
3
4
8
16
5
7
5
6
32
64
11
13
7
8
9
128
256
512
17
19
23
10
11
1,024
2,048
29
31
12
13
4,096
8,192
37
41
14
15
16,384
32,768
43
47
16
17
18
65,536
131,072
262,144
53
59
61
19
20
524,288
1,048,576
67
71
21
22
2,097,152
4,194,304
73
79
23
24
8,388,608
16,777,216
83
89
25
26
27
33,554,432
67,108,864
134,217,728
97
101
103
28
29
30
268,435,456
536,870,912
1,073,741,824
107
109
113
31
32
2,147,483,648
4,294,967,296
127
131
Pascals Triangle
1
11
121
1331
14641
1 5 10 10 5 1
1 6 15 20 15 6 1
1 7 21 35 35 21 7 1
1 8 28 56 70 56 28 8 1
1 9 36 84 126 126 84 36 9 1
1 10 45 120 210 252 210 120 45 10 1
21 ,
1
6,
1
30
,
1
1
+ 16 + 24
+ 120
+
n
x
= ex .
lim 1 +
n
n
n
n+1
.
1 + n1 < e < 1 + n1
1
11e
e
n
+
O
1 + n1 = e
.
2
2n 24n
n3
Harmonic numbers:
25 137 49 363 761 7129
1, 32 , 11
6 , 12 , 60 , 20 , 140 , 280 , 2520 , . . .
1
2
ln n < Hn < ln n + 1,
1
Hn = ln n + + O
.
n
Factorial, Stirlings approximation:
1, 2, 6, 24, 120, 720, 5040, 40320, 362880,
...
n
n
1
2n
.
1+
e
n
Ackermanns
function and inverse:
i=1
2j
a(i, j) = a(i 1, 2)
j=1
1 5
2
.61803
Probability
B2 =
B4 =
B0 = 1, B1 =
1
1
5
.
B6 = 42 , B8 = 30 , B10 = 66
Change of base, quadratic formula:
b b2 4ac
loga x
,
.
logb x =
loga b
2a
Eulers number e:
e=1+
1.61803,
Poisson distribution:
e k
, E[X] = .
Pr[X = k] =
k!
Normal (Gaussian) distribution:
2
2
1
e(x) /2 , E[X] = .
p(x) =
2
The coupon collector: We are given a
random coupon each day, and there are n
different types of coupons. The distribution of coupons is uniform. The expected
number of days to pass before we to collect all n types is
nHn .
Continuous distributions: If
Z b
p(x) dx,
Pr[a < X < b] =
a
Expectation: If X is discrete
X
g(x) Pr[X = x].
E[g(X)] =
x
If X continuous
Z
Z then
g(x)p(x)
dx
=
[g(X)]
=
E
g(x) dP (x).
i=1
n
X
(1)k+1
k=2
ii <<ik
Pr
k
h^
i
Xij .
j=1
Moment inequalities:
1
Pr |X| E[X] ,
i
h
1
Pr X E[X] 2 .
Geometric distribution:
q = 1 p,
Pr[X = k] = pq k1 ,
X
1
kpq k1 = .
E[X] =
p
k=1
Matrices
More Trig.
C
Multiplication:
(0,1)
b
C
(-1,0)
C = A B,
(1,0)
a
B
Pythagorean theorem:
C 2 = A2 + B 2 .
(0,-1)
cos a = B/C,
sec a = C/B,
cos a
B
cot a =
= .
sin a
A
circle:
AB
.
A+B+C
cos x =
1 + cot2 x = csc2 x,
n
XY
i=1
Hyperbolic Functions
Definitions:
ex ex
,
sinh x =
2
x
x
e e
tanh x = x
,
e + ex
1
,
sech x =
cosh x
e +e
,
2
1
,
csch x =
sinh x
1
coth x =
.
tanh x
cosh x =
Identities:
cosh2 x sinh2 x = 1,
tanh2 x + sech2 x = 1,
coth2 x csch2 x = 1,
sinh(x) = sinh x,
tanh(x) = tanh x,
2 tan x
,
1 + tan2 x
cos 2x = 2 cos2 x 1,
sin 2x =
cos 2x =
1 tan2 x
,
1 + tan2 x
= 1.
c
v2.02
1994
by Steve Seiden
sseiden@acm.org
http://www.csc.lsu.edu/~seiden
cosh x sinh x = ex ,
= cosh x 1,
sin
1
2
2
2
3
2
cos
1
tan
0
3
2
2
2
1
2
3
3
2 cosh2 x2
A
c
Law of cosines:
= 12 ab sin C,
c2 sin A sin B
.
2 sin C
Herons formula:
=
sa = s a,
sb = s b,
sc = s c.
ai,(i) .
cot2 x 1
2 tan x
,
cot 2x =
tan 2x =
2 ,
2 cot x
1 tan x
sin(x + y) sin(x y) = sin2 x sin2 y,
Eulers equation:
eix = cos x + i sin x,
Permanents:
A = s sa sb sc ,
s = 12 (a + b + c),
aei + bf g + cdh
ceg f ha ibd.
cosh(x) = cosh x,
tan x tan y
,
1 tan x tan y
cot x cot y 1
,
cot(x y) =
cot x cot y
tan(x y) =
2 2 and 3 3 determinant:
a b
c d = ad bc,
a b c
d e f = gb c ha c + ia b
e f
d f
d e
g h i
1
,
sec x
sin2 x + cos2 x = 1,
1 + tan2 x = sec2 x,
sin x = cos 2 x ,
perm A =
Identities:
1
,
sin x =
csc x
1
,
tan x =
cot x
ai,k bk,j .
k=1
i=1
Definitions:
sin a = A/C,
csc a = C/A,
A
sin a
= ,
tan a =
cos a
B
Area, radius of inscribed
1
2 AB,
ci,j =
(cos , sin )
n
X
n Z,
= cosh x + 1.
. . . in mathematics
you dont understand things, you
just get used to
them.
J. von Neumann
More identities:
r
1 cos x
x
,
sin 2 =
2
r
1 + cos x
,
cos x2 =
2
r
1 cos x
,
tan x2 =
1 + cos x
1 cos x
,
=
sin x
sin x
,
=
1 + cos x
r
1 + cos x
,
cot x2 =
1 cos x
1 + cos x
,
=
sin x
sin x
,
=
1 cos x
eix eix
,
sin x =
2i
eix + eix
,
cos x =
2
eix eix
,
tan x = i ix
e + eix
e2ix 1
,
= i 2ix
e +1
sinh ix
,
sin x =
i
cos x = cosh ix,
tanh ix
.
tan x =
i
mod m1
..
.
C rn mod mn
if mi and mj are relatively prime for i 6= j.
Eulers function: (x) is the number of
positive integers
Qnless than x relatively
prime to x. If i=1 pei i is the prime factorization of x then
n
Y
piei 1 (pi 1).
(x) =
i=1
Perfect Numbers: x is an even perfect number iff x = 2n1 (2n 1) and 2n 1 is prime.
Wilsons theorem: n is a prime iff
(n 1)! 1 mod n.
Mobius
inversion:
1
if i = 1.
0
if i is not square-free.
(i) =
r
if
i is the product of
(1)
r distinct primes.
If
G(a) =
F (d),
d|a
then
F (a) =
X
d|a
a
.
(d)G
d
Prime numbers:
ln ln n
pn = n ln n + n ln ln n n + n
ln n
n
,
+O
ln n
n
2!n
n
+
+
(n) =
ln n (ln n)2
(ln n)3
n
+O
.
(ln n)4
Graph Theory
Definitions:
Loop
If G is planar then n m + f = 2, so
f 2n 4, m 3n 6.
Any planar graph has a vertex with degree 5.
Notation:
E(G) Edge set
V (G) Vertex set
c(G)
Number of components
G[S]
Induced subgraph
deg(v) Degree of v
(G) Maximum degree
(G)
Minimum degree
(G) Chromatic number
E (G) Edge chromatic number
Complement graph
Gc
Complete graph
Kn
Kn1 ,n2 Complete bipartite graph
r(k, `) Ramsey number
Geometry
Projective coordinates: triples
(x, y, z), not all x, y and z zero.
(x, y, z) = (cx, cy, cz) c 6= 0.
Cartesian
Projective
(x, y)
(x, y, 1)
y = mx + b (m, 1, b)
x=c
(1, 0, c)
Distance formula, Lp and L
metric:
p
(x1 x0 )2 + (y1 y0 )2 ,
1/p
|x1 x0 |p + |y1 y0 |p
,
1/p
.
lim |x1 x0 |p + |y1 y0 |p
p
(x1 , y1 )
`1
(0, 0)
(x1 , y1 ) (x2 , y2 )
cos =
.
`1 `2
Line through two points (x0 , y0 )
and (x1 , y1 ):
x y 1
x0 y0 1 = 0.
x1 y1 1
Area of circle, volume of sphere:
A = r2 ,
V = 43 r3 .
Calculus
Wallis identity:
2 2 4 4 6 6
=2
1 3 3 5 5 7
Brounckers continued fraction expansion:
12
4 =1+
32
2+
52
2+
Gregrorys series:
1
4 =1 3 +
1
5
1
7
2+
72
2+
1
9
Derivatives:
1.
du
d(cu)
=c ,
dx
dx
4.
du
d(un )
= nun1 ,
dx
dx
7.
du
d(cu )
= (ln c)cu ,
dx
dx
9.
du
d(sin u)
= cos u ,
dx
dx
Newtons series:
1
1
13
6 = 2 + 2 3 23 + 2 4 5 25 +
Sharps series:
1
1
1
1
+ 2
3
+
= 1 1
3 3 3 5 3 7
3
Eulers series:
2
6
2
8
2
12
=
=
=
1
12
1
12
1
12
+
+
1
22
1
32
1
22
+
+
+
1
32
1
52
1
32
1
42
1
72
1
42
+
+
+
+
+
1
52
1
92
1
52
+
+
Partial Fractions
Let N (x) and D(x) be polynomial functions of x.
We can break down
N (x)/D(x) using partial fraction expansion. First, if the degree of N is greater
than or equal to the degree of D, divide
N by D, obtaining
N 0 (x)
N (x)
= Q(x) +
,
D(x)
D(x)
where the degree of N 0 is less than that of
D. Second, factor D(x). Use the following rules: For a non-repeated factor:
A
N 0 (x)
N (x)
=
+
,
(x a)D(x)
xa
D(x)
where
N (x)
A=
D(x)
1 dk N (x)
.
Ak =
k! dxk D(x) x=a
14.
1
du
d(arcsec u)
=
,
2
dx
u 1 u dx
du
d(sinh u)
= cosh u ,
21.
dx
dx
23.
du
d(tanh u)
= sech2 u ,
dx
dx
25.
du
d(sech u)
= sech u tanh u ,
dx
dx
20.
26.
1
du
d(arcsinh u)
=
,
2
dx
1 + u dx
1 du
d(arctanh u)
=
,
29.
dx
1 u2 dx
32.
Z
n 6= 1,
4.
sin x dx = cos x,
d(arccsc u)
1
du
=
,
2
dx
u 1 u dx
d(cosh u)
du
22.
= sinh u ,
dx
dx
d(coth u)
du
= csch2 u ,
dx
dx
d(csch u)
du
= csch u coth u ,
dx
dx
d(arccsch u)
1
du
=
.
dx
|u| 1 + u2 dx
Z
(u + v) dx =
v dx,
Z
tan x dx = ln | cos x|,
11.
Z
sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x|,
Z
14.
Z
u dx +
Z
1
dx = ln x,
5.
ex dx = ex ,
x
Z
Z
du
dv
7.
u dx = uv v dx,
dx
dx
Z
9.
cos x dx = sin x,
12.
d(cot u)
du
= csc2 u ,
dx
dx
Z
2.
dx
= arctan x,
1 + x2
10.
d(cos u)
du
= sin u ,
dx
dx
d(arccosh u)
1
du
=
,
2
dx
u 1 dx
d(arccoth u)
1 du
30.
= 2
,
dx
u 1 dx
1
du
d(arcsech u)
=
,
dx
u 1 u2 dx
Integrals:
Z
Z
1.
cu dx = c u dx,
d(ln u)
1 du
=
,
dx
u dx
28.
31.
8.
du
d(ecu )
= cecu ,
dx
dx
d(csc u)
du
= cot u csc u ,
dx
dx
24.
27.
6.
6.
16.
19.
d(uv)
dv
du
=u
+v ,
dx
dx
dx
d(arccos u)
1 du
=
,
dx
1 u2 dx
d(arccot u)
1 du
18.
=
,
dx
1 + u2 dx
1
du
d(arcsin u)
=
,
2
dx
1 u dx
1 du
d(arctan u)
=
,
17.
dx
1 + u2 dx
3.
12.
15.
x=a
k=0
where
du
d(sec u)
= tan u sec u ,
dx
dx
1
xn+1 ,
x dx =
n+1
dv
dx
10.
13.
3.
8.
du
d(tan u)
= sec2 u ,
dx
dx
d(u + v)
du dv
=
+
,
dx
dx dx
v du
d(u/v)
dx u
5.
=
dx
v2
11.
.
2.
arcsin xa dx = arcsin xa +
p
a2 x2 ,
13.
a > 0,
arccos
Z
17.
Z
19.
Z
x
a dx
= arccos
sin2 (ax)dx =
1
2a
x
a
Calculus Cont.
a2
x2 ,
16.
a > 0,
arctan xa dx = x arctan xa
Z
ax sin(ax) cos(ax) ,
18.
cos2 (ax)dx =
1
2a
a
2
a > 0,
ax + sin(ax) cos(ax) ,
Z
sec2 x dx = tan x,
ln(a2 + x2 ),
20.
csc2 x dx = cot x,
Z
Z
Z
sinn1 x cos x n 1
cosn1 x sin x n 1
+
sinn2 x dx,
+
cosn2 x dx,
22.
cosn x dx =
n
n
n
n
Z
Z
Z
tann1 x
cotn1 x
n
n2
n
tan
cotn2 x dx, n 6= 1,
x dx, n 6= 1,
24.
cot x dx =
tan x dx =
n1
n1
Z
tan x secn1 x n 2
+
secn2 x dx, n 6= 1,
secn x dx =
n1
n1
Z
Z
Z
cot x cscn1 x n 2
+
cscn2 x dx, n 6= 1,
27.
sinh x dx = cosh x,
28.
cosh x dx = sinh x,
cscn x dx =
n1
n1
Z
Z
Z
tanh x dx = ln | cosh x|, 30.
coth x dx = ln | sinh x|, 31.
sech x dx = arctan sinh x, 32.
csch x dx = ln tanh x2 ,
sinn x dx =
21.
Z
23.
Z
25.
Z
26.
Z
29.
Z
33.
sinh x dx =
1
4
sinh(2x)
Z
36.
arcsinh
x
a dx
= x arcsinh
x
a
1
2 x,
34.
cosh x dx =
1
4
sinh(2x) +
1
2 x,
Z
35.
sech2 x dx = tanh x,
x2
a2 ,
a > 0,
37.
arctanh xa dx = x arctanh xa +
a
2
ln |a2 x2 |,
x p
x arccosh x2 + a2 , if arccosh xa > 0 and a > 0,
a
38.
arccosh xa dx =
p
x arccosh x + x2 + a2 , if arccosh x < 0 and a > 0,
a
a
Z
p
dx
= ln x + a2 + x2 , a > 0,
39.
a2 + x2
Z p
Z
p
2
dx
1
x
=
arctan
,
a
>
0,
41.
a2 x2 dx = x2 a2 x2 + a2 arcsin xa , a > 0,
40.
a
a
2
2
a +x
Z
p
4
42.
(a2 x2 )3/2 dx = x8 (5a2 2x2 ) a2 x2 + 3a8 arcsin xa , a > 0,
Z
Z
Z
a + x
1
x
dx
dx
dx
x
,
ln
= arcsin a , a > 0,
44.
=
=
,
43.
45.
2
2
2
2
3/2
2
2
2
a x
2a
ax
(a x )
a x
a a2 x2
Z
Z p
p
p
p
2
dx
47.
a2 x2 dx = x2 a2 x2 a2 ln x + a2 x2 ,
= ln x + x2 a2 , a > 0,
46.
x2 a2
Z
Z
1 x
2(3bx 2a)(a + bx)3/2
dx
,
49.
x a + bx dx =
=
ln
,
48.
2
ax + bx
a
a + bx
15b2
Z
Z
Z
a + bx a
x
1
a + bx
1
dx = 2 a + bx + a
dx,
51.
dx = ln
50.
, a > 0,
x
x a + bx
a + bx
a + bx + a
2
Z p
Z 2
a + a2 x2
p
a x2
2
2
53.
x a2 x2 dx = 13 (a2 x2 )3/2 ,
52.
dx = a x a ln
,
x
x
Z
Z
a + a2 x2
p
p
4
dx
55.
= a1 ln
54.
x2 a2 x2 dx = x8 (2x2 a2 ) a2 x2 + a8 arcsin xa , a > 0,
,
2
2
x
a x
Z
Z
2
p
p
2
x dx
x dx
x
56.
= a2 x2 ,
57.
= x2 a2 x2 + a2 arcsin a,
a > 0,
2
2
2
2
a x
a
Z
Z
a + a2 + x2
p
p
a2 + x2
x2 a2
a
59.
dx = a2 + x2 a ln
dx = x2 a2 a arccos |x|
, a > 0,
58.
,
x
x
x
Z
Z p
dx
x
,
61.
= a1 ln
60.
x x2 a2 dx = 13 (x2 a2 )3/2 ,
x x2 + a2
a + a2 + x2
Z
Z
67.
Z
68.
Calculus Cont.
x2 a2
dx
dx
1
a
,
= a arccos |x| , a > 0,
63.
=
a2 x
x x2 a2
x2 x2 a2
Z
p
x2 a2
(x2 + a2 )3/2
x dx
= x2 a2 ,
65.
dx
=
,
x4
3a2 x3
x2 a2
2ax + b b2 4ac
ln
, if b2 > 4ac,
2
2
dx
b 4ac
2ax + b + b 4ac
=
ax2 + bx + c
2ax + b
2
arctan
,
if b2 < 4ac,
4ac b2
4ac b2
p
1
a
dx
=
2ax b
1
ax2 + bx + c
,
if a < 0,
arcsin
a
b2 4ac
Z
p
dx
2ax + b p 2
4ax b2
,
ax2 + bx + c dx =
ax + bx + c +
2
4a
8a
ax + bx + c
Z
Z
b
ax2 + bx + c
dx
,
69.
2
a
2a
ax + bx + c
1 2 c ax2 + bx + c + bx + 2c
,
Z
c ln
x
dx
=
70.
2
x ax + bx + c
1
bx + 2c
arcsin
,
c
|x| b2 4ac
Z
p
2 2
a )(x2 + a2 )3/2 ,
71.
x3 x2 + a2 dx = ( 13 x2 15
Z
Z
72.
Z
73.
x dx
=
2
ax + bx + c
xn sin(ax) dx = a1 xn cos(ax) +
n
x cos(ax) dx =
Z
74.
xn eax dx =
Z
75.
xn eax
sin(ax)
Z
n
a
xn ln(ax) dx = xn+1
Z
76.
1 n
ax
xn (ln ax)m dx =
n
a
if c > 0,
if c < 0,
E f (x) = f (x + 1).
Fundamental Theorem:
X
f (x) = F (x)
f (x)x = F (x) + C.
b
X
n1
1
ln(ax)
n+1
(n + 1)2
n+1
x
m
(ln ax)m
n+1
n+1
f (x)x =
b1
X
Differences:
(cu) = cu,
f (i).
i=a
(u + v) = u + v,
(uv) = uv + E vu,
(xn ) = nxn1 ,
(Hx ) = x1 ,
(2x ) = 2x ,
x
x
m
= m1
.
(cx ) = (c 1)cx ,
Sums:
P
P
cu x = c u x,
P
P
P
(u + v) x =
u x + v x,
P
P
uv x = uv E vu x,
n+1
P 1
P n
x x = Hx ,
x x = xm+1 ,
P
P x
x
x
x
c
,
c x = c1
m x = m+1 .
Falling Factorial Powers:
xn = x(x 1) (x n + 1), n > 0,
xn =
Z
sin(ax) dx,
1
,
(x + 1) (x + |n|)
n < 0,
xn+m = xm (x m)n .
Rising Factorial Powers:
xn = x(x + 1) (x + n 1),
n > 0,
x0 = 1,
,
Z
xn =
xn (ln ax)m1 dx.
x1 =
x2 =
x1
x2 + x1
=
=
x1
x2 x1
x3 =
x4 =
x3 + 3x2 + x1
4
x + 6x3 + 7x2 + x1
=
=
x3 3x2 + x1
4
x 6x3 + 7x2 x1
x5 =
x1 =
x2 =
x1
x + x1
x1 =
x2 =
x1
x x1
x3 =
x4 =
x3 + 3x2 + 2x1
x4 + 6x3 + 11x2 + 6x1
x3 =
x4 =
x3 3x2 + 2x1
x4 6x3 + 11x2 6x1
x5 =
x5 =
x0 = 1,
n
a
Finite Calculus
1
,
(x 1) (x |n|)
n < 0,
xn+m = xm (x + m)n .
Conversion:
xn = (1)n (x)n = (x n + 1)n
= 1/(x + 1)n ,
xn = (1)n (x)n = (x + n 1)n
= 1/(x 1)n ,
n
n
X
n k X n
x =
(1)nk xk ,
xn =
k
k
k=1
k=1
n
X
n
(1)nk xk ,
xn =
k
k=1
n
X
n k
n
x .
x =
k
k=1
X (x a)i
(x a)2 00
f (a) + =
f (i) (a).
f (x) = f (a) + (x a)f (a) +
2
i!
i=0
Expansions:
X
1
= 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 +
=
xi ,
1x
i=0
X
1
= 1 + cx + c2 x2 + c3 x3 +
=
ci xi ,
1 cx
i=0
X
1
n
2n
3n
=
1
+
x
+
x
+
x
+
=
xni ,
1 xn
i=0
X
x
2
3
4
= x + 2x + 3x + 4x +
=
ixi ,
(1 x)2
i=0
X
1
dn
in xi ,
= x + 2n x2 + 3n x3 + 4n x4 + =
xk n
dx
1x
i=0
X
xi
,
= 1 + x + 12 x2 + 16 x3 +
=
ex
i!
i=0
X
xi
=
(1)i+1 ,
ln(1 + x)
= x 12 x2 + 13 x3 14 x4
i
i=1
i
Xx
1
= x + 12 x2 + 13 x3 + 14 x4 +
,
=
ln
1x
i
i=1
X
x2i+1
1 3
1 5
1 7
,
(1)i
sin x
= x 3! x + 5! x 7! x + =
(2i + 1)!
i=0
X
x2i
1 2
1 4
1 6
,
x + 4!
x 6!
x + =
(1)i
cos x
= 1 2!
(2i)!
i=0
X
x2i+1
,
= x 13 x3 + 15 x5 17 x7 +
=
(1)i
tan1 x
(2i + 1)
i=0
X
n i
2
= 1 + nx + n(n1)
x
+
=
(1 + x)n
x,
2
i
i=0
X
i+n i
1
n+2 2
= 1 + (n + 1)x + 2 x + =
x,
(1 x)n+1
i
i=0
X
Bi xi
x
1
1 2
1
4
=
1
,
x
+
x
x
+
=
2
12
720
x
e 1
i!
i=0
2i i
1
1
2
3
(1 1 4x)
= 1 + x + 2x + 5x +
=
x,
2x
i+1 i
i=0
X
2i i
1
= 1 + x + 2x2 + 6x3 +
=
x,
i
1 4x
i=0
n
X
1 1 4x
2i + n i
1
4+n 2
= 1 + (2 + n)x + 2 x + =
x,
2x
i
1 4x
i=0
X
1
1
25 4
3
ln
= x + 32 x2 + 11
x
+
x
+
=
Hi xi ,
6
12
1x 1x
i=1
2
X
Hi1 xi
1
1
4
,
= 12 x2 + 34 x3 + 11
x
+
=
ln
24
2
1x
i
i=2
X
x
2
3
4
= x + x + 2x + 3x +
=
Fi xi ,
1 x x2
i=0
X
Fn x
2
3
=
F
x
+
F
x
+
F
x
+
=
Fni xi .
n
2n
3n
1 (Fn1 + Fn+1 )x (1)n x2
i=0
0
X
ai xi .
A(x) =
i=0
X
xi
ai .
A(x) =
i!
i=0
Dirichlet power series:
X
ai
.
A(x) =
ix
i=1
Binomial theorem:
n
X
n nk k
y .
x
(x + y)n =
k
k=0
X
(ai + bi )xi ,
A(x) + B(x) =
i=0
xk A(x) =
A(x)
Pk1
i=0
xk
aik xi ,
i=k
i
ai x
A(cx) =
ai+k xi ,
i=0
ci ai xi ,
i=0
X
(i + 1)ai+1 xi ,
A0 (x) =
i=0
xA0 (x) =
iai xi ,
i=1
Z
A(x) dx =
X
ai1
i=1
A(x) + A(x)
=
2
A(x) A(x)
=
2
xi ,
a2i x2i ,
i=0
a2i+1 x2i+1 .
i=0
Pi
Summation: If bi = j=0 ai then
1
A(x).
B(x) =
1x
Convolution:
i
X
X
aj bij xi .
A(x)B(x) =
i=0
j=0
1
ln
1x
n
tan x
1
(x)
(x)
2 (x)
Eschers Knot
n
X
n+i i
1
i
=
(Hn+i Hn )
x,
=
xi ,
i
x
n
i=0
i=0
X
X
n i
i n!xi
x
n
,
=
(e 1)
=
x,
i!
i
n
i=0
i=0
X
X
i n!xi
(4)i B2i x2i
,
x cot x
=
,
=
(2i)!
n i!
i=0
i=0
2i 2i
2i1
X
X
1
i1 2 (2 1)B2i x
,
(x)
=
(1)
,
=
x
(2i)!
i
i=1
i=1
X
X
(i)
(i)
(x 1)
=
=
,
,
x
i
(x)
ix
i=1
i=1
Y
1
=
,
Stieltjes Integration
1 px
p
If G is continuous in the interval [a, b] and F is nondecreasing then
X
Z b
P
d(i)
=
where d(n) = d|n 1,
G(x) dF (x)
xi
i=1
(x)(x 1)
X
S(i)
xi
where S(n) =
P
d|n
d,
i=1
2n1
(2n)
x
sin x
n
1 1 4x
2x
x
e sin x
|B2n | 2n
, n N,
=
(2n)!
X
(4i 2)B2i x2i
=
,
(1)i1
(2i)!
i=0
2
=
=
1x
x
2
arcsin x
x
X
n(2i + n 1)!
i=0
X
i=1
exists. If a b c then
Z
Z c
G(x) dF (x) =
X
i=0
X
i=0
i!(n + i)!
i/2
sin
i!
i
4
xi ,
x,
(4i)!
xi ,
i
16 2(2i)!(2i + 1)!
4i i!2
x2i .
(i + 1)(2i + 1)!
Cramers Rule
If we have equations:
a1,1 x1 + a1,2 x2 + + a1,n xn = b1
a2,1 x1 + a2,2 x2 + + a2,n xn = b2
..
..
..
.
.
.
an,1 x1 + an,2 x2 + + an,n xn = bn
Let A = (ai,j ) and B be the column matrix (bi ). Then
there is a unique solution iff det A 6= 0. Let Ai be A
with column i replaced by B. Then
det Ai
.
xi =
det A
Improvement makes strait roads, but the crooked
roads without Improvement, are roads of Genius.
William Blake (The Marriage of Heaven and Hell)
G(x) d F (x) + H(x) =
Z
c G(x) dF (x) =
G(x) dF (x).
b
G(x) dF (x) +
G(x) d c F (x) = c
G(x) dF (x) +
a
H(x) dF (x),
G(x) dF (x) +
G(x) dH(x),
a
Z b
G(x) dF (x),
a
b
F (x) dG(x).
a
Fibonacci Numbers
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, . . .
Definitions:
Fi = Fi1 +Fi2 , F0 = F1 = 1,
Fi = (1)i1 Fi ,
Fi = 1 i i ,
5
21 32 43 54 65 06 10 89 97 78
42 53 64 05 16 20 31 98 79 87