ME361ManufacturingSciences

J.Ramkumar

Topics covered
Topicscovered

Generalintroduction
General
introduction
Classificationofmachiningprocess
Machiningwithsingleedgetools
hi i
ih i l d
l
Typesofcutting
Typesofchip

Introduction
Manufacturingprocesstoproduce
Specifiedshape
Materialproperties

Process
Changeinconfigurationandphysicalproperties
Change in configuration and physical properties

Followingtypeofoperations
Constantmassoperations
p
Casting,rolling,extrusion,wiredrawing,forging,etc

Materialadditionoperations Bottomupapproach
Bolting,rivetting
Bolting rivetting ,keying,welding,rapidprototyping,etc
keying welding rapid prototyping etc

Materialremovaloperations(surplusmaterials
removed) Topdownapproach
Machining,finishing,etc
M hi i fi i hi
t

Basics of Machining process

BasicsofMachiningprocess
Relativemotionobtainedbycombiningrotatory and
translatory movementsofeitherthetoolorworkpiece
orboth
Shape is obtained by relative motion of
Shapeisobtainedbyrelativemotionof
Shapeofthetool
Pathittraverses
Tool
Toolpathisparalleltotheaxis
path is parallel to the axis cylindricalsurfacebothinternal
cylindrical surface both internal
andexternal
Tool/workpieceisreciprocated flatsurface Shaping(tool
reciprocatesandworkpiecefeed)andplaning (viceversa)

Otherexamples
Milling Surfaceandendmilling
drilling

BasicsofMachiningprocess
gp
Ge
Generatix
e at
Linesgeneratedbycuttingmotion

Directrix
Linesfromfeedmotion

Howisatapermade?
Methodsofgeneratingsurfaces
Tracingmethod directtracingofthegeneratrices Eg:
shaping,planing
Generation surfaceproducedistheenvelopofthe
generatrices milling,etc
milling etc

Concept of generatrix anddirectrix

Conceptofgeneratrix
and directrix

Rectilinear generatrix anddirectrix

Rectilineargeneratrix
and directrix

Directrix perpendiculartotheplaneofgeneratrix

Directrix intheplaneofgeneratix
p
g

Generation of Various Surfaces

1:

Classification of Machining Process

ClassificationofMachiningProcess

Surplusmaterialremovedintheformofchip
Differencebetweentoolandmachinetool?
Machinetoolrelativemotion
Machine tool relative motion
Primary Power
Secondary feed

Shaping and Planing Operation

3:

4:

Turningg Operation
p

5:

Milling and Grinding Operation

6:

Simulation of Actual Machining Processes

7:

Basic Machining Operation

8:

Machining with Singleedge

MachiningwithSingle
edgetools
tools
Simpletool
Simple tool
Principalcuttingedge
Auxiliarycuttingedge
Auxiliary cutting edge

Importantanglesinawedgeshapetool
Rakeangle toolfacewithaplanenormalto
cuttingvelocityvectorandthemachinedsurface
Flankangle
Fl k
l flankfaceandmachinedsurface
fl k f
d
hi d f

Single point cutting tool

Singlepointcuttingtool

Chipthicknessratior=t1/t2?

Types of cutting
Typesofcutting

Wedgeshapetool constrainedtorelativemotionoftheworkpeice toformachip.

Orthogonalcutting
Orthogonal
cutting wherei
where i =0andcuttingedgeisperpendiculartocuttingvelocity
0 and cutting edge is perpendicular to cutting velocity
Obliquecutting 3Dcuttingandi isinclinde

Differencebetween

Orthogonalcutting
Cuttingedgeofthetoolisperpendiculartothedirectioncutting
velocity
l it
Cuttingedgeiswiderthantheworkpiecewidth plainstraincondition
flowisconfinedtothex,z plane
Chipflowsontherakefacewithvelocityperpendiculartothecutting
edge
CuttingforcesactalongXandZdirectionsonly
Obliquecutting
CuttingedgeofthetoolisinclinedatanangleIwiththenormaltothe
cuttingvelocity
ChipflowsontherakefaceatanangleequaltoI
Cuttingedgeextendsbeyondthewidthofworkpiece
Cuttingforcesactalongalldirections
Cutting forces act along all directions

Typesofchips
Dependingupontheworkmaterial,cutting
conditions,threebasictypes
Relativemotionbetweentoolandworkpiece
compressionatcuttingedge plasticstate.
Plastic
Plasticflowonrakesurface
flow on rake surface
Shearingactionoftheworkmaterial

Continuouschip
Continuous chip
Continuouschipwithbuiltupedge
Discontinuouschip
Discontinuous chip

Types of chips
Typesofchips
ContinuouschipwithBuiltupedge
U
Undercertainconditionstemperatureandpressureattool
d
t i
diti
t
t
d
tt l
chipinterfaceishigh
sliding rupture(strainhardeningandthermalsoftening)
from the chip takes place
fromthechiptakesplace
Highresistanceattoolchipinterface protectinglayer
removed
Affinityforwelding
Affi it f
ldi
Startinggrowing build upedge
Growthishigh unstable
Movealongthechip
Movewiththemachinedsurface
Formsonlyatcriticalspeed
Forms only at critical speed

Types of chips
Typesofchips
Continuouschip,

Continuouschipwithbuiltupedge

Discontinuouschip

Formation of chip and its factors

Formationofchipanditsfactors

Type of chips
Typeofchips
speed recrystalization temperature
Aboverecrystal temp strainhardening
i
isneglected
l
d
Lowrecrystal temp strainhardeningis
high
Same BUEisformed

Influenceofcuttingspeedand
Roughness
h
Region
Region1
1 Raispoor,discontinuouschip,as
Ra is poor discontinuous chip as
speedincreasesRaimprovesfrom
discontinuous to semi discontinuous
discontinuoustosemidiscontinuous
Region2 BUEisformedandcontinuoustill
recrystalization temperature
Region3 ContinuouschipswithoutBUEso
goodRa
dR

ToolGeometry
Cutting
Cuttingprocessisinfluencedbytheinclinationofthecuttingedge
process is influenced by the inclination of the cutting edge
andorientationofrakeandflankface.
Orientationdefineweneedreferenceplaneandaxes.
Important
I
rakefaceinclination
k f
i li i
Rakeanglecanbemeasuredin
A plane normal to the cutting edge and perpendicular to the plane
Aplanenormaltothecuttingedgeandperpendiculartotheplane
containingcuttingedge OABC
Aplaneparalleltothecuttingvelocityvectorandperpendicularto
the plane containing the cutting edge ODEF
theplanecontainingthecuttingedge
Aplanecontainingthecuttingvelocityandchipvelocity ODGHas
showninfig

Single edge cutting tool

Singleedgecuttingtool
Inobliquecutting,threedifferentvaluesofrake
q
g,
angleisobtained
Theyarenormalrake,velocityrakeandeffective
rake.
rake
Morecuttingedgesareinvolvedthecuttingtool
becomes very complex
becomesverycomplex
Differentsystemarefollowed

ASA/Coordinatesystem
Continental/Orthogonalsystem German
Maximumrakesystem/British
Normal rake system/International
Normalrakesystem/International

Referenceplanes

Referenceplanesincoordinate system

Referenceplanesinorthogonalsystem
((1)Longitudinal(2)transfer
)
g
( )
feeddirections

Thirdplaneisinthedirectionofthe
Third
plane is in the direction of the
Maxslopeoftherakeface

Referenceplanesinnormalrakesystems
(1)Longitudinal(2)Transversefeeddirections

Normal rake system

Normalrakesystem

Third
Thirdplaneisperpendicular
plane is perpendicular
tothecuttingedgeofthe
tool

System of axes
Systemofaxes
Thesearenotthecartesian
coordinateaxesbuttracesofthe
referenceplane.
The
Theauxiliarycuttingedgeand
auxiliary cutting edge and
auxiliaryflankanglesarealso
shown

ASA/Coordinatesystem

Singlegdnttodspecificationin
Continentalsystem(ORS)

SinglepointtoolspecificationinBritishsystem
(MRS)

SinglepointtoolspecificationinInternational
system(NRS)

SinglepointtoolspecificationinAmericancontinental
system(MRS)
t
(MRS)

Different nomenclature systems

Differentnomenclaturesystems

Selection of tool angles

Selectionoftoolangles
Withzeroinclinationchipflowsparalleltotheworksurface
chipdisposalproblem
p p
p
Withinclinationangle chipflows Cuttingforce,powerand
Raisgood
Large smallrakeangle
Flankangle
EndCuttingedgeangles
End Cutting edge angles providedclearthecuttingedge
provided clear the cutting edge
fromthemachinedsurfaceandreducetoolchatter.Toolarge
anangle,weaktoolandaffectheatconduction.
Sidecuttingedgeaffectstoollife

Geometryofhelicalmillingcutter

Geometryoftwistdrill

Features of Orthogonal Chip Formation

12:

=r

(4.1)

r=CuttingRatio
(4.2)

(4.3)

Mechanics of Chip Formation

13:

ExpressFc inFsandFn
FtinFnandFs
FinFc andFt
NinFc andFt
Fs in Fc andFt
FsinFc
and Ft
FninFc andFt
RinFandangles
Fc inRandfrictionandrakeangles
Ft i R d f i ti
FtinRandfrictionandrakeangles
d k
l

(4.4)
(4 5)
(4.5)
(4.6a)
(4.6b)
(4.7a)
(4.7b)
(4.8a)
(4.8b)
( )
(4.9)

(
(4.10a)
)
(4.10b)

(4.11)

(4.12)

(4.13)

(4.14)

will be minimum when the denominator is maximum. Differentiating the

denominator with respect to

and equating it to zero

zero.
=0

(4.15)

Using equation (4.15) in equation (4.13), we get

(4 16)
(4.16)
Inrealityshearstressisnotcompletely
independentofnormalstress
p

can be expressed as

(4.17)

During machining,

is given by

Where =normalstressactingonthe
shear plane
shearplane

So, the shear stress

can be expressed as

From the circle diagram (Fig. 13 b), we can write

Using this in the expression for

and writing

in terms of

, we get

Using equation (4.9) and (4.10 a) along with the foregoing equation, we obtain
(4.18)

Now, applying the principle of minimum energy consumption, we finally get

(4.19)

Where
and is constant for the work material.
called the machining constant.
Itisclear increases increasesand increases decreases
Asthecuttingspeedincreases, decerases andsoFc too

is sometimes

Effect of Cutting Parameters on Chip Formation

15:

Duringanorthogonalmachiningoperationonmildsteel,theresultsobtainedare
uncutthickness=0.25mm,chipthickness=0.75mm,w=2.5mm,rakeangleiszeroand
C i f
Cuttingforce=950Nandthrustforce=475N.
950 N d h
f
475 N
Determinethecoefficientoffriction
Determinetheultimateshearstressoftheworkmaterial

Determinationofcoefficientoffriction

Thedistributionofshearandnormal
The
distribution of shear and normal
stressontherakefaceisnotuniform.
TiptoC,normalstressishighso
stickingfrictionishigh
CtoD,curling slidingfriction
Whennormalforceissmall,Fis
proportionaltonormalload.
Independent of apparent area Elastic
Independentofapparentarea.Elastic
plasticregion.
Whennormalforceishigh,plastic
deformationatslidinginterfaceso
fi i f
frictionforceisindependentofnormal
i i d
d
f
l
load

Strainratecalculation:

Strainrate=((deltaS)/(deltay))*(1/(deltat))
Strainratecanbeexpressedinshearvelocity
Strain rate can be expressed in shear velocity
Needforvelocitydiagram

MeasurementofShearangle
DirectMethod
IndirectMethod

Step1:determiner;ltb =(ltb)ofchipwecalculatetc
Step 2 : AB = t/sin () = tc/cos ()weget
Step2:AB=t/sin()=tc/cos
() we get
Alternativemethod
Weightofthechip=lctcbc=ltb

Machining Constant
:2
:2

Shear Angle Relationships

:3

Power Consumption

Specific Energy

(4.20)

(4.21a)

(4.21b)
:4

(4.22)

=Uncutthickness,mm
Q=Volumerateofmaterial
removal

Mechanicsofobliquecutting

WhencuttingedgeinclinedbyI,thenfollowingrakeanglecomesintoexistence
1. Normalrakeangle
2. Velocityrakeangle
3. Effectiverakeangle
Becauseofthistwoshearangle
1.Normalshearangle anglefromshearplanetoplanecontainingthenewlyformedwork
surfacemeasuredinaplanenormaltocuttingedge
2 Eff ti
2.Effectiveshearangle
h
l angleismeasuredintheplanecontainingthecuttingvelocityand
l i
d i th l
t i i th
tti
l it
d
chipvelocityvector

Relationshipbetweendifferentrakeanglesandinclination

Heat Generation and Cutting Tool Temperature

:16
16

Total rate of heat generation

= Rate of heat generation in primary zone
= Rate of heat generation in secondary zone

(4 23)
(4.23)

(4.24)

From relations (4.24) and (4.25),

(4.25)

When a material particle moves across the primary deformation zone, the temperature
rise is given by
(4.26)

Where
= Fraction of primary heat which goes to the workpiece
= Density of the material
= Specific heat of the material
thickness width of cut respectively
= Uncut thickness,

It has been found that

quantity

is a function of the shear angle

and a nondimensional
(4.27)

= Thermal conductivity of the material

For a wide range of work materials and machining conditions
(4.28)

The maximum temperature rise when the material particle passes through the
secondary deformation zone along the rake face of the tool can be approximately
expressed as
(4.29a)

Where is the length of contact between the tool and the chip
The corresponding average temperature rise
(4.29b)

It has been found that

Using this relation in equation (4.29a), we obtain

(4.29c)

The final temperature is given as

(4.29d)

Where is the initial temperature of the workpiece. This maximum temperature is

Along the rake face of the tool.

V i i off Temperature
Variation
T
with
i h Cutting
C i Speed
S d
(4.30)

= Overall temperature rise and

= Specific energy

Cutting Parameters: Workpiece Material SAE B 1113 Steel

Tool K2S WC
Rake Angle - 200
Uncut thickness 0.06 mm

Theoverallinterfacetemperatureriseis
Proportionaltothesquarerootofthe
Cuttingspeed

:17

Failure of Cutting Tool and Tool Wear

Plastic deformation of the tool due to high temperature and large stress
Mechanical breakage of the tool due to large force and insufficient strength
and toughness
Blunting of the cutting edge of the tool through a process of gradual wear

:18

Crater and Flank Wear

Wear takes place
- on the rake surface where the chip flows over the tool
- on the flank surface where rubbing between the work and
the tool occurs

:19

ToolWearvariousmechanism

AdhesionWear:Surfacemating weldingoftoolandworkpiecematerial
Smallwearparticles attritious wear
Largewearparticles galling

Abrasionwear:surfaceasperitiesploughaseriesofgrooves
Basiccondition particlesmustbeharderthanthesurface.
Thiswearratethroughthisisprocessdependsonhardness,elasticproperties
Andthegeometryofthematingsurfaces.
Diffusion:Twosurfacesinclosecontact,atomfromonetransfertootherbydiffusion
Diffusion
: Two surfaces in close contact, atom from one transfer to other by diffusion
Changesthephysicalpropertieslikehardness,toughness,etc.
Diffusionrateistemperaturedependentsodependsonslidingrate
Amountofmaterialtransferistimeofcontactandinverseofslidingspeed

Growth of Tool Wear

Flank Wear Abrasion and adhesion
Crater Wear - Diffusion
Breakinwear sharpcuttingedgeisquicklybroken,wear
ratehigh,contactstartsfromzeroandnormalpressureis
hightocausesubsurfaceplasticflow.

:20

Cutting Tool Materials

Condition
Co
d o of
o Hardness
a d ess Ratio
a o (Proposed
( oposed by T.N.
.N. Loladze)
o ad e)
(4.31)
:5

Variablesaffectingtoollife
Cuttingconditions
toolgeometry
toolmaterial
workmaterial
cuttingfluid
cutting fluid

Propertiesoftoolmaterial
Properties
of tool material
1. Hothardness
2. Toughness
3. Thermalconductivityandspecificheatshouldbehigh
4. Coefficientoffrictionbetweentheworkpieceandtool
Toollist
1. Carbontoolsteel
2. HighSpeedsteel
3. Cementedcarbide WCCowithotheringradients likeTaC,TiC,etc
4. Ceramicoxide
5 CeramicNonoxide
5.
Ceramic Non oxide
6. Coatings Singleandmultilayer
7. Diamond

Cutting Speed for Various Tools

:8
:8

Tool life and machinability

Toollifeandmachinability
Machinability easeformachining
Majorforcriteria
Machiningforcesandpowerconsumption
Surfacefinish
S f
fi i h
ToolLife flankwear0.3mmorflankwearmax0.6
mm
Velocityhasadirectinfluenceonflankwear
VTn=C
n,C=dependsontool,w/p,toolgeometryandcutting
C d
d
l /
l
d
i
condition
T =C/(V
/( 1/nf1/md1/o )

Dependence of Tool Life on Tool Geometry

:24

Cuttingfluids
Ways in which cutting fluid affects machining
Cooling
C li down
d
off chip-tool-work
hi t l
k zone be
b
carrying away generated heat
Reducing the coefficient of friction a chip-tool
interface
Reducing thermal distortion caused by
temperature gradient
Washing of chip
Protecting from corrosion

Ideal cutting fluid

Idealcuttingfluid
Largespecificheatandthermalconductivity
Large specific heat and thermal conductivity
Lowviscosityandsmallmolecularsize
Suitablereactiveconstituent
Suitable reactive constituent
Nonpoisonous
Inexpensive
I
i
Typesofcuttingfluids
Waterbased
Mineraloil

Cutting Fluids

: 29
:29

Change in per cent Heat Distribution with Speed

Fig.: 30 Role of Cutting Speed

Dependence of Coefficient of Friction on Speed

:30

Effect of Cutting Environment

: 31
:31