1C8

Advanced design
of steel structures
prepared by
Josef Machacek

List of lessons
1) Lateral-torsional instability of beams.
2) Buckling of plates.
3) Thin-walled steel members.
4) Torsion of members.
5) Fatigue of steel structures.
6) Composite steel and concrete structures.
7) Tall buildings.
8) Industrial halls.
9) Large-span structures.
10) Masts, towers, chimneys.
11) Tanks and pipelines.
12) Technological structures.
13) Reserve.

Objectives
Introduction

1. Lateral-torsional buckling

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N
Assessment

Introduction (stability and strength).

Critical moment.

Notes

Resistance of the actual beam.

Interaction of moment and axial force.
Eurocode approach.

Objectives
Introduction

Introduction

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N
Assessment

Stability of ideal (straight) beam under bending

impulse

Notes

segment laterally supported in

bending and torsion

Mcr

Strength of real beam (with imperfections 0, 0)

M

bifurcation under bending

Mcr,1
LTW yf y
strength

0,0
initial

Mb,Rd LTW y
reduction factor LT
depends on:

LT

fy

M1

W y fy
M cr
4

Objectives
Introduction

Critical moment

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam

Stability of ideal beam under bending (determination of Mcr)

Interaction M+N

Fz
zz

Assessment

"Basic beam" - with y-y axis of symmetry

(simply supported in bending and torsion, loaded only by M)

Notes

hf

y S
S=G

Two equations of equilibrium (for lateral and torsional buckling)

may be unified into one equation:

d4
d2 M 2
EI w
GI t

0
dx 4
dx 2 EI z

z
The first non-trivial solution gives M = Mcr:

M cr

EI zGI t
L

where cr 1

2EI w
L2GI t

2EI w
L2GI t

cr

EI zGI t

2
1 wt

wt

EI w
L GI t
5

Objectives
Introduction

Critical moment

Critical moment

Generally (EN 1993-1-1) for beams with cross-sections according to picture:

Interaction M+N
Assessment

cr

Notes

C1
2
1 wt
C 2 g C 3 j
k z

wt
F
zaz zzg Fz
z
z
z

zs

zs

(C)

yy

k w LLT

Fz

hf = hs

Resistance of
actual beam

C
2

2 g

EI w
GIt

zg
k z LLT

EI z
GIt

zj
k z LLT

Fz

Fz
z

Fz
z

z
G

C 3 j

G
y

G y

EI z
GIt
Fz
z
S G y

(T)

symmetry about z-z

symmetry about k y-y, loading through shear centre

C1 represents mainly shape of bending moment,

C2 comes in useful only if loading is not applied in shear centre,
C3 comes in useful only for cross-sections non-symmetrical about y-y.
6

Objectives
Introduction

Critical moment

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N
Assessment
Notes

Procedure to determine Mcr:

1. Divide the beam into segments of lengths LLT according to lateral
support:
segment 3
segment 2
e.g. segment 1: (LLT,1)
segment 1

lateral support (bracing) in bending and torsion (lateral

support "near" compression flange is sufficient)
from table factor C1 1:

2. Define shape of moment in the segment:

e.g. segment 2:

~2,56

~1,77

a) usually linear distribution

b) almost never

~1,13

~1, 35

(because loading here creates continuous support)

7

Objectives
Introduction

Critical moment

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N
Assessment
Notes

3. Determine support of segment ends:

(actually ratio of "effective length")
kz = 1 (pins for lateral bending)
kw = 1 (free warping of cross section)
Other cases of k :
kz = 1
kw = 1

angle of torsion
is zero

stiffener non-rigid
in torsion
possible lateral buckling

kz = 1
kw = 0,5

stiffener rigid
in torsion ( tube)
possible lateral buckling

Objectives
Introduction

Critical moment

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N
Assessment
Notes

kz = 0,7 conservatively
konzervativn
hodnoty
(theor. kz =
kw = 0,5)
kw = 1

kz = 1
kw = 0,7 (conservatively 1)

structure torsionally
rigid
torsionally

torsionally rigid

non-rigid
possible lateral buckling

Cantilever: - only if free end is not laterally and torsionally supported

(otherwise concerning Mcr this case is not a cantilever but
normal beam segment),
- for cantilever with free end: kz = kw = 2.

Objectives
Introduction

Critical moment

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N

4. Formula for Mcr depends also on position of loading with respect

to shear centre (zg):
Come in useful for lateral loading (loading by
end moments is considered in shear centre).

Assessment

Notes

- lateral loading acting to shear centre S (zg > 0)

is destabilizing: it increases the torsional moment

- lateral loading acting from shear centre S (zg < 0)

is stabilizing: it decreases the torsional moment

F
Factor C2 for
Mel 0,46 0,55
moment shape M:
(valid for I cross-section) Mpl (plast. hinges)

1,56 1,63 0,88 1,15

0,98 1,63 0,70 1,08
10

Objectives
Introduction

Critical moment

Critical moment

Interaction M+N
Assessment
Notes

5. Cross-sections non-symmetrical about y-y

For I cross section with unequal flanges:

zaz zzg FF z
zz
z

zs

zs

(C)

warping constant

I w ( 1 f2 )I z ( hs / 2 ) 2

parameter of asymmetry

yy

hf = hs

Resistance of
actual beam

hf

I fc I ft
I fc + I ft

second mom. of area of compress. and tens. flange about z-z

(T)

0,5
2
2
( y z ) z dA 0,45 f hf
Iy A
Factor C3 greatly depends on f and moment shape (below for kz = kw = 1):
z j zs
Mcr

=+1

Mcr

= 0

Mcr

= -1

f = -1

1,00

1,47

2,00

0,93

f = 0

1,00

1,00

0,00

0,53

f = 1

1,00

1,00

-2,00

0,38
11

Objectives
Introduction

Critical moment

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam

Cross sections with imposed axis of rotation

Interaction M+N

suck
Mcr is affected by position
of imposed axis of rotation
(Mcr is always greater, holding
is favourable)

Assessment
Notes

often

V
(imposed
axis)
For a simple beam with doubly symmetric cross section and general
imposed axis:

zg

zv
GS

axis y

Mcr

Mcr

For suck loading applied at tension flange:

2

h
E I w E I z
2 k w LLT

h
1
2

G I t
E I w E I z z v2
k w LLT

1z v 2 zg z v
2

G I t

coefficients
for shape of M:

2,00

0,00

0,93

0,81

0,60

0,81
12

Objectives
Introduction

Critical moment

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam

Approximate approach for lateral-torsional buckling

Interaction M+N
Assessment
Notes

impulse

roughly

hw/6

In buildings, the reduction factor for

lateral buckling corresponding to
"equivalent compression flange"
(defined as flange with 1/3 of
compression web)
may be taken instead:

LLT
i f, z 1

E
93 ,9
fy

Note: According to Eurocode the reduction factor is taken from curve c,

but for cross sections with web slenderness h/tw 44 from curve d.
The factor due to conservatism may be increased by 10%.

13

Objectives
Introduction

Critical moment

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N
Assessment
Notes

Practical case of a continuous beam (or a rafter of a frame):

The top beam flange is usually laterally supported by
cladding (or decking). Instead of calculating stability to
imposed axis a conservative approach may be used,
considering loading at girder shear centre and neglecting
destabilizing load location (C2 = 0):
Mel
Mpl

C1 = 2,23
C1 = 1,21

Mel
Mpl

C1 = 2,58
C1 = 1,23

according to M distribution
(for different M may be used
graphs by A. Bureau)

Note:
For suck stabilizing effect should be applied (C2, zg < 0).
It is desirable to secure laterally the dangerous zones of
bottom free compression flanges against instability:
by bracing in the level of bottom flanges,
or by diagonals (sufficiently strong) between
bottom flange and crossing beams (e.g. purlins).
Length LLT then corresponds to the distance of supports).
14

Objectives
Introduction

Critical moment

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N
Assessment

Beams that do not lose lateral stability:

1. Hollow cross sections
Reason: high It high Mcr

Notes

2. Girders bent about their minor axis

Reason: high It high Mcr

3. Short segment ( LT 0,4 ) - all cross sections, e.g.

Reason: LT 1

4. Full lateral restraint: "near" to the compression flange

is sufficient ( approx. within h/4 )
compression flange loaded

tension flange loaded

zv 0,47 zg
zg

zv 0,47 zg
or higher

zv

zv
zg

or anywhere higher
15

Objectives
Introduction

Resistance of the actual beam (Mb,Rd)

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N

Similarly as for compression struts: actual strength Mb,Rd < Mcr

(due to imperfections)
e.g. DIN: Mb,Rd

Assessment
Notes

Mpl,Rd 1 LT

2n 1/n

n = 2,0 (rolled)
= 2,5 (welded)

Eurocode EN 1993:
The procedure is the same as for columns: acc. to LT is determined
LT with respect to shape of the cross section (see next slide).
Note: For a direct 2. order analysis the imperfections e0d are available.

Mb,Rd LTW y
LT

fy

... Wy is section modulus acc. to cross section class

M1

LT 1,0

but 1
2
LT LT

1
2

2
LT
LT LT

LT 0,5 1 LT LT LT,0 LT

16

Objectives
Introduction

Resistance of the actual beam (Mb,Rd)

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N

Similarly as for compression struts: actual strength Mb,Rd < Mcr

(due to imperfections)
e.g. DIN: Mb,Rd

Assessment
Notes

Mpl,Rd 1 LT

2n 1/n

n = 2,0 (rolled)
= 2,5 (welded)

Eurocode EN 1993:
The procedure is the same as for columns: acc. to LT is determined
LT with respect to shape of the cross section (see next slide).
Note: For a direct 2. order analysis the imperfections e0d are available.

Mb,Rd LTW y

LT

fy

M1

... Wy is section modulus acc. to cross section class

1
2

2
LT LT
LT

1 LT LT LT,0
LT 1,0

but 1 LT 0,5
2
LT

2
LT LT

= 0,75
For common rolled and welded cross sections: LT,0 0,4
For non-constant M the factor may be reduced to LT,mod (see Eurocode).
17

Objectives
Introduction

Resistance of the actual beam (Mb,Rd)

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N
Assessment

For common rolled and welded cross sections: LT,0 0,4

= 0,75
For non-constant M the factor may be reduced to LT,mod (see Eurocode).

Notes

Choice of buckling curve:

rolled I sections

shallow
high

welded I sections
greater residual stresses
due to welding

rigid cross section

h/b 2 (up to IPE300, HE600B)

h/b > 2
h/b 2
h/b > 2

b
c
c
d

18

Objectives
Introduction

Resistance of the actual beam (Mb,Rd)

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N
Assessment

In plastic analysis (considering redistribution of moments and

"rotated" plastic hinges) lateral torsional buckling in hinges must be
prevented and designed for 2,5 % Nf,Ed:

Notes

strut providing
support
girder in location of Mpl

0,025 Nf,Ed

hs

Complicated structures (e.g. haunched girders)

hh
may be verified using "stable length" Lm
(in which LT = 1) - formulas see Eurocode.

force in compression
flange

Lh

Ly

19

Objectives
Introduction

Interaction M + N

("beam columns")

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N
Assessment
Notes

Always must be verified simple compression and bending in the most

stressed cross section see common non-linear relations.
In stability interaction two simultaneous formulas should be considered:
for class 4 only

M y,Ed M y,Ed
M
M z,Ed
NEd
k yy
k yz z,Ed
1
M z,Rk
y NRk
LT M y,Rk

M1

M1

M1

M y,Ed M y,Ed
M z,Ed
M
NEd
k zy
k zz z,Ed
1
z NRk
LT M y,Rk
M z,Rk

M1

M1

Usual case M + Ny:

M y,Ed
NEd
k yy
1
y NRd
LT M y,Rd
M y,Ed
NEd
k zy
1
z NRd
LT M y,Rd

M1

Mz

My

factors kyy 1,8; kzy 1,4

(for relations see EN 1993-1-1, Annex B)

Note: historical unsuitable linear relationship

(without 2nd order factors kyy, kzy)

M y,Ed
NEd

1
Nb,Rd M b,Rd
20

Objectives
Introduction

Interaction M + N

("beam columns")

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam

Complementary note:

Interaction M+N
Assessment
Notes

Generally FEM may be used (complicated structures, non-uniform members

etc.) to analyse lateral and lateral torsional buckling.
First analyse the structure linearly, second critical loading. Then determine:

ult,k - minimum load amplifier of design loading to reach characteristic

resistance (without lateral and lateral-torsional buckling);

cr,op - minimum load amplifier of design loading to reach elastic critical

loading (for lateral or lateral torsional buckling).

op

ult,k
cr,op

op = min(, LT)

Resulting relationship:

NEd

NRk M1

M y,Ed
M y,Rk M1

op

21

Objectives
Introduction
Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N
Assessment
Notes

Assessment
Ideal and actual beam differences.
Procedure for determining of critical
moment.
Destabilizing and stabilizing loading.
Approximate approach for lateral
torsional buckling.
Resistance of actual beam.
Interaction M+N according to Eurocode.
22

Objectives
Introduction

Notes to users of the lecture

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N

This session requires about 90 minutes of lecturing.

Within the lecturing, design of beams subjected to lateral

torsional buckling is described. Calculation of critical moment
under general loading and entry data is shown. Finally
resistance of actual beam and design under interaction of
moment and axial force in accordance with Eurocode 3 is
presented.

Further readings on the relevant documents from website of

www.access-steel.com and relevant standards of national
standard institutions are strongly recommended.

Keywords for the lecture:

Assessment
Notes

lateral torsional instability, critical moment, ideal beam, real

beam, destabilizing loading, imposed axis, beam resistance,
stability interaction.

Objectives
Introduction

Notes for lecturers

Critical moment
Resistance of
actual beam
Interaction M+N
Assessment
Notes

Subject: Lateral torsional buckling of beams.

Lecture duration: 90 minutes.

Keywords: lateral torsional instability, critical moment, ideal

beam, real beam, destabilizing loading, imposed axis, beam
resistance, stability interaction.

Aspects to be discussed: Ideal beam and real beam with

imperfections. Stability and strength. Critical moment and
factors which influence its determination. Eurocode approach.

After the lecturing, calculation of critical moments under

various conditions or relevant software should be practised.

Further reading: relevant documents www.access-steel.com

and relevant standards of national standard institutions are
strongly recommended.

Preparation for tutorial exercise: see examples prepared for

the course.

24