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Chemistry Notes Module 1 Version 1
Chemistry Notes Module 1 Version 1
General Reactions
a) Single displacement reaction:
EG:
Fe(s) + 2HCl(aq)
c) Combination reaction:
EG:
2Mg(s) + 02 (g)
2Mg0(s)
d) Decomposition reaction:
Heating
Visible light or UV
Electrolysis
Common Reactions
a) Metal + Acid
b) Metal + Water
c) Metal + Salt
d) Acid + Base
Salt + Water
e) Acid + Carbonate
f) Salt + salt
New salts
Acid
h) Combustion
i)
i.
Element + Oxygen
ii.
Hydrocarbon + Oxygen
Heat + Carbonate
Element Oxide
Carbon dioxide + Water
Pure Substance
Only homogenous
Variable composition
Fixed composition
Matter
Homogeneous
Pure Substances
Can be separated
Heterogenous
Mixtures
physically into
Elements
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
Compounds
Biosphere
Oxygen
Silicon
Aluminium
Iron
Calcium
Atmosphere
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Argon
Hydrogen
Carbon
Hydrosphere
Oxygen
Hydrogen
Chlorine
Sodium
Magnesium
Lithosphere
Oxygen
Silicon
Aluminium
Iron
Calcium
Living Matter
Oxygen
Carbon
Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Calcium
Table containing the most abundant elements in each sphere in decreasing order.
Most abundant non-metal:
Oxygen
Aluminum
Silicon
soluble substances including water, NaCl, Carbon dioxide, Phosphate etc. Mixtures
include freshwater, salt water.
Lithosphere: Crust and the top part of the mantle. Elements include gold, silver,
silicon. Compounds include all metal oxides, Aluminosilicates, hydrocarbons.
Mixtures include rocks, soil, humus, various silicates etc.
Separation of solids of different sizes: In order sperate solids of different sized the
most appropriate method is known as sieving. Sieving involves passing the
mixture through a sieve which contains tiny holes that allow only substances of a
particular size to pass through. Thus sieving relies on size. The smaller substance
will pass through the sieve while the larger one will be trapped. Thus the mixture
is separated.
Separating solids and liquids: There are two methods:
1) Filtration. The solution is passed through a funnel which is lined with filter
paper. The liquid is able to pass through but the solid is caught in the filter.
2) Sedimentation and decantation. The solids are allowed to settle to the
bottom of the container. Then the liquid is carefully poured off, leaving the
solid at the bottom of the container.
Separating dissolved solids in liquids: There are two methods:
1) Evaporating to dryness. This is done when the liquid is of no use and can
be disposed of. The solution is heated until all the liquid has evaporated
leaving the solid behind.
2) Distillation. This is done when the liquid is desirable. The solution is placed
in the apparatus and heated. The liquid evaporates and moves through
tubing to another container. On the way the tube is cooled so that the gas
is condensed causing it to change back to liquid state before ending up in
a secondary container. The solid is left at the bottom of the first beaker.
The liquid collected is called the distillate.
Separating Liquids: Again there are two methods:
1) Fractional Distillation. The apparatus is slightly different to that of
distillation but the process is the same. The apparatus contains a
fractionating column which consists of hundreds of glass beads. This
arrangement allows for repeated condensations and evaporations, thus the
solution is distilled 10-100 times. Liquid with the lowest b.p comes off first
2) Separating Funnel. Use if the liquids are immiscible (i.e. dont dissolve in
each other). The liquids are layered. One is allowed through the funnel and
just before it finishes the valve is closed. Thus separating the liquids.
Two solids based on solubility: If one substance in a particular mixture is soluble
in a certain substance while the other isnt they can be separated. The solution is
added, which dissolves one of the substances, and then one filtration is used to
remove the insoluble substance, the remaining filtrate is dried to retrieve the
other solid.
Separation Method
Sieving
Vaporization (Evap. To dryness)
Distillation
Frac. Distillation
Filtration
Using a separating funnel
Adding a solvent then filtration
Binary ionic compounds the metal is named first, then the non-metal. The last
few letters of the non-metal are replaced with the suffix -ide, e.g. oxygen
oxide. Example AgCl = Silver Chloride
Ionic compounds with a polyatomic ion The metal is named first, then the
radical. The radical is treated as a single ion. NaNO3 = Sodium Nitrate
Series
Alkane
Alkene
Alkyne
Name Ending
-ane
-ene
-yne
General Formula
CnH2n+2
CnH2n
CnH2n-2
Bonding in C Series
Single (C-C)
Double (C=C)
Triple (CC)
2.
Metals
Semi-Metals
Non-metals
Low sheen
Dull
Conducts electricity
Semi-conductor
Electrical insulator
Conducts heat
Conducts heat
Heat insulator
Low electronegativity
Variable electronegativity
High electronegativity
The physical properties most commonly involved are the melting point, density,
electrical conductivity, hardness and tensile strength.
Some examples of where metals are used because of their physical properties:
Aluminium is used for making aircrafts primarily because of
its low density (combined with adequate mechanical strength)
- Iron is used to make motor cars and trains because it has high tensile
strength.
- Copper is used for electrical wiring in houses and other buildings because of
its high electrical conductivity. However, for high voltage transmission lines
aluminium is preferred because it has a lower density and the mass of
cables is important in this scenario
- Tungsten is used for filaments in electrical light bulbs because of its
extremely high melting point.
- Aluminium is also used to make cans and aluminium foil for wrapping food.
This is because it is a durable metal, very malleable, can be rolled into thin
sheets and is insoluble in water.
- Gold is used in jewelry and computer parts because of its good electrical
conductivity, its malleability, it is ductile, lustrous and attractive
- Silver is also used in jewelry but is also used in electronics because it a
superconductor of electricity, malleable and ductile.
Some examples where non-metals are used based on their physical properties:
- Carbon as graphite is used as electrodes in common dry cells because of its
significant electrical conductivity and as a dry lubricant because of its
slippery nature
- Carbon also in the form of diamond is used for jewelry because of its
supreme hardness, resistance to scratching and also because it has a high
light refractive index.
- Nitrogen in liquid state is used as a cooling agent because of the suitability
of its melting and freezing points.
Helium is used for filling balloons because its an inert gas and has a very low
density which makes the balloons float in the air.
Neon is used in light sensitive switches because it is an unreactive gas which
emits red light when electricity is passed through it.
Diamond (a form of carbon) is used in cutting tools as it has a strong
covalent network, making it one of the hardest substances on Earth.
3.
According to the particle theory, all matter is made up of small particles that are
continuously moving. In solids the particles vibrate. In liquids there is
translational and vibrational motion. In gases there is rapid translational motion
of particles. In solids the particles are arranged in a very orderly manner. In a
liquid there is less orderly arrangement of particles. In a gas, however, the
particles are well separated by space.
Electrons have a -1 charge. They are written e-. There are the same number of
electrons as there are protons in an atom. This is in order to balance the charge
of an atom. Electrons rotate around the nucleus of an atom in what is known as
an electron cloud. There are a number of subshells in which the electrons rotate.
The order of these subshells is known as SPDFGH. Electrons in atoms have
discrete energy levels which are called 1st, 2nd, 3rd level and so on. Electrons in
each level have a distinct and constant amount of energy. Energy levels increase
as the amount of electrons and shells increase. I.e. electrons in higher levels will
have more energy than that of lower levels. The maximum number of electrons
orbiting in the nth shell is 2n2.
Atomic number = 20
Therefore number of protons = 20, neutrons = 20, electrons = 20.
Note: The mass number can also be known as the sum of the mass of the
protons, neutrons and electrons, under the assumption that neutrons and protons
weigh 1 unit each, and that electrons are significantly lighter (therefore they are
not included in the calculations above. Electrons are 1/2000 of a proton in mass.
Electrons in the outermost shell are in the valence shell and thus are known as
valence electrons. Whether an atom loses or gains electrons depends on the
amount of valence electrons. Except for hydrogen and helium, if an atom has 1,2
or 3 electrons in its valence shell it will lose those electrons to form an cation
(positively charged ion). If the atom has 5,6 or 7 valence it will gain electrons in
order to become an anion (negatively charged electron). If the atom has 4
electrons it can either gain or lose those electrons. Hydrogen can gain or lose one
electron to hydrogen ion. Thus the valence electrons determine whether atoms
gain/lose electrons (i.e. whether they become anions or cations)
Note: Between a metal and a non-metal, electrons are transferred, forming ions
on both sides. Because of this sudden gain/loss in electrons, the ions are
negatively and positively charged, respectively, and therefore bond through
electrostatic attraction, in a process called ionic bonding. In semi-metals and nonmetals, the sharing of electrons will yield a stable electron configuration, in a
process called covalent bonding.
Group I (alkali metals) generally tend to lose one electron, forming a positively
charged ion of +1 charge.
Group II (alkali-earth metals) generally tend to lose two electrons, forming a
positively charged ion of +2 charge.
Group IV (halogens) generally tend to gain 1 atom and form a negatively charged
ion of -1 charge.
Metals generally form positive ions while non-metals form negative ions.
10
The strong attractive forces that hold these ions together in a crystal lattice are
called ionic bonding.
Molecules are particles that may move independently of each other. The forces
that hold the molecules together are known as intermolecular forces. If these
forces are weak the molecules may move independently of each other. However if
these forces are extremely strong the molecules maybe tightly bound and their
movement maybe restricted to just vibrations.
Molecules are made up of several atoms joined together, although some single
atoms (noble gases) may exist as mono-atomic molecules.
Atoms that share electrons (non-metals) obtain a stable electron configuration
and can therefore exist as diatomic molecules. Eg O2 ,H2
Molecules containing one atom are called monatomic molecules (one atom in the
molecule). Only the noble gases are able to achieve this molecular structure due
to the fact that they are extremely stable and dont react.
Other elements on the other hand cannot be in a monatomic molecular structure.
They will be at least in diatomic structure. For example O2 ,H2. These diatomic
molecules are able to exist by themselves in nature. Only non-metals are able to
be seen in this diatomic state in nature. This is because metals will usually form
oxides or will be in a large metallic or lattical structure which consists of millions
of atoms infinitely bonded.
Other elements may form compounds which contain two or more different
elements in each compound. For example H2O. In this case the molecule contains
2 hydrogen atom and one oxygen atom.
When atoms share electron pairs the type of bonding formed is known as a
covalent bond. Covalent bonds occur when a non-metal, combines with another
non-metal. The intramolecular forces in a covalent molecule are extremely strong
There are three types of covalent bonds:
Single Each atom shares one pair of electrons.
Double Each atom shares two pairs of electrons.
Triple Each atom shares three pairs of electrons.
Covalent bonds can be polar (atoms sharing electrons are different. Eg. HCl) or
can be non-polar (atoms sharing electrons are the same Eg. O2). The atom that
attracts the electrons more strongly is said to be more electronegative
11
Molecules can be polar or non-polar depending on whether their bonds are polar
or non-polar and also on their shape. A molecule can have polar bonds and yet be
non-polar if the bonds cancel out so that there is no net dipole (charge)
Intermolecular forces determine the physical properties of covalent molecular
substances. There are three main types of intermolecular forces: dispersion
forces, dipole-dipole forces and hydrogen bonds.
Dispersion forces: - these are very weak, induced, temporary forces of
attraction, which exist between all molecules due to constantly moving electron
clouds.
Dipole-Dipole forces: - are permanent electrostatic attractions between the
positive and negative ends of polar molecules caused by uneven distribution of
electrons within the molecule
Hydrogen bonds: - are strong attractive forces between a hydrogen atom and
an atom of fluorine, oxygen or nitrogen in a nearby molecule.
12
In a physical change the intermolecular bonds (which are fairly weak) are
broken. In a physical change no new substances are formed, rather the substance
changes its state. For example water boiling.
In this example there are no new substances formed and thus there is no
rearrangement of particles within molecules. Rather energy is provided to the
molecules via the heat which causes them to have enough energy to separate
themselves from one another (i.e. the intermolecular bonds are broken). The
result is that some water particles leave the surface of the liquid (can be seen
when the water evaporates).
In a physical change the energy change is relatively small. Also a physical change
is easy to reverse (condensation of water). In a physical change there are mass
changes. (I.e. the mass of the substance will change after a physical change).
In a chemical change however the intramolecular bonds (which are relatively
strong) are broken. In a chemical change, new substances are formed. An
example of this can be seen during the electrolysis of water.
In this example, two new substances, O2 and H2 are formed. Thus there is a clear
rearrangement of particles. In electrolysis, there is a lot more energy provided to
the water molecules, enough energy is provided to break the intramolecular
bonds between the hydrogen and the oxygen.
13
In the apparatus the negative oxygen ions are attracted to the positively charged
cathode where as the positive hydrogen ions are attracted to the negatively
charged cathode. Thus electrolysis proved enough energy to split intramolecular
bonds, causing the re-arrangement of particles to form two new substances.
A chemical change is difficult to reverse, has high energy changes and the overall
mass of the substance is conserved.
Boiling
Electrolysis
Physical Change
Chemical change
Breaks intermolecular forces
Breaks intramolecular forces
Changes physical state (liquid to gas)
Relatively large amount of energy
needed
Relatively low amount of energy
needed
New substances formed (H2 and O2)
No new substances formed
Summarise the difference between the boiling and electrolysis of
water as an example of the difference between physical and
chemical changes
14
Method used
Heat in furnace
Pass electricity through molten
aluminium oxide
Action of sunlight on silver
bromide (film)
Burn magnesium in air
Method used
Iron reacts with oxygen in the
air, in the presence of water to
form iron (III) oxide
Carbon dioxide and water
combine to form glucose and
oxygen
Lighting causes atmospheric
nitrogen to combine with oxygen
to form nitrogen monoxide
Coal is heated in furnaces
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change of state, but electrical energy is needed to break the intramolecular bonds
to create two new substances.
5.
Mixture
Compound
Element
May be homogenous or
heterogenous
Only homogenous
Only homogenous
16
Variable composition
Fixed composition
at room temperature they are generally liquids or gases (few are solids),
low melting/boiling points due to the fact they have very weak
intermolecular bonds
when sold they are soft because of the weak forces between molecules
dont conduct electricity in either solid or liquid/aqueous state as there are
no charge carriers. Also because the molecules are uncharged and
electrons are localized in covalent bonds or on the atoms)
in solutions they do not conduct electricity unless they actually react with
water to form ions
17
18
As a result of their malleability metals can be hammered into sheets or drawn into
wires (ductile). The high melting and boiling points of most metals is due to the
strong electrostatic attraction between the positive metal ions and the mobile
electrons.
Note: Group 2 metals release two electron per atoms to form STRONGER
METALLIC bonds than group 1 metals and therefore have higher melting and
boiling points.
Properties of metallic substances
Good conductors of heat and electricity because of the delocalised electron
transfer charge and thermal energy.
High melting and boiling points because of the strong metallic bonding
extending throughout the lattice
Dense because the ions are packed tightly in the lattice
Malleable and ductile since distortion does not disrupt the metallic bonding
Lustrous because the delocalised electrons cause the reflection of light
Ionic bonds are a result of two oppositely charged ions being bonded due to
electrostatic attraction. Ionic bonds may conduct electricity in an aqueous state
as there are free-moving ions able to carry an electrical charge.
A covalent bond joins two non-metals through the sharing of electrons. Because
this bond is an intermolecular one, it is very weak and makes for a lower boiling
and melting point.
19
Covalent Molecular
- All the diatomic gases such as oxygen, hydrogen, chlorine, fluorine
and nitrogen.
20
Covalent Lattices
- Carbon exists as diamond which is a three-dimensional lattice and as
graphite which is a two-dimensional lattice
- The semi-metals B, Si, Ge, As, Sb, and Te closely approximate to
covalent lattices though their bonding electrons are not as firmly
localized as in diamond.
This has already been covered in previous dot points on pages 12, 16-18. Below
is a summary:
Property
Metallic Crystal
Ionic Crystal
Covalent
Network
Crystal
Covalent
molecular
crystal
Chemical Bonding
Metallic
Ionic
Covalent
Covalent
Melting Point
High
High
Very high
Low
Electrical
Conductivity
Solid: high
Liquid: high
Solid: nil
Liquid: high
Other Properties
Malleable
Ductile
Lustrous
Hard
Brittle
Very Hard
Brittle
Soft, brittle
Examples
Copper
Aluminium
Sodium Chloride
Zinc Oxide
Silicon dioxide
Silicon carbide
Ice
Sucrose
Fractional distillation is used to separate the components of crude oil. Crude oil is
separated into refinery gas, petrol, naphtha, kerosene, diesel, oils and bitumen.
The main property used to separate these components is their boiling points.
Modern separation involves piping crude oil through hot furnaces. It is hot at the
bottom and cool at the top. The crude oil separates into fractions according to
weight and boiling point. The lightest fractions which include petrol and LPG,
vaporize and rise to the top. Heavier liquids (with higher boiling points) separate
lower down.
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individual molecules and are not free, therefore not electrical or heat conductivity
in any state (unless the substance reacts in water to produce ions). They have
strong intramolecular bonds but weak intermolecular bonds which indicate low
melting and boiling points and also make them soft solids, liquids or gases.
Ionic Ions are tightly bound in lattice, therefore nonconductor in solid state. However in molten state the
ions are able to move which allows for electrical/heat
conductivity. They have a strong lattical structure which
indicates strong intermolecular bonds which means
high melting and boiling points. This also indicates that
the substances are hard. The lattice structure also
shows that the substance is brittle because distortion
will cause repulsion in like charges causing it to break.
23
NOTE: In order to answer any question that tells you to identify the
advantages/ disadvantages/ limitations etc of a model:
First identify what type of substance it is (eg ionic, covalent molecular
etc.).
Then recall the properties of those substances and see if the model
shows those properties. If it does it is an advantage, if it doesnt it is a
limitation.
+1
-1
-2
-3
NH4+ ammonium
OH- hydroxide
SiO32- silicate
PO43- phosphate
Hydronium H3O+
NO3- nitrate
C22- carbide
PO33- phosphite
ClO3- chlorate
O22- peroxide
MnO4permanganate
S22- disulfide
Carbonate CO32-
24
Chromate CrO42Hydrogen
Phosphate HPO42
Sulfate SO42-
25