Electrical DC Machines DR Af-Bati

P a g e |1
ELECTRICALMACHINES
REFERENCES:
1. D.BROWN&E.P.HAMILTONELECTROMECHANICALENERGYCONVERSIONMACMILLAN,
NY1984.
2. H.COTTONADVANCEDELECTRICALTECHNOLOGYPITMAN,LONDON1967.
3. A.R.DANIELSINTRODUCTIONTOELECTRICALMACHINESMACMILLAN,LONDON1976.
4. A.DRAPERELECTRICALCIRCUITSINCLUDINGMACHINESLONGMAN,LONDON1972.
5. A.DRAPERELECTRICALMACHINES2NDEDITION,LONGMAN,LONDON.
6. A.E.FITZGERALD,D.E.HIGGINBOTTOM,&A.GABRIELBASICELECTRICALENGINEERING
5THED.MCGRAWHILL,NY1981.
7. A.E.FITZGERALD,C.KINGSLEY,&S.D.UMANSELECTRICALMACHINERY,4THED.
MCGRAWHILL,TOKYO1983.
8. J.HINDMARSHELECTRICALMACHINESANDTHEIRAPPLICATIONS4THED.PERGAMON,
OXFORD1984.
9. E.HUGHESELECTRICALTECHNOLOGYLONGMANS,LONDON.
10. G.MCPHERSONANINTRODUCTIONTOELECTRICALMACHINESANDTRANSFORMERS
WILEY,NY1981.
11. S.A.NASARELECTRICMACHINESANDELECTROMECHANICSMCGRAWHILL(SCHAUM),
NY1981.
12. S.A.NASAR&L.E.UNNEWEHRELECTROMECHANICSANDELECTRICMACHINES,2NDED.
WILEY,NY1983.
13. J.ROSENBLATT&M.H.FRIEDMANDIRECTANDALTERNATINGCURRENTMACHINERY2ND
ED.MERRILL,COLOMBUSOHIO1984.
14. Theraja Bl, Theraja Ak ELECTRICALTECHNOLOGY.
15. A.S.LANGSDORFTHEORYOFALTERNATINGCURRENTMACHINERY2NDED.MCGRAW
HILL,NY1955.DCMACHINESONLY:
16. A.E.CLAYTON&N.M.HANCOCKTHEPERFORMANCEANDDESIGNOFDIRECTCURRENT
MACHINES3RDED.PITMAN,LONDON1959.
17. M.G.SAY&E.O.TAYLORDIRECTCURRENTMACHINESPITMAN,LONDON1980.
ElectricalMachinesNotesDr.AFBATI
Page1
P a g e |2
CHAPTER1:PRINCIPLEOFOPERATION
1.1SOMEBASICRULES
Righthandscrewrule(crossproductoperationinvectoralgebra)
A1XA2=A3
A1,A2,andA3arevectors.RotateRHfingersfromthedirectionofthefirstvector,A1,tothe
directionofthesecondvector,A2,throughthesmallangle(<180o)betweenthem;thedirection
ofA3isthengivenbytheextendedRHthumb.Inourapplications,themagneticfieldBisalways
thesecondvector.
Givenastraightconductorlyinginamagneticfield,andorientedperpendiculartothedirection
ofthefield.Let
B=magneticfluxdensity(alsocalledmagneticinduction),[T=tesla=weber/m2];
L=activelengthofconductor,[m].u
Inducedvoltage(emf):E=B.L.u.sinvolts
u=speedofconductorperpendiculartoitslength[m/s];
=smallanglefromutoB.
DirectionofE:RHscrewrulefromutoB.
Developedforce:Fd=B.I.Lnewtons[N]
I=currentthroughconductor,[A].
DirectionofFd:RHscrewrulefromItoB.
Page2
P a g e |3
1.2Singleconductor
ConsiderastraightconductormovingatauniformspeeduinauniformmagneticfieldB,and
carryingacurrentI.Let
L=activelength(i.e.lengthofconductorsegmentimmersedinthefield);
Fm=appliedmechanicalforce,[N].
u&BgiveE=B.L.uandI&BgiveFd=B.I.L
E.I=(B.L.u).I=(B.I.L).u=Fd.uE.I=Fd.u=Pc=conversionpower
Note:Becausethespeeduisconstant,FdandFmmustbeequalandopposite(otherwisethere
wouldbeaccelerationordeceleration).
E.Iiselectricalpower,andFd.u(Fm.u)ismechanicalpower.
IindirectionofE;Fdoppositetou.IoppositetoE;FdinDirectionofu.
Generationaction.Motoraction
Page3
P a g e |4
V=EI.RV=E+I.R
Pin =
Wm Fm S
=
Pin=V.I=(E+I.R).I
t
t
=Fd.u=Pc=E.I+I2.R=Pc+Pcu
Pcu=copperlosses
Pout=V.I=(EI.R).IPout=
Wm Fm S
=
t
t
=E.II2.R=PcPcu=Fd.u=Pc
=PinPcuPin=Pout+Pcu
PinPout=PcuPinPout=Pcu
1.3Wireloop
ConsidernowawirelooprotatingatauniformspeedinamagneticfieldB.Conductorsa
andbaretheactivepartsoftheloop;theremainingpartsareendconnectionsandleads.
Page4
P a g e |5
Fda=FdbzeroresultantforceTd=developedtorque
iindirectionofe;Tdopposesrotationiopposese;Tdaidsrotation
Generatoraction.Motoraction.
KVL:e=ea+eb=loopemf
1.4Sliprings
Slipringsandbrushesmaybeusedtomakeelectricalcontactwitharotatingloop.Sliprings
rotatewithloop,whilebrushesarestationarytogiveslidingcontact.Aslipringandabrushfor
eachterminal.
Page5
P a g e |6
Theinducedemfisalternating,andthedevelopedtorqueoscillates(aboutthevertical
position).Clearly,slipringsarenotsuitablefordcmachines(theyareusedinacmachines).
1.5Commutator
Acommutatorisaconductingringsplitintosegments;eachsegmentiselectricallyconnected
tooneterminaloftheloop.Itismountedontheshaft,butiselectricallyinsulatedfromit.The
brushesarestationaryandmakeslidingcontactwiththesegments.
A2isalwayspositive;A1isalwaysnegative:>>>etisalwayspositive,&Tdisalways
CW(whendirectcurrentsuppliedtobrushes),butemf&currentwithinlooposcillate.
AlthoughetandTdarenowunidirectional(i.e.remaininthesamedirectionorsense),theydo
notrepresentsteadydcoperationbecausetheyfluctuate:eachismaximumwhentheloopis
inposi on0,andzerowhenitisinposi on2.
1.6Multipleloops
Moreuniformdcoperationisachievedbyusinganumberofloopsdisplacedfromeachother
inspace.Theemfsadd(seriesconnection),andthedevelopedtorquesaideachother.Asthe
numberofloopsisincreased,idealdcoperationisapproached.
Page6
P a g e |7
2loops4loops
1.7Magneticcircuit
Themagneticfieldmaybeobtainedbymeansofpermanentmagnets(PM),or,more
commonly,bymeansofelectromagnets(fieldcoilswithironcores).
Permanentmagnetelectromagnetpracticalconstruction
(withsoftironextension)
Thevalueoftheresultingfluxisdeterminedbythemmf(magneticmotiveforce)(ofthePMor
electromagnet)andthemagneticreluctanceinthepathoftheflux.Ironhasveryhighmagnetic
permeability,sothatitistheairgapinthepathofthefluxthatlimitsitsvalue.Theairgapmust
thereforebemadeshorttoincreasetheeffectiveflux.Theairgapcannotbeavoided
completely(why?).
Page7
P a g e |8
Aircorecylindricalironcoreslottedironcore(armature)
1.8Multiplepoles
Adcmachinecanhave2,4,6,8,.Poles(anevennumberwhy?)
2p=numberofpoles;(i.e.p=numberofpole
pairs)
Onerevolu on=360mechanicaldegrees;
Onepolepair=360electricaldegrees;
Electricalangle=pXmechanicalangle;
Polepitch=180oelectrical=360omech/2p.
Eacharmatureloopisplacedoveronepole
pitch.Electrically,everythingrepeatsaftertwo
polepitches.
1.9loopemf
D=diameterofthearmature[m];
L=activelengthofarmature[m];
n=rotationalspeed[rps=revolutionpersecond];
u=speed=Dn[m/s];
r=angularspeed=2n[rad/s].
Ap=armaturesurfaceareacorrespondingtoonepolepitch=DL/2p[m2].
=fluxperpole[wb=weber];totalmagneticfluxthroughpoleface:sameforallpoles;
B=airgapfluxdensity[T=tesla=wb/m2];normalfieldatarmaturesurface;
Page8
P a g e |9
Bav=averageairgapfluxdensityy[T].
=ApB.dA;Bav=/Ap
uxdensityBisdistributeedaroundtheperipheryofthearmaatureasshow
wn
Theactualairgapflu
onstantoverrapolepitch
h.Considerssideaoftthe
below.TheaverageggapfluxdensityBavisco
p;theinstan
ntaneousem
mfis
wireloop
ea=B.L.u(ea(t)haasthesamewaveshapeasB)
Theaverageemfinducedinsideeais
Ea=Bav.LL.u(constaantoveralteernatepolepitches)
Stator(fieeld)
Airgap
Motion>>>>
B
Rotor
(armaturre)
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
P
Page9
P a g e |10
Averagecommutatedemf
Wireloop:Eloop=Ea+Eb=2Bav.L.u=2.D.L.n.Bav=(2.D.L.n)(/Ap)
=4p.n.=(2P.r.)/(=/t=2/(1/2pn))
Conductor(onesideofloop):
Econ=1/2.Eloop=Bav.L.u=.D.L.n.Bav=2p.n.=(P.r.)/
Coil(N=numberofturns=numberofloopsinseries):
Ecoil=NxEloop=2N.Bav.L.u=2.D.L.N.n.Bav=4p.N.n.=(2P.N.r.)/(=N/t)
1.10looptorque
Theinstantaneousforceonsideais
fa=B.Ia.L
ThenormalfieldBvariesoverapolepitch,andhencefa
alsovaries.Theaverageforceonsideais
Fa=Bav.Ia.L
Bav,andhenceFa,areconstantoverapolepitch
correspondingtoagivenpole.Moreover,becauseof
commutation,Iareversesoverthenextpolepitchsothat
Faremainsinthesamesensearoundtheaxisofthe
armature.Theresultantforceduetoallarmature
conductorsiszero,butthereisdevelopedtorquebecause
allforcesactinthesamesensearoundtheaxis.
Averagedevelopedtorque
WireloopTloop=Fa.D/2+Fb.D/2=D/2(Bav.Ia.L+Bav.Ib.L)=D.L.I.Bav[Nm]
WhereIa=Ib,>>>>Tloop=D.L.I(/Ap)=2p.I./
Page10
P a g e |11
Coil(Nturns):Tcoil=NXTloop=D.L.N.I.Bav=2p.N.I./
Forconstantrotationalspeedn,andassumingnofriction,thedevelopedtorqueisequalto
theappliedmechanicaltorque.
1.11Conversionpower
Adcmachinemayrunasageneratororasamotor.Ineachofthetwomodesofoperation,
thereisinducedemfanddevelopedtorque(givenbytheequa onsofsec on1.9and1.10).
Whatdeterminesthemode(generatorormotor)isthedirectionalrelationshipbetweenE,and
I,andbetweenTdandn:
Generatormode:IwithE,Tdoppositen;
Motormode:IoppositeE,Tdwithn.
Recallthecoilequa onsofsec on1.9and1.10;E=EcoilandTd=Tcoil,wecanwrite
E.I=(4p.N.n.).I=4p.N.r..I/2=(2p.N.I./).r=Td.r
Thisrepresentselectromechanicalenergyconversion.Theconversionpowerisdefinedas
Pc=E.I=Td.r{E.IontheelectricalsideTd.ronthemechanicalside
Generatoraction
R=resistanceofthecoil
Tm=mechanicaldrive
torque
Mechi/p:Pin=r.Td=Pc
Electo/p:Pout=V.I=(EI.R).I=E.II2.R=PcPcu
>>>>Pout=PinPcu
Page11
P a g e |12
Motoraction
Electi/p:Pin=V.I=(E+I.R).I=E.I+I2.R=Pc+Pcu
Mecho/p:Pout=r.Td=Pc
>>>>>Pout=:PinPcu
Moregenerally,Pout=:Pinlosses
Wherethelossesinclude(inadditiontocopperlosses)mechanicallosses(frictionandwindage),
andironlosses(hysteresisandeddycurrent).
Example1:
GiventhattheairgapfieldisdistributedsinusoidallywithamaximumfluxdensityofBm.Show
that=Bm.D.L/pandBav=2.Bm/
Solution:Bav=1/
B .sind=
=Bav.Ap=
. .
cos =
. .
Tutorial1:
Giventhattheairgapfieldisdistributedasshowninfig.1overapolepitchyp.Showthat
= Bm.D.L/pandBav=.Bmwhere=
Bm
ya
yp
Fig.1
Page12
P a g e |13
Example2:
Thearmatureofadcmachineis80cmlongandhasadiameterof50cm.Themaximumair
gapfluxdensityis1.5T.Thepolearccovers70%ofthepolepitch.Thearmaturespeedis500
rpm.
(a) Ifthemachinehas2poles,findthefluxperpoleandtheaverageairgapfluxdensitywhen
thefielddistribu onis(i)sinusoidal,(ii)asinfig.1ofT.1.
(b) Repeatpartaforasixpolemachine.
Forallcasesofpartsaandb,findtheaverageemf,developedtorque,andconversion
powerforafullpitchwirelooponthearmature&carrying9A.current.
Solution:
a(i)Sinusoidalfielddistribution
Bav=
=0.955T
=Bav.Ap=0.955X
. .
Eloop=4p.n.=4X1X
=0.6Wb.
=20Volts
Tloop= .I.=2x9x0.6/=3.437N.m
Pc=r.Tloop=2X
X3.437=180Wa s
a(ii)fielddistribu onasinfig.1
Bav=.Bm= .Bm=0.7X1.5=1.05T
= .Bm.D.L/p=0.66Wb.
Eloop=4.p.n.=22Volts
Tloop= .I.=3.78N.m
Pc=r.Tloop=198Wa s
b(i)when2p=6
=0.2Wb.
Page13
P a g e |14
Eloop=20Volts
Tloop=3.437N.m
Pc=180Watts
b(ii)
=0.22Wb.
Eloop=22Volts
Tloop=3.78N.m
Pc=198Wa s
Tutorial2:
Thearmatureofa4poledcmachineisrota ngat840rpm.Thearmaturelengthand
diameterare40cmand30cmrespec vely.Thefluxperpoleis65mWb.Fora5turnfull
pitchedarmaturecoil:
a.Findtheaverageemfinducedinthecoil.
b.Whatcurrentmustflowthroughthecoilifitistodevelopatorqueof8.0N.m?whatis
theresultingconversionpower?
Answer(36.4V,7.25A.;264W.)
CHAPTER2:construction
Electricalmachinesareessentiallyelectricalandmagneticcircuitscoupledtoeachotherto
developemfsandtorques.Actualmachinescanvarygreatlyindetails.
2.1Materials
a.Iron:highmagneticpermeability>>minimizereluctanceofmagneticcircuit>>highworking
fields.
Highgradesteel(e.g.siliconsteels)formagneticcores.Lowergradesteels(e.g.castiron,cast
steel,mildsteel)forconstructionalparts.Relativepermeabilityofthelinearpartofthe
magnetization(BH)curveisoftheorderof1000,andishigherforhighergradesteels.
Page14
P a g e |15
Saturationlimitsmaximumfluxdensityin
ironto2Torless;theresul ngaverage
gapfluxdensityisthenaround0.8Tfor
practicalindustrialmachines.
b.copper:highelectricconductivity>>>
minimizeresistanceofelectriccircuits>>
highworkingcurrents.Aluminumis
seldomusedbecauseofspacelimitations;
(whyissilvernotusedeitheraslongasits
resistivityisthelowest?)
c.Air:airgapinpathoffluxnecessaryto
allowmotion.
d.Insulatingmaterials:theyarenecessarytoinsulateconductorsfromeachotherandfrom
adjacentironparts(whicharealsoconducting).
Theeconomicfactor:machinesaregenerallydesignedtoyieldtherequiredperformanceat
minimumcost.
Cost:costofmaterials+costofmanufacture.
Requiredperformance:describedintermsofoperatingvoltage,current,power,torque,speed,
efficiency,weight,volume,reliability,temperaturerise,function,noise,pollution,etc.
2.2Losses
Powerlossesindcmachinesinclude:copperlosses(I2.Rlossesinconductors);ironlosses(
hysteresis&eddycurrents);frictionandwindage.Alllossesareundesirablebecausethey
representwastedpower,andcausethetemperaturetorise.
Materialsretaintheirdesiredproperties(electrical,magnetic,andmechanical)withinspecific
temperaturelimits.Temperatureriseismostcriticaltoinsulatingmaterials:theirinsulation
capabilitydeterioratesatsucientlyhightemperatures(around100oC,dependingonthe
particularinsulator),andultimatelybreaksdowncausingshortcircuitsandpossiblytotal
machinefailure.Tolimittemperaturerise,themachinedesignmustminimizelosses,and
provideforefficientoperation.
Page15
P a g e |16
A
ActualDCMachine
dthroughth
hevolumeofftheconducctororironccore,butcan
nbe
Ingeneral,heatisgenerated
dissip
patedonlyth
hroughitssu
urface.Toim
mprovecooliingofsuchp
parts,theirssurfacesmusstbe
madeelarger,whichmeansth
hatmachinesbecomebiigger.
Changingmagnetticfieldsind
duceemfsnotonlyinco
oppercondu
uctors(which
hisdesirablee),
butalsoinironparts.Asiron
nhasarelativelysmallreesistivity,currentswillcirculateinitt.
Theseeeddycurrrentsdistorrtthefieldd
distributionaand,moreim
mportant,yieeldI2.Rlossses
intheeiron.Tolim
mittheselosses,andtheeresultingteemperaturerise,someccoresaremaade
ofsteeellaminatio
ons(insteadofsolidsteeel);theseareepunchedsheets(orstaampings)aro
ound
0.51.0mmthickkwithinsulattedfacets(paperorsuitablecoa ng)stackeda
n
andbolted
togetther.Thelam
minationsarestackedinthedirectio
onoftheind
ducedemfsothatthe
insulaatedsurface
eswillbeintthewayofcirculatingcu
urrents.
Stackkingfactor=
0.90.97
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page16
P a g e |17
NPARTSOFA
ADCMACH
HINE(seefigu
ureonpagepreviouspaage)
MAIN
2.3Sttator(field)
Yoke:lowergradesteel;sup
pportspoless;returnpathforflux;en
nclosesmachine.
Poless:coreandshoes;highggradesteel.Polecorem
mayormayn
notbelaminated.Polesh
hoes
areusuallylamin
nated(fluxfluctuationdu
uetorotatin
ngarmatureslots).Poleshoes(i)red
duce
reluctanceofthe
eairgap(byincreasingittsarea);(ii)improvefluxxdensitydisstributioninthe
airgaap;and(iii)p
providemechanicalsupp
portforthefieldcoils.
Fieldcoils:provid
dethemmffforthemain
nworkingflu
ux.Theremaaybemoretthanonesettof
coils.i.e.2ormo
orecoilsoneeachpole.TThecoilsofo
onesetareid
denticaltoeeachother,aand
areco
onnectedto
ogetherelecttrically.
2.4Rotor(armatture)
Theaarmatureism
madeofhigh
hgradesteeellamination
nspunchedaandstackedtogetherto
o
formacylindero
ordrum.Itismountedontheshaft((directlyforsmallmachines,andby
mean
nsofaspide
erforlargerm
machines).Itmayhaveradialandaxxialventilatiionductsforr
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page17
P a g e |18
Cooling.Thearmaturewindingsareplacedinslotsaroundthearmatureperiphery.The
conductorsareheldinplacebywedges,orbybandswrappedaroundthearmature.The
slotsaresometimesskewedtoreducenoise.
2.5Airgap
Theairgapisthespacebetweenstatorandrotorneededtoallowrelativemotionbetween
them(i.eitismechanicallynecessary).Magnetically,itintroducesahighreluctanceinthepath
oftheworkingflux(mostofthefieldmmfisconsumedintheairgap);itisthereforemadeas
shortaspossible,typically0.55.0mm.Thearmaturesurfaceandthepoleshoesfacingit
requireprecisemachiningtoavoidasymmetryandvibration.
2.6Commutator
Thefunctionofthecommutatoristointerfacebetweenthealternatingcurrentsandemfsin
therotatingarmaturecoilsontheoneside,andthedirectcurrentandvoltageatthemachine
terminals.Itismadeupofcoppersegmentsinsulatedfromeachotherandmountedonthe
shaft(i.eitrotateswiththerotor)inacylindricalform.Vringsholdthebarsinplace.Theleads
ofeacharmaturecoilareconnectedtorisers(eachofthetwoleadsofacoilgoestoadifferent
commutatorsegment).
Brushesarecarbonorgraphiteblocksmountedinstationaryholderswithspringpressureto
maintaingoodelectricalcontactwiththerotatingcommutatorsegments.Thebrusheswear
outwithtimeandmustbereplacedregularly.
Thecommutatorisacriticalpartofthemachine:frombrushes,carbonfillingsanddirt
accumulatecausingcurrentleakagebetweensegments.Intermittentcontactbetweenbrushes
andsegmentsoftenleadstosparking,whichmaybecomequiteserious.
2.7Mechanicalitems
Shaft;spider;bearings(withgreasepackorlubricationsystem).
Bolts;clamps,spacers,brackets.
Page18
P a g e |19
Enclosuree(frame);ve
entilationwindows,liftin
ng
eye;basee.
Terminalbox;shaftm
mountedfan
n;brushgear;etc.
2.8Small(miniature
e)machines
Verysmaalldcmotorsareo enmadewithPMfields.Th
he2polemachineshow
wnhasan
annularm
magnetthattmaybecrossmagnetizzedasshown
n,oritmayberadiallymagnetized
d.
Themagnetfitswith
hinasteelho
ousingwhichprovidestheyoke.Theesteelblockksinthe4po
ole
dbyPMs(attextracost)).Forsuchm
miniaturemaachines,the
machineshownmayybereplaced
armatureemayhavetthreeslots(andthreeteeeth)assho
own,oritmaayhavefiveslotsandteeeth.
ThecurreentexcitedffieldshownmayberepllacedbyaPM.Notecarefullytheco
onnectionoffthe
threearm
maturecoilstothethreeesegmentco
ommutator;;alsonoteth
helocationo
ofthebrushes.
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page19
P a g e |20
2.9Machineratings
Thenameplateofamachineservestoidentifythemachine.
Itgivesratedvoltage,current,power,speed,andpossiblyother
datausefultotheuser.Themachineratingsarethevaluesof
thevariousparametersforwhichthemachinewillrun
continuouslywithoutoverheatingorotherdamage.Inpractice,theratingscanbeexceededfor
shortperiods.If,however,theratingsareexceededforconsiderableperiodsoftime,there
maybepermanentdamage,particularlytoinsulation.
Machinesareusuallymanufacturedinstandardframesizes.Theyalsocomeindifferent
enclosurestosuitvariousenvironmentalconditionsandduties(e.g.dripproof,splashproof,
andsubmersible).
Allmaterialsaresubjecttophysicallimitations,i.e.limitsbeyondwhichtheynolongerretain
theirdesiredphysicalcharacteristics.Properdesignanduseofmachines(andindeedall
apparatus)shouldensurethatnoneoftheconstituentmaterialsexceedsitsphysical
limitationsundernormaloperatingconditions.
Toselectanappropriatemachineforhissystem,theusermustknowclearlytherequirements
ofthatapplication(e.g.speed,voltage,power,etc.)andtheconditionsunderwhichthe
machinewillberunning.Hewillthenbeabletoselectthemosteconomicalmachinethat
meetstheserequirementsandconditions.
Chapter3:Armaturewindings
Thecoilsonthearmatureareconnectedtoeachotherandtothecommutatorsegmentsto
formwhatiscalledanarmaturewinding.
3.1Coildetails
Coilsides:activepartsofcoil;placedinsideslots.
Coilspan:separationbetweenthetwocoilsidesalongthearmaturesurface(i.e.thearc
coveredbythecoil).
Fullpitchedcoil:coilspanexactlyequaltopolepitch.
Chordedorshortpitchedcoil:coilspanslightlyless(orpossiblymore)thananexactpolepitch.
Page20
P a g e |21
Allsectionsofthecoilareinsulated:fromeachother,fromadjacentcoils,andfromcoreiron.
Thelevelofinsulationatanypointisdeterminedbythepotentialdifferencebeinginsulated.
Coilsdesignedforlowvoltageandhighcurrenthavefewturnsoflargesections;conversely,
coilsforhighvoltageandlowcurrenthavemanyturnsofsmallsections.Largemachineshave
fewturns/coil,possiblyonlyone,madeofpreformedcopperbars.Smallmachinescoilsare
madeofmanyturnsofflexiblewirewoundandbenttoshape.
3.2Twolayerwindings
Machinewindingaremadeintwolayers:foreachcoil,onecoilsideisplacedinthetophalfof
itsslot(toplayer),andthesecondcoilsideisplacedinthebottomhalfofitsslot(bottom
layer).Thismakesiteasytoarrangeendconnections(front&back)inaregularmanner;all
coilsarethenidenticalsothatthewindingissymmetricalandcompact.Thereareatleasttwo
coilsidesineachslot,oneinthetoplayerandoneinbottomlayer.Inlargemachines,there
maybe2,3,4,etc.coilsidesperslot.
Forexample,ifwehave3coilsides/slot/layerand2turns/coilthen:
Numberofconductors/slot/layer=3X2=6
Conductors/slot=2X6=12(also,wecansay6coilsides/slot)
3.3Somenumbers
C=totalnumberofcoilsonarmature;N=numberofturnsineachcoil;
NC=totalnumberofloops;Z=totalnumberofarmatureconductors=2NC
2C=Z/N=totalnumberofcoilsides;S=totalnumberofslotsinarmature;
Z/S=2NC/S=numberofconductors/slot;2C/S=numberofcoilsides/slot;
NC/S=numberofconductors/slot/layer;C/S=numberofcoilsides/slot/layer;
S/2P=numberofslots/pole=polepitchmeasuredinslots.
Page21
P a g e |22
3.4Interconnectionofcoils
Allthecoilsonthearmatureareconnectedtogethertoformasingleclosedcircuit(calledthe
armaturewinding):startingwithanycoil,itsendisconnectedtothebeginningofasecondcoil;
theendofthesecondcoilisconnectedtothebeginningofathirdcoil,andsoon.Thisis
repeateduntilthelastcoil,Cthcoil,isreached;itsendisconnectedtothebeginningofthefirst
coil,sothatthecircuitisclosed.Theinterconnectionsbetweenthecoilsaremadeonthe
commutator:thesecondleadofthe1stcoilandthefirstleadofthe2ndcoilaresoldered
togetherontheriserofonecommutatorsegment;thesecondleadofthe2ndcoilandthefirst
leadofthe3rdcoilaresolderedtogetherontheriserofanothercommutatorbsegment;finally,
thesecondleadofthelast(Cth)coilandthefirstleadofthe1stcoilaresolderedtotheriserof
onecommutatorsegment.
123C1CCoils
Commutatorsegments
Afulllineindicatesacoilsidelyinginthetoplayer,andadashedlineindicatesacoilsidelying
inthebottomlayer.Arrowsoncoilsidesmaybetakentoindicatedirectionofeitherinduced
emforcurrent.
Itshouldberememberedthat
Totalnumberofcommutatorsegments=totalnumberofcoils=C
3.5Windingschemes
Armaturecoilsmaybeinterconnectedaccordingtooneoftwoschemes,givingrisetotwo
typesofarmaturewindings,lapandwave.
yC=commutatorpitch=numberofcommutatorsegmentsadvancedfromthefirstcoilleadto
thesecond(sameforallcoils).
Page22
P a g e |23
Lapw
windingwavvewinding
3.5.1Lap
pWinding
Inlapwiindings,the
etwocoilendsareconneectedtoadjacentcomm
mutatorsegm
ments;i.e.iffthe
leadfrom
msideaisconnectedttocommutattorsegmenttx,thentheeleadfromsidebis
connecteedtosegmentx1.Thu
us
yC=1
Thewind
dingiscontin
nueduntilalllcoilsaretrraversedupttothelastcoilC,whichthenclosesson
thefirstccoil.Alapwindingcanb
bemadetofi
fitanynumb
berofcoilsandpoles,Cand2p.Th
he
choiceoffprogressive
eorretrogreessivewindin
ngshasnosignificantefffect.
ProgressivveReetrogressive
YC=1yyC=1
3.5.2Waavewindingg
Inwavew
windings,thetwocoilen
ndsareconn
nectedtoco
ommutatorssegmentsthatare
approxim
matelytwop
polepitchesapart(wheereapolepittchisnowm
measuredinnumberof
segmentsorcoils,i..e.C/2p).TThecommuttatorpitchissthen
yC=(C1
1)/P>>>>C=p.yC1
Aftertravversingallpolepairs,thewindingsh
houldreturn
ntoacommutatorsegm
mentadjacen
ntto
theinitiaalone,eitherrtheonejusstafterit(progressive),,ortheonejustbeforeit
(retrogreessive).
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page23
P a g e |24
dingiscontin
nueduntilalllcoilsaretrraversedwiththelastco
oilclosingon
nthefirstcoil.
Thewind
Unliketh
helapwindin
ng,thewaveewindingcannotbemad
detofitjusttanynumbeerofcoilsand
poles:intheabovee
equation,theevaluesofC
Candpmu
ustbesuchtthatyCturn
nsouttobean
integer.((Ifawavew
windingistobeplacedonanunsuitaablearmaturre,somecoiilpositionsm
must
beleftou
ut;formech
hanicalbalan
nce,dummycoilsareplaacedintheseepositions(dummycoilsare
notconn
nectedelectrrically).
yC
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page24
P a g e |25
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page25
P a g e |26
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page26
P a g e |27
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page27
P a g e |28
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page28
P a g e |29
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page29
P a g e |30
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page30
P a g e |31
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page31
P a g e |32
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page32
P a g e |33
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page33
P a g e |34
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page34
P a g e |35
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page35
P a g e |36
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page36
P a g e |37
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page37
P a g e |38
EleectricalMach
hinesNotesDr.AFB
BATI
Page38
P a g e |39
3.6Parallelpaths
Fromtheprevioussection,itcanbeseenthatthearmaturecoilsformaclosedwindingthatis
tappedbythebrushesatcertainpoints.Ineffect,thebrushesdividesthewindingintoa
numberofparallelpathseachofwhichiscomposedofanumberofcoilsinseries.Theterminal
currentisdividedamongtheparallelpaths.Atanymomentduringoperation,thereareshort
circuitedcoils;thesearenotincludedinthepaths.Thecircuitdiagramsforthelapandwave
windingsareshownbelow.Ineachcase,theterminalvoltageisequaltothevoltageofthe
individualparallelpaths.
Fromthesequencediagraminpage29forthelapwdg.,itcanbeseenthatallthebrushesare
necessary:ifanybrushisremoved,therewillbeopposingemfsinseries(whichwouldcancel
out).Thusthenumberofbrushesisequaltothenumberofpoles,andhencethenumberof
parallelpathsisalsoequaltothenumberofpoles:
Lapwdg:2a=2p,>>>a=p,2a=numberofparallelpaths;a=numberofpairsofparallelpaths
Fromthesequencediagraminpage36forthewavewdg,ontheotherhand,itcanbeseenthat
onlytwobrushesarereallynecessary;alternatebrushesareconnectedtoeachotherinternally
throughshortcircuitedcoils.Thus2brushesmaybedisconnectedandremovedwithout
affectinginducedemfsandcurrents.Inotherwords,thebrushesdividethewdgintotwo
parallelpathsonly:
Wavewdg:2a=2,>>>>>a=1.
Theextrabrushesmayberemoved,butinpractice,theyaresometimeskepttoobtainbetter
currentdistributionoverthecommutator.
Generalsymbolicrepresentation
Page39
P a g e |40
3.7Comparisonoflapandwavewindings
Alapwdghas2pparallelpathsandmusthave2pbrushes(orbrushgroups).Awavewdghas
twoparallelpathsandrequiresonlytwobrushes(orbrushgroups),butitcanhave2pbrushes.
Alapwdgcanbemadetofitanynumberofcoilsandpoles.Awavewdgcanbefittedonlyifthe
numberofcoilsandpolesyieldanintegercommutatorpitchyC(=(C 1)/p).
Abrushonalapwdggenerallyshortcircuitsonecoilduringcommutation.Inawavewdg
havingonlytwobrushes,eachbrushshortcircuitspcoilsinseries;inawavewdghaving2p
brushes,acoilisshortcircuitedbytwobrushesinseries.
Assumenowthatagivenwdgcanbeconnectedineitherlaporwave.Thecoilemfandcurrent
arethesameinbothcases.Thelapconnectedwdgwillhaveahighterminalcurrentandalow
terminalvoltage,whilethewaveconnectedwdgwillhavealowterminalcurrentandahigh
terminalvoltage(for2p 4).Thetwowdgswillhavethesamepower.
Conversely,assumeamachineistohaveaspecifiedterminalvoltageandaspecifiedterminal
current.Ifitisconnectedinlap,itwillhavealowcurrentpercoil,andahighvoltagepercoil;
thereforeeachcoilwillhavemanyturnsofsmallcrosssection,andahigherlevelofinsulation
isneeded.Ifitisconnectedinwave,itwillhaveahighcurrentpercoilandalowvoltageper
coil;thereforethecoilswillhaverelativelyfewturnsandlargesections,andarelativelylower
levelofinsulationisneeded.Inthisrespect,wavewdgsarebetterthanlapwdgsbecausethey
allowforbettercoolingofwdgs,andbecausetheyhavehigherspacefactors(spacefactor=
copperarea/totalslotarea).Ingeneral,wavewdgsareusedinalmostallmachinesupto
50KW,andinallhighvoltagemachines.Lapwdgsareusedmostlyinlargemachineshavinglow
voltage/highcurrentratings.
3.8Equalizers
Inlapwdgs,eachpathisassociatedwithapairofpoles.Thusifthereisasymmetryinthe
magneticcircuit(duetowearofbearings,oreccentricityofshaft),theemfsinducedinthe
pathswillnotallexactlyequaltoeachother.Unequalemfsconnectedinparallelgiveriseto
circulatingcurrentsthatcanbequitelarge,causingheavyandunnecessaryheating.
Toreducethiseffect,pointsthatshouldhavethesamevoltageareconnectedtoeachotherby
meansofequalizers(orequalizingconnections,orequalizingrings).Suchpointsarelocated
twopolepitchesapart.Eachequalizingringisconnectedtoppointsinalternatepaths.
Inthewavewdg,thereareonlytwopathsthroughthearmature.Thecoilsofeachpathare
distributeduniformlyaroundthearmature,andhencecoverallpolepairs.Anyasymmetryin
Page40
P a g e |41
themagneticcircuitwillhavethesameeffectonbothpaths,sothatthetwoinducedemfs
willbeidentical.Thuswavewdgsdonotrequireequalizers,whichisanotheradvantageofwave
wdgs.
I
RICRVAtnoloadI=0andIC=
E1E2
3.9Multiplexwindings
Thelapandwavewdgsdescribedsofararecalledsimpleorsimplexwdgs.Duplexwdgsare
composedoftwosimplexwdgsinterleavedaroundthearmature,andconnectedsoastohave
twiceasmanyparallelpaths:
Duplexlapwdg:2a=4pDuplexwavewdg:2a=4
a=2pa=2
similarly,theremaybetriplexwdgs,andsoon.Suchmultiplexwdgsarerarelyused.
3.10Armaturecalculations
Considerasymmetricalwdgcomposedof2aiden calparallelpaths.Ithas
C/2acoils/path,Ip
C/acoilsides/paths,
IpVA
Z/2a=NC/aconductor/pathRp
LetEp
Ep=inducedemfineachpath;
Page41
P a g e |42
Ip=currentflowingthrougheachpath;brushIA
Rp=resistanceofeachpath.RppVA
AlsoletEA
VA=armatureterminalvoltage;
IA=armatureterminalcurrent;Theveninequivalentforarmaturewdg
EA=armatureemf=Theveninequivalentemfforarmaturewinding;
Rpp=Theveninequivalentresistanceforarmaturewinding;
RA=totaleffectivearmatureresistance.
ApplyingKVL:
Generator:VA=EAIA.RA
Motor:VA=EA+IA.RA
3.10.1Armatureresistance
Singleloop:Rloop=
Where =resistivityofcopperattheworkingtemperature;IAIA
lm=meanlengthofasingleloop;RARA
A=crosssectionalareaoftheconductor.VAVA
coilRcoil=NxRloop=
EAEA
G
PathRp= XRcoil=
Winding:Rpp= Rp=
GeneratorMotor
Commonsymbolicrepresentationofarmaturewinding
Effectivearmatureresistance:RA=Rpp+Rbrushes+Rcontact;
Rbrushesistheresistanceofthecarbonbrushes.Rcontactistheresistanceofthe
brush/commutatorcontactsurface;itisnonlinear,andisusuallytakenasequivalenttoa
constantvoltdrop(forexample1volt).
Page42
P a g e |43
3.10.2Armatureemf
Theaveragecoilemfderivedinsec on1.9isthesameforallarmaturecoils.Thus,foreach
path
Ep= XEcoil=
n.
Butallpathsareinparallelwitheachother,sothatthearmatureemfisequaltotheindividual
pathemfs:
EA=Ep= XEcoil=
n.=Ke.n.(Ke=
= )
Analternativeexpressioncanbeobtainedintermsofr(=2.n):
EA=(Ke/2)r.=K.r.(K=Ke/2=
3.10.3Torque
AccordingtoKCL,theterminalcurrentIAisthesumofallpathcurrents:
IA=2aXIp>>>>>>Ip=IA/2a
Apathiscomposedofcoilsinseries,sothatthepathcurrentIpflowsthroughtheindividual
coils:
Icoil=Ip
Theaveragecoiltorquewasderivedinsec on1.19:
Tcoil= N.Icoil.= N.Ip.= .IA.
Thetotalarmaturetorqueisthesumofallcoiltorquesactinginthesamedirectionandaiding
eachother:
T=CXTcoil=
.IA.=K.IA.(K==
asbefore)
3.10.4Conversionpower
Theconversionpowercorrespondingtoelectromechanicalenergyconversioninthemachineis
givenby:
Ontheelectricalside:PC=EA.IA
Page43
P a g e |44
Onthemechanicalside::PC=r.T
NotethatPC=EA.IA=(k.K.IA.).r=r.T
UsingPintodenoteinputpowertothearmature,andPouttodenoteoutputpowerfromthe
armature,wehave:
Generator:Pin=r.T=PC,Pout=VA.IA=EA.IAIA2.RA=PCPCu
Motor:Pin=VA.IA=EA.IA+IA2.RA=PC+PCu,Pout=r.T=PC
PCuisthetotalcopperloss(orohmicloss)inthearmature.
Example3:
A6polemachinehas53slotswith8conductors/slot.Thefluxperpoleis50mWb,andthe
speedis420rpm.Calculate:
1.Thenumberofturnspercoil;
2.Ecoil,EA;
3.Tcoil,T;
4.conversionpower,Ifthewindingis(a)simplelapwinding;
(b)simplewavewinding.
AssumearmaturecurrenttobeIA=50A.
Solution:(a)simplelapwinding
2a=2p=6,C=53,Z=53x8=424conductors,2C=Z/N=2X53=106>N=424/106=4turns/coil
Ecoil=NxEloop=4X4p.n.=16X3X(420/60)X50X103=16.8V.
EA=Ep=(C/2a).Ecoil=53X16.8/6=148.4V.
OrEA=
n.=148.4V.
Tcoil=NXTloop=4X .IA.=3.183N.m
T=C.Tcoil=53X3.183=168.7N.m
Pc=EA.IA=148.4X50=7420W.
Page44
P a g e |45
.(b)Simplewavewinding
2a=2,Ecoil=16.8V.
EA=Ep=53X16.8/2=445.2V.
Tcoil=N.Tloop= .IA.=9.549N.m
T=C.Tcoil=506.11N.m
Pc=EA.IA=22260W.
Tutorial3:
A6pole,1500rpmdcmachineislapwoundwith732ac veconductors,eachcarrying20A.
Thefluxperpoleis30mWb.(a)findIA,EA,TandPc.
.(b)Repeatpart(a)ifthemachineisreconnectedinsimplewave.
Example4:
A10polesimplelapwoundgeneratorisratedat110V.,600A.,and750rpm.Ithasa
windingresistanceof7.2m,andiswoundin163slotswith4coilsides/slotand2
turns/coil.Assumeabrushvoltagedropof1.5V.(a)findtheratedloadpower,(b)findthe
resistance,emf,andterminalvoltagepercoilandperturn,and(c)findthedevelopedtorque
andfluxperpole.
Solution:
Pout=VA.IA=110x600=66KW
2a=2p=10
RP=RAx10=72m
Coilsides=SXcoilsides/slot
2C=163X4=652coilsides
C=326coils
Coils/path=32.6
Page45
P a g e |46
Rcoil=
=72/32.6=2.2m
EA=VA+IA.RA+Vbrushes=110+600X0.0072+2x1.5=117.32V.=Ep
Ecoil=
=117.32/32.6=3.55V.=4pNn>>>>>=7.1mWb.
Vcoil=EcoiIP.Rcoil=3.417V.
Vturn=EturnIP.Rturn=1.7860X1.1X103=1.714V.
T=K.IA.=
.IA.=5x326X2X600X7.1X103/5=884N.m
Tutorial4:
RepeatthesamerequirementinEx.4,ifthefluxandspeedarekeptthesame,forwave
winding.
CHAPTER4THEMAINFIELD
Theoperationofdcmachinesisbasedontheinteractionbetweenthearmatureconductors
andtheairgapfield,whichresultsininducedemfanddevelopedtorque.Themainfieldisthe
fieldproducedbythefieldcoils(orPMs)onthestator.
Tobeabletostudythemainfieldbyitself,weshallassumethereisnoarmaturecurrent,i.e.
themachineisoperatingatnoload.
4.1Mainfielddistribution
Ifthefieldcoilsactalone(i.e.nocurrentinarmatureconductors),thefluxinthedcmachine
willhavethegeneralpattern,suchthatmostofthefluxinthepolecorescrossestheairgapto
linkthearmaturewindings;thisistheusefulfluxperpole.However,someofthefluxlines
completetheirpathswithoutlinkingthearmaturewdg;thisistheleakageflux.
Theusefulfluxisproducedbythemmfofthefieldcoils.ThemmfperpoleMfisthesumof
themmfsofallcoilsplacedononepole(whichmaybeone,ortwo,ormore).Thus
Mf=Nf.IFampereturn/pole
Page46
P a g e |47
Ifyoufollowthelinesoftheusefulflux,youwillfindthatthepathoftheusefulfluxis
composedofthefollowingpartsinseries:statoryoke,polecore,poleshoes,airgap,
armatureteeth,andarmaturecore.Asaseriescircuit,theoverallreluctanceisdominatedby
thehighestreluctancesinthepath,whichare(a)theairgap,and(b)armatureteeth(when
saturated).
ThefigureontheLHSshowsthefluxdistributionalloverthemachine,whilethefigureonthe
RHSshowsthefluxdensitydistributionintheairgap,i.e.theeffectivefieldseenbythe
armatureconductors.Thecurveissmoothifthearmaturesurfaceisassumedtobesmooth;in
fact,armatureslotsintroducearipplethatmovesalongthecurveasthearmaturerotates;we
shallneglecttheslottingeffect.Amuchmoreseriousdistortionofthemainfieldiscausedby
armaturereaction.
4.2Fieldexcitation
Themainfieldmaybeproducedbymeansofpermanentmagnets(PMDC),orbymeansofcoils
placedonthepoles(woundpole).PMsarecompact(smallsize),requirenosupplyforthe
field,andareeconomicalinoperation(noohmiclosses);however,theyareveryexpensive.
Woundpolemachinesaremuchcheaper,andallowcontrolofthefield;theyaremuchmore
commonlyused.
Fieldcoilsinwoundpolemachinesmaybeconnectedinvariousways.Theymaybedividedas
follows:
Separatelyexcited:fieldcoilssuppliedfromseparatesource.
Page47
P a g e |48
Selfexcited:fieldcoilsareconnectedwiththearmature.Theymaybeinparallel(shuntfield),
orinseries.Compoundmachineshavebothshuntandseriesfields.
Shuntfieldcoilsaremadeofmanyturnsofthinwire;theyaredesignedtocarryacurrentmuch
smaller(lessthan10%)thanthearmaturecurrentIA.Theshuntfieldcurrentmaybecontrolled
byconnectingavariableresistor(rheostat)inserieswiththecoils.
Seriesfieldcoilsaremadeofjustafewturnsofthickwire;theycarrythearmaturecurrentIA
(inshortshuntcompoundmachines,theseriesfieldcurrentdiffersfromthearmaturecurrent
byanamountequaltotheshuntfieldcurrent,whichissmall).Theseriesfieldcurrentmaybe
controlledbyplacingavariableresistorinparallelwiththecoils.
Compoundmachinesmaybeconnectedinlongshuntorinshortshunt.Thereisnomajor
differencebetweenthetwotypesofconnection.Theshuntandseriescoilsmayproducefields
thataideachother,andcompoundingissaidtobecumulative;conversely,theshuntandseries
fieldsmayopposeeachother,andthecompoundingisthensaidtobedifferential.Ingeneral,
theshuntfieldissubstantiallygreaterthantheseriesfield,andhencedominates.
Fromtheabove,itshouldbeclearthattheresistanceofshuntfieldcoilsisquitelarge,while
thatofseriesfieldcoilsisquitesmall.Moreover,controlofthefieldcurrentresultsincontrol
oftheinducedemf,andhencecontrolofgeneralmachineoperation.
Somespecialpurposedcmachineshavemorethantwosetsoffieldcoils;eachsetofcoilsis
fedfromadifferentcontrollingsignal,sothatmotoroperationisdeterminedbytheoverall
combinationofcontrollingsignals.Suchmotorsarecommonlyusedincontrolapplications.
Page48
P a g e |49
4.3Themagnetizationcurve
Inwoundpolemachines,thefluxisproducedbythefieldexcitation,i.e.bythemmfofthe
fieldcoils.Themagnetizationcurveistherelationshipbetweenthefluxperpoleandthe
mmfperpoleMfproducingit.
Mfisappliedtoamagneticcircuitcomposedoftheairgapreluctanceinserieswiththe
reluctanceofironparts(assumingtheleakagefluxisnegligible).Theairgapreluctanceis
constant,butthereluctanceofironpartsincreasesastheyenterintosaturation.
Atlowexcitation(sayMf1),theironisunsaturatedsothatitspermeabilityisveryhigh,andits
reluctanceisnegligiblerelativetothatoftheairgap;themmfdropintheironisnegligible,
andpracticallyalltheappliedmmfMf1istakenupindrivingtheflux1acrosstheairgap.At
higherexcitation(sayMf2),ironpartsbegintosaturatesothattheirpermeabilitygoesdown
andtheirreluctancegoesup;themmfdropintheironisnolongernegligiblerelativetothe
mmfdropintheairgap.TheappliedmmfMf2dividesbetweentheairgapandtheiron
accordingtotheratiooftheirreluctances(similartovoltagedivisioninelectriccircuits).Asthe
excitationisincreasedfurther(to,say,Mf3),theironpartsaredrivenfurtherintosaturationso
thattheyconsumealargerproportionoftheappliedmmfMf3;indeed,themmfdropiniron
maybecomegreaterthanthemmfdropintheairgap.Armature
teethsaturatefirst,followedbythepoles,andthenthearmature
coreandyoke.
Therelationshipbetweenthefluxperpoleandthemmfdrop
intheairgap(whichislessthanMf)islinear;itisrepresentedby
theairgaplineinfig.4.4.Atlowexcita on,themagne za on
curvefollowstheairgapline.Asexcitationincreases,the
machinebeginstosaturate,andthecurvemovesawayfromthe
line(kneeofthecurve).Atheavyexcitation,themachineiswell
intosaturation,andthecurveiswellawayfromtheline.Itis
notedthatatzerofieldexcitation,thereissomeremanent
magnetism(duetohysteresisintheiron)sothatthefluxis
notzero.
Now,fromchapter3,wehave
EA=Ke.n.=K.r.andT=K.IA.
WhereKeandKareconstantsdependingonmachineparameters.Ifisknown,thenEAmay
becomputedforagivenspeedn,andTmaybecomputedforagivenIA.However,ifitisthe
Page49
P a g e |50
fieldexcitationMfthatisknown,wemustfirstfindfromthemagnetizationcurve;the
procedureisgraphicalbecausethereisnoreadyformulagivingintermsofMf.
Atagivenconstantspeedno
EAo=Ke.no.
SothattheverticalaxisofthemagnetizationcurvemaybescaledintermsofEAoinsteadof.
If,moreover,onlyonefieldwinding(i.e.onesetoffieldcoils)isexcited,then
Mf=Nf.If
WhereNfandIfcorrespondtothewdgexcited;sinceNfisconstant,thehorizontalaxisof
themagnetizationcurvemaybescaledintermsofIfinsteadofMf.Theseformsofthe
magne za oncurveareshowninfig.s4.5and4.6respec vely.Thelastformofthe
magnetizationcurve(EAxIf)canbeobtainedexperimentallybythesimpletestshownin
fig.4.8:themachineisdrivenatconstantspeedno;thefieldcurrentIfisvaried,andthe
correspondingvaluesofemfEAoarerecorded.Ifthetestisperformedatratedspeed,the
resultingmagnetizationcurveiscalledtheopencircuitcharacteristic(OCC).
Toobtainthemagne za oncurveatdierentspeedsasinfig.4.7,weneedtoperformthe
(opencircuit)testonlyonceat,say,no;atagivenvalueoffieldcurrent,sayIfo,wehave
EA1=ke.n1.=Ke.no.(n1/no)=EAo(n1/no)
Thustheemfvaluesatn1areobtainedbymultiplyingthecorrespondingemfvaluesatnoby
thespeedratio(n1/no).
IftheOCCisavailable,themagnetizationcurveEAvs.MfmaybeobtainedifNfisknown,
andthemagnetizationcurvevs.MfmaybeobtainedifKeorKisknown.
Page50
P a g e |51
TesttomeasureOCC;machinedrivenatconstant
speedno
Chapter5ArmatureReaction
Whenamachineisloaded,currentswillflowinthearmaturecoils,andanarmaturefieldisset
up.Thisarmaturereactiondistortsthefielddistributioninthemachine,andresultsinsome
adverseeffectsthatmustbetreatedforsatisfactoryoperation.
5.1Armaturefield
Whenthemachineisloaded,currentflowsinthearmatureconductors,andtendstosetupa
magne cfieldasshowninfig.5.1.Thearmaturemaybeviewedasasinglecoilactinginthe
qaxis;mostofthefluxfollowsthepathcomposedof:armteeth,airgap,poleshoes,and
armcore.Noteinparticularthatthearmfieldisperpendiculartothemainfieldshowninfig.
4.1andrepeatedhereinfig.5.3,whichactsinthedaxis.Thearmaturemmfisdistributed
alongtheairgapasshowninfig.5.2(withtheactualslotsapproximatedbyacon nuousbelt
ofcurrent).ThearmmmfMapeaksattheqaxisandiszeroatthedaxis;itspeakvalueis
Mam= .
. =
.IA=
.IA
Thearmmmftendstosetuptheairgapfluxdensitydistribu onshowninfig.5.2;although
themmfismaximumattheqaxis,thefluxdensityisseentofallbecauseofthelarge
reluctancethereresultingfromthelongairpath.
Page51
P a g e |52
Fig.5.3
Fig.5.4Resultantfluxdistribu on
Page52
P a g e |53
Fig.5.5Airgapfluxdensitydistribution
MF:mainfield;
AF:armaturefield;
RF:resultantfield
5.2Resultantfield
Fig.5.1showsthearmfieldbyitself,whilefig.5.3showsthemainfieldbyitself.Notethatthe
mainfieldactsalongthedaxis,whilethearmfieldactsalongtheqaxis.Inthearmcoreand
poleshoes,thetwofieldsareperpendiculartoeachother.Intheairgap,however,thearm
fieldaidsthemainfieldoverahalfpolepitch,andopposesitoverthenexthalfpolepitch.
Superpositionofthetwofieldsyieldstheresultantfluxdistribu onshowninfig.5.4;thisisthe
actualdistributioninthemachinewhenbotharmatureandmainfieldsarepresent,i.eboth
armandfieldwdgsareexcited.Notehowarmaturereactionhasdistortedthefielddistribution;
note,inparticular,howthemagneticneutralaxisisnowshiftedfromtheqaxis(ormechanical
neutralaxis,orbrushaxis).Theairgapfluxdensityisstrengthenedinonepoletipand
weakenedintheotherpole p,asshowninfig.5.5.thezerocrossingofthefluxdensitywave
isnowshiftedfromtheqaxis.
Thedirec onsofmainfieldandarmcurrentsinfig.5.4correspondto(a)generatoropera on
forCWarmrotation,orto(b)motoroperationforCCWarmrotation;thisiseasilyverifiedby
Page53
P a g e |54
no ngthatthetorqueonthearmconductorsisCCW.Itisthusseen,fromfig.5.4or5.5,that
thefluxispulledinthedirectionofrotationforgeneratoroperation,andinthedirection
oppositetorotationformotoroperation;thustheshiftinthemagneticneutralaxisisinthe
directionofrotationforgeneratoroperation,andinthedirectionoppositetorotationfor
motoroperation.
5.3Demagnetizingeffect
Thearmreactionactsontheqaxisandisthereforegenerallyperpendicularto(orin
quadraturewith)themainfieldwhichactsonthedaxis;itisthuscalledcrossmagnetizing
armaturereaction.Foralinearmagneticcircuit,thecrossmagarmreactionhasnoeffecton
,theusefulfluxperpole:thearmmmfinonehalfpolepitchisequalandoppositetothearm
mmfintheotherhalf;thereforeitaddsandsubtractsequalamountstothemainfluxwhich
thusremainsunchanged.ItfollowsthattheaverageemfEA=k.r.andtheaveragetorque
T=K.IA.areunaffectedbycrossmagARbecauseitselfisunaffected.However,becauseof
thedistortionoftheairgapfluxdensity,fig.5.5,theinstantaneousemfandtorqueareno
longerthesameforallconductorsunderthepoleface.
Butthemagneticcircuitisactuallynonlinearbecauseitincludesironpartswhichtendto
saturateathighfields.Inthehalfpolepitchwherethearmmmfaidsthemainfield,theiron
parts(armteethandpoletips)aredrivendeeplyintosaturationsothattheincreaseinflux
densitythereislessthanthedecreaseinfluxdensityintheotherhalfpolepitch(wherearm
mmfopposesmainfieldsothatironpartsaredrivendownthekneeofthemagcurveintothe
linearpart).Thismeansthatthepeaksofthedistortedfluxdensitywavearechippedoffas
shownbydo edcurvesinfig.5.5.Italsomeansthatthereisanetdecreasein;i.e.cross
magnetizingARhasademagnetizingeffect.Thedecreaseinresultsinreductionofthe
averageemfEAandaveragetorqueT.
Clearly,then,theeffectivemagnetizationcurveonload(IA>0)liessomewhatbelowtheOCC(IA=0),and
islowerforhigherarmaturecurrents;seefig.5.6.ThecurvesmergewiththeOCCattheairgapline
becausethereisnosaturationatlowexcitation.
ThereductionintheusefulfluxduetoARisanonlinearfunctionofbothfieldandarmaturemmfs,
andhenceoffieldandarmaturecurrents,IfandIA.ThedemagnetizingeffectofARmaybe
representedasareductionininducedemf, E ,orasareductionineffectivefieldcurrent, If;
seefig.5.7.AtafieldcurrentIfandzeroarmcurrentIA=0,wehave
VA=EAandEA=EAocthenVA=EA=EAoc
AtthesamefieldcurrentIf,butwithanonloadarmcurrentIA 0,wehave
VA=EA IA.RAandEA=EAoc E >>>>>VA=(EAoc E ) IA.RA
Page54
P a g e |55
OrVA=EAoc (IA.RA E )
ThuswemayviewEAocastheinducedemf,and E asavoltagedropthatsubtractsfromthearm
resistancedropIA.RAformotoroperation,andaddstoitforgeneratoroperation.Alternatively,we
mightviewARasareductionineffectivefieldmmf:atafieldcurrentIfandanarmcurrentIA,the
effectivefieldcurrentis
If=If If
OntheOCC,IfgivestheactualinducedemfEA,whileIfgivestheemfEAocwhichwouldbeinduced
whentheloadisremoved.
Fig.5.6Eectofloadonmagne za oncurve.Fig.5.7Representa onof

Demagnetizingeffectofarmature
Reaction.
Exercise
TheOCCofadcmachinerunningat800rpmisgiveninthetablebelow.Plotit,(a)onthesame
graph,plotthecurvesat600rpmandat1000rpm.(b)ifeachfieldcoilhas630turns,plotthe
magnetizationcurvesEAvs.Mf.(c)ifthemachineiswavewoundwith6poles,andhas46armature
coilsof3turnseach,plotthemagnetizationcurveasvs.Mf.(d)at800rpm,es matethemmf
dropsintheairgapandintheironwhentheemfis50,100,150,200,250,and00volts.(e)whatisthe
Page55
P a g e |56
residual(orremanent)fluxperpole?(f)whatistheinducedemfwhenthefieldcurrentis5.5A.and
thespeedis1500rpm?.
If
0.3.511.522.533.544.55678910
(amps)
EA
8284694.5143175195.521122424.5248.5251.5265276.5286294302
(volts)
ThedcmachinewhoseOCCisgivenintheabovetablehasawdgresistanceof75manda
constantbrushcontactdropof1.5V.Themagcurvesatdierentarmatureloadingsandconstant
speed800rpmarelistedinthetablegivenbelow.Plotthesecurves,togetherwiththeOCC.Overthe
fieldcurrentrangeshownhere.(a)determine E ,and Ifwhenthearmcurrentis80Aandthe
fieldcurrentis8A.(b)determinetheterminalvoltagewhenthefieldcurrentis7Aandthearmcurrent
is60A,andthemachineisopera ngasagenerator.(c)repeatpartbformotoropera on.(d)ifthe
machineisopera ngasageneratorwithterminalvoltage260Vandarmaturecurrent100A,fi
If
3.544.55678910
EA IA=
217225.5232.5239.5252262.5270.5277283
100
IA=
219228235.5243256267275.5283290
80
IA=
221230.5238.5246.5260271.5280.5288.5296
60
Page56
P a g e |57
5.4Effectsofarmaturereaction
ThedistortionofthefieldduetoARhasanumberofadverse(bad)effects:
(1) Demagne zingeectasdiscussedinsec on5.3:asarmcurrentincreases,theuseful
fluxperpoledecreases,andhencetheinducedemfanddevelopedtorquedecrease.
(2) Shiftofthemagneticneutralaxisfromthebrushaxismeansthatcoilsidesofcoils
undergoingcommutationaresubjectedtononzerofluxdensity,sothatanonzeroemf
isinducedinthem.
(3)ARconcentratesthefluxatonepole p,fig.5.5.Althoughtheaverageemfis
approximatelythesame(slightlyreducedfig.5.6),theinstantaneousemfisincreasedfor
coilswhosesidesarepassingunderthesetips;theincreasecanbequitelarge,especiallyif
themachineisoverloaded(largeIA).Thesecoilsareconnectedtocommutatorsegments
thatarenearthebrusheswheretheairishighlyionizedduetonormalsparking.Highinter
segmentvoltageappliedtoionizedaircancausebreakdownoftheair(arcingbetween
segments).Thismaycausefurtherionizationandfurtherarcing;inseverecasesitmay
resultintotalflashoverfrombrushtobrush.Theheatfromthearccandamagethebrushes
andmeltholesinthecommutator.
Clearly,then,ARcanhaveseriousconsequencesthatlimittheoperationalconditionsof
themachine.Thedesignandconstructionofthemachinemustthereforeaimatreducing
armaturereaction:
(1) MachinesaredesignedtohaveastrongmainfieldsothatrelativedistortionduetoAR
remainssmall.
(2) Themachineisdesignedtohaveahighreluctanceinthepathofthearmaturecrossflux
(armteeth,airgap,poleshoesseefig.5.1).
Thismaybedonebyconstruc ngpoleswithalternatelamina onsasinfig.5.9:withthe
amountofironinthepoletipsreduced,thefluxdensityisincreased,andthetipsaredriven
quicklyintosaturation,andhencehighreluctance.Alternatively,theairgapunderpoletips
ismadelongerbyusingpoleswitheccentricpolefacesasinfig.5.9(orchamferedfaces).
Theincreasedreluctancealsoreducethemainflux,butthereductionismuchsmallerthan
thereductioninthearmaturecrossflux.
(3)Toavoidflashovertheinstantaneousvoltagebetweencommutatorsegmentsmustnot
exceed3040volts.Machinesarethereforedesignedtohaveanaveragevoltagebetween
segmentsnotexceeding2030volts.
Page57
P a g e |58
(4)Insomemachines,thepoleshoesaremadewithslotsinwhichanaddi onalwindingis
placed,fig.5.10.Thecurrentsinthesepolefacewdgsorcompensatingwdgsare
arrangedtoflowindirectionsoppositetothoseofarmatureconductors,sothattheir
mmfscanceloutunderthepolefaceasshowninfig.5.10.
Compensa ngwdgsareconnectedinserieswiththearmature,fig.5.11,sothat
cancellationoccursforallloads(asIAincreases,ARwillincrease,butsowillthe
compensatingwdgmmfalso).
Forfullcompensation,wemusthave
( Nc).IA=(
).IA>>>>>>Nc=.Z/4pa=.NC/2pa
WhereNc=compensatingwindingconductorsperpole,and=polearc/polepitch.
ComputingNcinthisway,itisunlikelytocomeoutaninteger;asmallerintegernumberis
usedbecause6070%compensa ngisusuallysucient.Compensa ngwdgsarevery
expensivetoinstall;theyareeconomicallyjustifiedonlyinverylargemachines,andin
somespecialpurposemachines.
Fig.5.8VA=EAIA.RAAlternatepolelaminationsEccentricpoleface
Fig.5.9methodsofincreasingreluctanceatpole ps
Fig.5.10compensa ngeectofpolefacewdgFig.5.11dcM/CwithCW
Page58
P a g e |59
5.5Brushshift
Sometimesbrushesarenotintheexactneutralposition(qaxis).Suchbrushshiftmaybe(a)
unintentional:incorrectpositioninginmanufacture,orpoorbrushfit,etc.,oritmaybe(b)
intentional:inveryoldmachinesandinsomeverysmallmachines,brushesareshiftedto
improvecommutation.Withthebrushesthusshifted,thearmfieldisnolongerinstrict
quadraturewiththemainfield(i.e.daxis),fig.5.12.Thedaxiscomponentofthearmfield
mayoppose(demagnetizing)oraid(magnetizing)themainfield;thisdependsonthedirection
ofbrushshiftrelativetorotation,andonthemodeofoperation,generatingormotoring;see
fig.5.12.
Totestforcorrectpositioningofbrushes,themachineisrotatedinbothdirectionsasaloaded
generator;iftheload,speed,andfieldexcitationarethesameforbothdirectionsofrotation,
theterminalvoltagewillbethesameifthebrushesarecorrectlyplaced.If,however,the
brushesarenotattheexactneutralposition,theterminalvoltagewilldifferforthetwo
directionsofrotation.
Fig.5.12Eectofbrushshi .MF:mainfield;AF:armaturefield;Ad&Aq=direct&quadrature
componentsofarmaturefield.
Page59
P a g e |60
CHAPTER6Commutation
Thecommutatorisacharacteristicfeatureofdcmachines.Itspurposeistomatchthe
alternatingcurrentsandvoltagesofthearmaturecoilstothedirectcurrentandvoltageofthe
brushesasalreadyexplainedinchapters1and3.However,thecommuta onprocessisquite
complicated,andgivesrisetosecondaryeffectsthatplacelimitsontheoverallperformance
ofthemachine.
6.1Theprocessofcommutation
Fig.6.1showsageneralarmcoilCmovingtotherightasitrotateswiththearmature;itis
connectedtocommutatorbarsaandbwhichmovewithit.(a)whenthecoilsidesareunder
thepoles,thecoilispartofacertainarmaturepathandcarriesapathcurrentIa
Ia=
(b)Asthecoilsidesapproachtheqaxis(orbrushaxis),therewillbeaninstantt1atwhich
thebrushcontactsbarsaandbsimultaneously;thusstartstheshortcircuitofthecoilby
thebrush.(c)Thecoilcontinuestobeshortcircuitedbythebrush;itissaidtobeundergoing
commutation.(d)Ascoilsidesmoveawayfromtheqaxis,therewillbeaninstantt2at
whichbarbbreakscontactwiththebrushsothattheshortcircuitends.(e)Coilsidesmove
underpoles,andthecoilisnowpartofadifferentpath;thecoilcurrentisIaagain,butina
directionoppositetotheoriginalone.
Clearly,then,thecoilisshortcircuitedforanintervalTc
Tc=t2t1
Duringthisinterval,thecoilcurrentchangesfromIatoIa;i.e.itreversesor
commutates.Asshowninfig.6.2,thechangeincurrentmustfollowsometimecurvefrom
thepoint(t1,Ia)tothepoint(t2,Ia).Dependingonvariousconditionsthatwillbeexplainedin
latersec ons,wemayhavelinearcommuta on(curve1),overcommuta on(curve2),or
undercommutation(curve3).
TocalculatetheSCinterval(orcommutationinterval),letucdenotethespeedofthebars;
thus
uc=2rcn
wherercistheradiusatthecommutatorsurface.Fromfig.6.3,itisseenthattheleadingedge
ofbaramovesfromx1att1tox2att2;
Page60
P a g e |61
Thus
uc
Therefore
Tc=
(yo=
Asexpected,thelengthoftheSCinterval,Tc,isdeterminedbythespeedofrotationn,the
relativedimensionsofbarsand
brush,andthenumberofcommutator
bars.
Fig.6.3aidtocalculateTc
Fig.6.1Theprocessofcommuta on>>
Fig.6.2Reversalofcurrentincoil
undergoingcommutation
Page61
P a g e |62
6.2Equivalentcircuitofcommutatingcoil
Duringcommutating,thecoilSCcurrentiscirculatesinapathcomposedof:thecoilitself,
risers,bars,contactsurfaces,andbrush(seefig.6.4).Asimplifiedequivalentcircuitisshown
infig.6.5with:
Rc=coilresistance;
Ec=rota onalemfincoil=2N(B.L.u)
Lc=selfinductanceofcoil;
r1=contactresistancebetweenbrushandtrailingbar;
r2=contactresistancebetweenbrushandleadingbar.
Thecircuitoffig.6.5involvesthefollowingsimplifica ons:
1. theresistanceofriser,bar,andbrushisnegligiblew.r.tcontactresistance;
2. mutualinductancewithadjacentcoilsisneglected;
3. brushassumedtoshortcircuitonecoilatatime.
NotethatlowercasesymbolsareusedforquantitiesthataretimevaryingduringTc;these
areec,is,i1,i2,r1,andr2;indeed,isandpossiblyecreverseduringTc.Alsonotethat
fromKCL
i1=Iaisandi2=Ia+is
sothat
i1+i2=2Ia
asexpected.
Theterminalvoltageofthecoilvcisgivenby
Vc=ecisRcLc(dis/dt)
Therotationalemfecissmallbecausefieldissmallaroundtheqaxis(see,forexample,fig.
5.5).Lc(dis/dt)iscalledthereactancevoltage;itisinducedbythechangeinis.
Page62
P a g e |63
Fig.6.4currentdistribu oninbrushandFig.6.5Equivalentcircuitforbrush
Commutatingcoil.Andcommutatingcoil.
Figure6.6,Fig.6.7,&Fig.6.8
Page63
P a g e |64
6.3Linearcommutation(resistancecommutation)
Insmallmachines,thecoilvoltagevcissmallerthanthecontactdropsi1r1andi2r2.Ifwe
assumethatvcisnegligiblysmall,thentheequivalentcircuitoffig.6.5reducestothatoffig.
6.6.Inthiscase,r1andr2areinparallelsothatbycurrentdivision
i1 r2
=
i2 r1
Ifwefurtherassumethatr1andr2arelinearresistances(whichinfacttheyarenot),then
r1 A2
=
r2 A1
WherethecontactareasA1andA2aredefinedinfig.6.7.Thus
i1 A1
=
i2 A2
i.e.thecurrentdivisionbetweenbarsisindirectproportiontotheirrespectivecontactareas.
Ifintheaboveexpressionwesubstitutefori1andi2intermsofIaandis(seesec on6.2),
andrearrange,weget
is=
A2 A1
.I a (derivethisequation?)
Ab
asthecommutatorslidesagainstthebrushatconstantspeed,A1increaseslinearlywithtime,
whileA2decreaseslinearlywithtime.ThusisvarieslinearlyfromIaatt1toIaatt2,
andwehavelinearcommuta onasincurve1offig.6.2.Linearcommuta onisalso
calledresistancecommutationbecausethecurrentvariationiscontrolledbythecontact
resistancesr1andr2(seefirstequationinthissection).
Notethatwederivedlinearcommutationasanapproximationbasedontwoassumptions:
negligiblevcandlinearcontactresistances.Theseassumptionsdonotgenerallyholdin
practicesothatweseldomhavelinearcommutation.Commutationapproacheslinearityin
smallmachineswheretheseassumptionsareapproximatelytrue.
Page64
P a g e |65
6.4Reactancevoltage
Reactancevoltageisthevoltageinducedinthecoilduetothetimevariationofis;itappears
acrossLcintheequivalentcircuitoffig.6.5,andisequaltoLc(dis/dt).Reactancevoltage
hasagreateffectoncommutationprocess,sothatlinearcommutation(whichisbasedon
neglectingreactancevoltage)isusuallytobeachievedinpractice.Theroleofreactancevoltage
inthecommutationprocessmaybedescribedqualitativelyasfollows:
ThereactancevoltageisinducedbythechangeofcoilcurrentfromIatoIa.Accordingto
Lenzslaw,thereactancevoltagewillbeinducedinsuchawayastoopposewhatiscausingit,
i.e.itopposesthechangeincurrent.Thereforethereactancevoltageretardsordelaysthe
changeincurrent.
DuetoRV,then,thecurrenttendstofollowacurveabovethatoflinearcommutation,for
examplecurve3infig.6.2;thegreaterthecoilinductanceLc,thehigherthecurve.
Ifcurrentreversalisnotcomplete(i.e.currenthasnotreachedIa)whenbarbbreaks
contactwiththebrushatt2,thecurvewillbeasshowninfig.6.8.Thisresultsinsparking
whichisexplainedasfollows:
Att2thecoilcurrentattemptstojumptoIaalmostinstantaneously.Thisresultsinvery
highRV(why?),whichcausesbreakdownintheair.Thearcprovidesapathbetweenbrush
andbarbthroughwhichcurrentflowstocompleteitsreversaltoIa.
Sparkingisharmfulbecauseitcausesheatingandhencewearofbothbrushandcommutator
bars.Itbecomesmoresevereasloadincreases(asthearmaturecurrentIAincreases,sodoes
thepathcurrentIa).
Treatmentofsparking
Insomesmallmachines,theresistivecontactdropismuchgreaterthantheRVsothat
sparkingislimitedbytheeffectofresistancecommutation,i.e.commutationapproachesthe
linearcase.
Inlargermachines,someadditionalmeansmustbefoundtolimitsparking,i.e.tocounterthe
effectofRVwhichistheprimecauseofsparkingasexplainedabove.Modernmachinesuse
interpoles,whileoldermachines(andsomesmallmachines)usebrushshift;thesetwo
methodsareexplainedinthefollowingsections:
6.5Interpoles(commutatingpoles,compoles)
Nearlyallintegralhorsepowermachineshaveinterpoles(IP).IParenarrowpoleswithlargeair
gapplacedbetweenmainpolesasinfig.6.9.Theircoilsareconnectedinserieswiththe
Page65
P a g e |66
armaturesothattheIPfieldisproportionaltoarmcurrentIA(thelargeairgapprevents
saturationintheiron).TheIPfieldactsoncommutatingcoilsattheqaxis.
TheIPmmfMiisgivenby
Mi=NiIA
WhereNiisthenumberofturnsineachIPcoil.ThenumberofturnsNiischosentomake
theIPmmfsome25%graterthanMam,thecrossmagnetizingarmaturemmfattheq
axis(seesec on5.1);thus
Mi=1.25MamsothatNi=1.25(NC/4pa)
Inthisway,Miismadetoservetwopurposes:(1)theaddi onal25%neutralizesthe
commuta ngcoilflux(whichinducestheRV).Thisisclearinfig6.10a,b,andc:theIPfieldnot
onlyreducestheqaxisfieldtozero,butdrivesadditionalfluxinthenegativedirectionto
neutralizeRV.Figs.6.10dandeshowtheresultantfieldininterpolemachines,without
andwithcompensa ngwindings;comparethemwithfigs5.5and5.10(NBIPstreatarm
reactionintheqaxis,whilecompensatingwdgstreatarmreactionunderthepoles).
Asthemachineisloaded,thearmaturecurrentIAincreasessothatarmaturereactionandRV
increase;buttheIPfieldisalsotoIA,andwillincreaseautomaticallytoneutralize
armaturereaction(intheqaxis)andRV.IPswillcontinuetodotheirjobproperlyforeither
modeofoperation,motororgenerator,andforeitherdirectionofrotation,forwardor
reverse.
Fig.6.11showsthegeneralconnec onofadcmachine.Notallwindingsshownarepresent
inallmachines.IPorcommutatingwdgsarefoundonintegralhorsepowermachines(rated
power>onehp);compensatingwdgsarefoundonlargemachinesandonsomespecial
machines;manymachineshaveonlyonemainfieldwdg,shuntorseries;compoundmachines
haveboth.Theterminalsofmainfieldwdgs(shuntandseries)areusuallybroughtouttothe
terminalboxtoallowusermanipulation;theterminalsofcompensatingandcommutating
wdgsarenotbroughtouttotheterminalboxbecausetheyarepermanentlyconnectedin
serieswiththearmature.
Page66
P a g e |67
Page67
P a g e |68
6.6Brushshift
Asecondmethodforimprovingcommutationtolimitsparkingistoshiftthebrushesfromthe
qaxis.Theprincipleisasfollows:
Recallfigs.5.4and5.5whichshowhowthemagne cneutralaxis(mna)movesawayfromthe
qaxisduetoarmreaction.ifnowthebrushesareshiftedinthesamedirection,theywillbein
aregionwherethearmfieldopposesthemainfield.Atcertainlocationthetwofieldscancel
out;placingthebrushesatthislocationeliminatestherotationalemfec(seefig.6.5).Thisis
notenoughbecausetherestillistheRV.ToneutralizeRV,thebrushesareshiftedalittle
furtherinthesamedirection;thesidesofcommutatingcoilwillthenbesubjectedtoasmall
(butnonzero)fieldthatopposesthecoilfluxwhichinducestheRV.Iftheopposingfluxescan
bemadeequal,theRViseliminated.
Asamethodforimprovingcommutation,brushshiftisnotasgoodasIPsbecauseithasthe
followingdisadvantages:
1.Astheloadonthemachinechanges,thearmcurrentIAchangessothatARandthemna
shiftalsochange.Forcorrectoperation,thebrushshiftmustbechangedaccordingly,whichis
impractical.Inpractice,thebrushesareplacedinapositionthatgivesminimumsparkingat
ratedload,sothattheremaybeconsiderablesparkingatotherloads.
2.Fromfig.5.4,itisseenthatthemnashi sinthedirec onofrota onforgenerator
operation,andinthedirectionoppositetorotationformotoroperation.Thusbrushshift
(whichisinthesamedirectionasthemnashift)cannotbeusedwithmotorsintendedtorunin
bothdirections,orwithmachinesintendedforvariablemodeofoperation:ifbrushshiftis
correctforonecase,itisincorrectfortheother!
3.Brushshi causesdemagne zingarmaturereac on(seefig.5.12).
Becauseofthesedisadvantages,brushshiftisusedonlyinsmallfractionalhorsepower
machines(ratedpowerlessthanonehp)whereitisnoteconomicaltouseIPs.Brushshiftwas
alsousedinoldmachinesbeforetheinventionofIPs.
Page68
P a g e |69
CHAPTER7POWERCONVERSIONANDLOSSES
Theinputpowertothedcmachineundergoeselectromechanicalconversiontoproducethe
outputpower;theprocessyieldsanumberoflossesthatappearasheatwhichhasharmful
effectsontheperformanceofthemachine.
7.1Powerbalance
Mostoftheinputpowersuppliedtoadcmachineisconvertedintousefuloutputpower;the
reminderoftheinputpowerislossandheat.Theprincipleofconversionofenergyrequires
totalpowerbalance
Pin=Pout+LOSSES
Itissometimesusefultothinkofpowerasflowingthroughthemachine.Powerflowisdivided
intotwostages,theborderlinebeingtheactualelectromechanicalenergyconversionprocess.
Pc=EAIA=rTd
Itisalsocalledtheinternalpowerbecauseitisdefinedwithinthemachine;incontrast,Pinand
Poutareexternalpowersthatcanbemeasured.EAandTdareinternalquantitiesthatcannot
bemeasureddirectly.
Pin=Pc+LOSS1andPc=Pout+LOSS2
Thetotallossismadeupof2parts:LOSS1occursbeforeconversion,andLOSS2occursa er
conversion.Clearly
Pin>Pc>Pout
Motoroperation
Theinputpoweriselectrical,andtheoutputpowerismechanical.Partoftheinputpoweris
lostaselectrical(copper)lossesinthewindings,andtheremainderisavailablefor
electromechanicalenergyconversion;partoftheconvertedpowerislostsupplyingthelosses
duetorotation,andtheremainderisavailableasamechanicaloutputpowertodrivetheload.
Notethat
Page69
P a g e |70
Pmech<Pc>>>>>rTL<rTd>>>>>TL<Td
Thatis,theshafttorqueavailableattheload,TL,islessthanthedevelopedtorqueTd;the
differenceisneededtoovercomeopposingtorqueswithinthemotor(suchasbearingfriction).
Generatoroperation
Theinputpowerismechanical,andtheoutputpoweriselectrical.Partoftheinputislostas
rotationallosses,andtheremainderisavailableforelectromechanicalenergyconversion;part
oftheconvertedpowerPcislostaselectrical(copper)lossesinthewindings,andthe
remainderisavailableaselectricaloutputpowertosupplytheload.Notethat
Pmech>Pc>>>>rTpm>rTd>>>>Tpm>Td
Thatis,theshafttorqueproducedbytheprimemover,Tpm,isgreaterthanthedeveloped
torqueTd;thedifferenceisthetorqueneededtoovercomefrictionandotheropposing
torques.
7.2Losses
Thelossesofadcmachineareofvarioustypesandoccurindifferentpartsofthemachine.
Althoughdifferentlossesareproduceddifferently,theyallappearasheat,i.e.theyrepresent
conversiontounlessthermalenergy.Theheatgeneratedbythelosseshastwomajoreffects:
(i)
(ii)
Lossesraisethetemperatureinsidethemachine,andthusaffecttheperformance
andlifeofthematerialsofthemachine,particularlyinsulation.Thereforelosses
determinetheupperlimitsonmachinerating.
Lossesareawasteofenergy,andenergycostsmoney;thereforelossesresultina
wasteofmoney(intheoperatingcostofthemachine).
Lossescannotbeeliminated,buttheycanbereducedbyproperdesign;thedesignmust
alsoprovideforventilationtodispersetheheatgenerated.Thuslosseshaveasignificant
effectontheinitialcostofthemachine.
Thecostofwastedenergyinitem(ii)aboveisimportantwithindustrialmotorswherethe
powersinvolvedarequitehigh;itisnotimportantwithsmallcontrolmotorswherethe
powersinvolvedareverysmall.However,thetemperatureriseinitem(i)isimportantfor
allmotors.
Page70
P a g e |71
Electricallosses
Electricallossesarealsocalledcopperlosses,windinglosses,I2Rlosses,andohmiclosses.
copperlossesoccurinallwindingsduetoflowofcurrentthroughthem;theyare
LOSSarm=IA2RA=armaturecircuitcopperloss
LOSSser=IS2RS=seriesfieldwindingcopperloss
LOSSsh=If2Rf=shuntfieldwindingcopperloss
IncomputingLOSSarm,RAincludestheresistancesofcommutatingandcompensating
windings(ifpresent).TheseriesfieldcurrentISmayormaynotbeequaltothearmature
currentIA.
Thecopperlossinagivenwdgisproportionaltothesquareofthecurrentinthatwdg;if
thecurrentisdoubled,thecopperlossincreasesfourtimes.LOSSarmandLOSSserdepend
onarmaturecurrent,andhencetheydependontheloadonthemachine(IAincreases
withload).LOSSshdependsontheterminalvoltage,andvarieswithitssquare.
Theaboveexpressionscanbeusedtocalculatecopperlossesusingmeasuredvaluesof
windingresistances.Thewdgresistancemustbeatthecorrectwdgtemperature;ifthe
temperatureatwhichthelossisrequiredisnotknown,itisassumedtobe75oC.ifthe
wdgresistanceisknown(saybymeasurement)atatemperatureT1,itcanbefoundata
differenttemperatureT2from
R
R
T
T
234.5
234.5
Thebrushcontactlossisalsoanelectricalloss.SincethebrushcontactdropVbis
approximatelyconstantoverawiderangeofarmaturecurrents,thelossisproportionalto
thearmaturecurrentitself(andnotitssquareasinwdglosses):
Losscontact=IAVb
Magneticlosses
Magneticlossesarealsocalledironlossesorcorelosses.Theyresultfromhysteresisand
eddycurrentsincoressubjectedtovaryingmagnetization,i.e.mainlyinthearmatureteeth
andcore,butalsointhepoleshoes(duetoarmatureslotting).
Ironlossesaredistributedinthecoresincomplicatedpatterns,sothattherearenosimple
formulaethatgivetheirvaluesaccurately.Itisknown,however,thatironlossesdependon
Page71
P a g e |72
themagnetizationlevel(fluxdensity)inthecores,andonthefrequencywithwhichit
alternates,f=pn.
Forthehysteresisloss,wehave
LOSShystfBxmax
Wheretheconstantofproportionalityisdeterminedbythevolumeofthecoreandits
magneticcharacteristic(hysteresisloop).Thesteinmetzexponentxdependsonthetypeof
ironused,andrangesfrom1.5to2.5(usuallyaround2);itisanempiricalconstant
(obtainedfromexperienceanttesting,notfromelectromagnetictheory).Fortheeddy
currentloss,wehave
LOSSeddyf2B2max(laminationthickness)2
Wheretheconstantofproportionalityisdeterminedbythevolumeofthecoreandits
electricalcharacteristics(resistivity).Clearly,thinlaminationsreduceeddycurrentlosses.
Thearmatureisalwayslaminated,andthepoleshoesareusuallylaminated.Ifamotoris
tobedrivenfromamodernsolidstatecontrolledrectifier,allcoresmustbe
laminated(includingpolesandyoke).
Mechanicallosses
Mechanicallossesarisefromfrictionandwindage(frictionwithair)duringrotation.They
dependonthespeedofrotation,eachtypeofmechanicallossbeingproportionaltosome
powerofn.Bearingfrictionlossdependsonthetypeofbearingusedandontheviscosity
ofthelubricant;improperlubrication(toolittleortoomuch)increasetheloss.
Brushfrictionlossisproportionaltotheareaofcontactandtothebrushpressure;italso
dependsonthebrushandcommutatormaterials,theirstateofpolish,andthetemperature
atthecontactsurface;itisoftenthelargestfrictionloss.Windagelossesarisefrommoving
theairaroundthearmature(airfriction);theydependontheshapeoftherotatingsurface
(smoothorrough).Ventilationlossisanadditionalwindagelossduetofansandventducts
usedtocoolthemachine.
Strayloadloss
Strayloadlossesareadditionallossesthatoccurinthemachinewhenloaded,andcannot
beincludedwiththeconventionallosseslistedabove.Theyinclude:
additionalcorelossresultingfromarmaturereactiondistortion;
Page72
P a g e |73
copperlossduetoshortcircuitcurrentduringcommutation(incommutatingcoils,
commutatorsegments,andbrushes);
nonuniformcurrentdistributioninlargearmatureconductors.
Strayloadlossesaresmallanddifficulttocalculate.Theymaybeneglectedforsmall
machines,andareusuallyassumed1%ofoutputforlargemachines.
7.3Classificationoflosses
Table7.1Classifica onoflossesindcmachines.
Loss
type
rotational
With
load
dependence
Armaturecircuitcopperloss
elect
No
variable
IA2
Seriesfieldcopperloss
elect
No
variable
IA2
Shuntfieldcopperloss
elect
No
constant Vt2
Brushcontactloss
elect
No
variable
Hysteresisloss
mag
Yes
constant fBxmax
Eddycurrentloss
mag
Yes
constant f2B2max
Frictionloss
mech
Yes
constant powerofn
mech
Yes
constant powerofn
Ia
Windageloss
Strayloadloss
Elect&mech Yes
variable
indeterminate
Page73
P a g e |74
Table7.2Typicalvaluesofdcmachinelossesforindustrialmotorsintherange1100KW;
lowerpercentagelossesareforthehigherratedmotors.
losses
Percentofrated
power
Armaturecctelectricalloss
Shuntfieldelectricalloss
36%
15%
Rotationallosses
315%
Table7.3Typicalecienciesofindustrialmotors.
RatedpowerKW
efficiency
75%
50
90%
500
94%
5000
97%
Constantandvariablelosses
Constantlossesarelossesthatdonotchangeastheloadonthemachinechanges;theyare
independentofarmaturecurrent,andincludemechanicallosses,corelosses,andshuntfield
windingloss.Variablelossesarelossesthatincreaseastheloadonthemachineincreases;they
areelectricallossesincludingarmaturecircuitcopperloss,seriesfieldloss,andbrushcontact
loss.CopperlossesincreasewithI2A,whilebrushcontactlossincreasewithIAitself.Wemay
thereforewrite
LOSSEStotal=Ko+K1IA+K2I2A
Page74
P a g e |75
ThefirsttermontheRHSrepresentsconstantlosses,whilethesecondandthirdterms
representvariablelosses.Atfullload,constantlossesare420%,andvariablelossesare36%;
seetable7.2.
Remark
Strayloadlossesareindeterminatefunctionsofarmaturecurrentandspeed.Theycomplicate
classification,butaresmallenoughtobeneglectedinmostcases.
7.4Measurementoflosses
Thereareanumberofpracticalteststomeasurethevariousmachinelosses.Inmostcases,a
giventestyieldsthesumoftwoormorelossestogether;sometimesthecomponentlossescan
beseparatedbyfurthertesting.
Intesting,itisquiteeasytomeasureelectricalquantities(resistance,voltage,andcurrent)and
speed,somewhatdifficulttomeasuretorque,andquitedifficulttomeasuremagnetic
quantities(fluxandfluxdensity).Powersaredetermined,ontheelectricalside,bytheproduct
ofvoltageandcurrent,andonthemechanicalsidebytheproductoftorqueandangularspeed.
Inaloadtest,themachineisloadedatagivenspeedandfieldexcitation(i.e.fieldcurrent);the
inputandoutputpowersaremeasured.Thetotallossatthatspeed,excitation,andloadcan
beobtainedfrom
LOSSEStotal=PinPout
ThetotallosscanbeseparatedintoelectricalandrotationallossesbycalculatingI2Rproducts
inthevariouswindingsusingwdgcurrentsmeasuredduringtheloadtestand(hot)wdg
resistancesmeasuredpreviously.Withtheelectricallossesthuscalculated,therotationallosses
areobtainedfrom
LOSSrotational=LOSSEStotalLOSSelec
Loadtestsforlargemachinesareimpracticalintestlabs:theyrequireverylargeloads,and
wastelargeamountsofenergy.Thereareotherteststhatyieldthelossesindividually.
Inanoloadtest,themachineisdrivenbyasuitableprimemover(possiblyanothermachine)
withitsterminalsopencircuited(i.e.itoperatesasunloadedgenerator).Theinputpowerto
thetestmachineismeasuredmechanically(torqueandspeed),orelectricallybymeasuringthe
inputpowertothedrivemotorandsubtractingitslosses(whichmustthereforebeknown).If
thetestmachineisunexcitedthenPin=LOSSmech.Ifthetestmachineisthenexcitedbutleft
unloadedwegetPin=LOSSrot;thecorelossisobtainedfrom
Page75
P a g e |76
LOSScore=LOSSrotLOSSmech
(Exercise:suggestatestforseparatingthebrushfrictionloss).
Ifnosuitabledrive(primemover)isavailable,rotationallossesmaybeobtainedbyrunningthe
machineasamotorwithnoexternalload;thisistherunninglighttest,orSwinburnetest.
Theinputpowerwillmainlygotorotationallosses,buttherewillalsobealittlecopperloss
(why?).Thecopperlossmaybecomputedandsubtractedfromtheinputpowertoyield
rotationallosses.Intherunninglighttest,rotationallossescannotbeseparatedinto
mechanicalandcorelosses(why?).
Asseenfromtheabovetests,itisalwayspossibletodeterminecopperlossesfromthe
measuredvaluesofwdgcurrentsduringthetests,andpreviouslymeasuredwdgresistances.
Windingresistancesaremeasuredbystandardmethods(voltmeterammeter,Wheatstone
bridge,etc.);thewdgtemperaturesmustbemonitoredatthetimeofresistancemeasurement
(why?),orthemeasurementismadewiththemachinehot(forexampledirectlyafteraload
test).
Thenoloadandrunninglighttestsdeterminemachinelosseswithoutloadingit.Othertests
havebeendevisedtooperatethemachineatfullloadconditionswithoutrequiringanexternal
load.
Anexampleofsuchtestsistheoppositiontest(KappHopkinsontest)whichrequirestwo
identicalmachines.Themachinesarecoupledmechanically,andconnectedinparallelwith
eachothertothemains.Byincreasingtheexcitationforonemachineanddecreasingitforthe
other,thefirstwilloperateasagenerator,andthesecondasamotor:thegeneratorsupplies
themotorelectrically,whilethemotordrivesthegeneratormechanically;thepowerinput
fromthemainssuppliesthelossestokeepthesystemrunning.Bysuitableadjustmentsofthe
fieldrheostats,thearmaturecurrentscansettotheirratedvalues.Withthetwomachines
runningatornearrating(current,voltage,andspeed),theywilldevelopfullloadlosses,yet
thedisadvantagesofaloadtesthavebeenavoided:noexternalloadisneeded,andthemains
suppliesonlymachinelosses,nottheirfullpower.
Page76
P a g e |77
Inaheatrun(ortemperaturerisetest),themachineisrunatfullloadtodevelopfullload
losses;thetesttakes2060minutesun lthetemperaturereachessteadystatecorresponding
toitsratedoperatingvalue.Thenoloadandrunninglighttestscannotreplacetheloadtestina
heatrunbecausetheydonotgenerateallmachinelossessimultaneously.Anoppositiontest,
ontheotherhand,canbeusedinaheatrun.
7.5Efficiency
Theefficiencyofamachineisdefinedby
1
Thefirstexpressionisgeneral,thesecondissuitableforgenerators(Poutmeasuredelectrically),
andthethirdissuitableformotors(Pinmeasuredelectrically).Theefficiencyisafractionless
thanunity,andisusuallyexpressedinpercent.Table7.3liststypicalvaluesofdcmachine
efficiencies.
Thegeneraldefinitionofefficiencygivenabovecanbeanalyzedintotwocomponent
efficienciescorrespondingtothetwostagesofpowerflow:
=
Foramotor,thisbecomes
=
effofconversion mecheff
andforagenerator,itbecomes
=
effofconversion eleceff
maximumefficiency
wehavealreadydividedlossesintoconstantandvariable;theefficiencywasthenexpressedas
intheeq.giveninpage74.Nowconsidermotoropera on:neglec ngthesmallshuntfield
current,theinputpoweris
Pin=VtIA
Using=1
=1
Page77
P a g e |78
=1
K I +K1+K2IA)
ThisgivesefficiencyasafunctionofarmaturecurrentIA;tolocatethepointofmaximum
efficiency,wedifferentiatetheaboveeq.w.r.tIA,andtofindthemaximumefficiencypoint,
weequatethedifferentialtozero:
d
dI
1
V
K I
Andequatetozero,weget
K2I
ThusmaximumefficiencyoccurswhenthecopperlossesK2I equaltheconstantlossesK
(or,asanapproximation,whenvariablelossesequalconstantlossesi.e.assumingthebrush
contactlossK1IAissmall).Industrialmachinesareusuallydesignedtohavemaximumefficiency
forIAbetweenhalfandfullloadvalues(becausethemachineoperatesatlessthanfullload
mostofthetime);theexactchoiceisnotcriticalbecausetheefficiencycurveisflataroundthe
maximumvalue.
Forindustrialmotors,tractionmotors,andotherpowerapplicationmotors,efficiencyisquite
important,butitisonlyoneofanumberoffactorsthatdeterminehowgoodamachineis;the
otherfactorsincludepower/weightratio,power/costratio,reliability,maintenance
requirements,vibrationandnoise,etc.Forsmallcontrolmotors,efficiencyisoflittle
importance;themainfactorsofinterestincludeaccuracy,cost,size,speedofresponse,
reliability,noise,weight,interference,etc.
Chapter8GENERATOROPERATION
Ingeneratoroperation,adcmachineisdrivenbyaprimemoverandsuppliesanelectrical
load.Wewillexplaintheoperatingcharacteristicsofdcgeneratorsandthefactorsthataffect
them.
8.1Thevoltageequation
Ingeneratoroperation,weareinterestedinthevoltagesuppliedattheoutputterminals.From
KVLandtheinformationofthepreviouschapters,theterminalvoltageofadcgeneratorcanbe
writtenasfollows:
V=EA(IR+Vb)
Page78
P a g e |79
=Ke.n.r(IR+Vb)
=EAoc(IR+Vb+E)
=Ke.n.m(IR+Vb+E)
WhereEA=Ke.n.ristheinducedemfinthearmature,andristheactual(i.eresultant)flux
perpole;EAoc=Ke.n.mistheinducedemfonopencircuit(noarmaturecurrent),andmis
thefluxperpoleduetothemainfield.rmaybesomewhatlessthanmduetothe
demagnetizingeffectofarmaturereaction;Erepresentsthecorrespondingreductionin
inducedemf(E=EAocEA).ThedifferencebetweentheinducedemfEAandtheterminal
voltageVisthesumofseriesresistivedropsIR(inthearmature,seriesfieldwdg,
commutatingwdg,andcompensatingwdg)andthebrushcontactdropVb.Thisequationtells
usthattheterminalvoltageisdeterminedprimarilybythespeednandthemainfieldflux
m,withsomereductionduetoseriesvoltagedropsandarmaturereaction.
Speedofrotation
Thespeedissetattheprimemover,notthegeneratoritself.Ofcoursethegeneratorisa
mechanicalloadontheprimemover,andhenceaffectsitsoperation:astheelectricalloadon
thegeneratorincreases,thearmaturecurrentIAincreasesthusincreasingthedeveloped
torqueTd(=K.IA.r);iftheprimemovertorquedoesnotincreasetobalancetheincreaseinTd,
itwillslowdown(reducingEA,henceIA,henceTd).However,inmanyapplications,theprime
moverisequippedwithautomaticcontrolthatmaintainsthespeedalmostconstant.
Fieldexcitation
Themainfluxmisdeterminedbythefieldmmfthroughthemagnetizationcurve,orwesay
thatEAocisdeterminedbythefieldexcitationcurrentthroughtheOCC.Theshuntfield
excitationmaybecontrolledbymeansofvariableresistanceinserieswiththeshuntfieldwdg,
andtheseriesfieldexcitationmaybecontrolledbymeansofasmallvariableresistor(diverter)
inparallelwiththeseriesfieldwdg.
Voltagedrops
TheseriesresistivedropsIRandthearmaturereactiondropEincreasewithload(why?);the
brushcontactdropVbispracticallyconstantoverthenormalworkingrangeofIA.Thetotal
dropisgenerallysmall(smallwdgresistances,andsmalldemagnetizingeffectofarmature
reaction).Forsimplicity,weshallusethesymbolVforthetotaldrop
V=IR+Vb+E
ThenV=EAocV=Ke.n.m
Page79
P a g e |80
8.2Definitions
Weshallneedthetermsandconceptsdefinedbelowinourdescriptionofgeneratoroperation
andthefactorsthataffectit.
Externalcharacteristic
TheexternalcharacteristicofadcgeneratoristhecurverelatingterminalvoltageVand
terminalcurrentI(i.e.loadcurrent).Thecurveshowshowvoltagechangeswithload.Fora
simplesourcecircuitcomposedofconstantemfinserieswithconstantinternalresistance,the
externalcharacteristicisastraightlinewithnegativeslope.
Theexternalcharacteristicofadcgeneratorwillbedifferentfromthesimplesourcecircuit,
notonlybecauseoftheadditionaldropsVBandE,butalsobecausemitselfmaychange
withload(ifforexamplethegeneratorhasaseriesfield).
Theoperatingpoint(foragivenvoltageVandagivencurrentI)mayalsobefoundgraphically
bydrawingVIcharacteristicoftheload,andintersectingitwiththeexternalcharacteristicof
thesource;theintersectionisthepointthatsatisfiesbothcharacteristicsatthesametime.
VR1I
ER2RoVR
V1E
V2
0I1I2Simplevoltagesource:externalcharacteristicandcircuitdiagram
Forthetypicaldroopingcharacteristicshown,itisseenthatdecreasingtheloadresistance
increasestheloadcurrentanddecreasestheterminalvoltage(R2<R1,I2>I1,andV2<V1).
Remark1:Thegraphicalmethodcanbeusedevenwhentheexternalcharacteristicandthe
loadVIcharacteristicarenonlinear(notstraightlines).
Page80
P a g e |81
Remark2:Theinternalcharacteris cisthecurverela ngtheemfandcurrent.Itisa

horizontallineatEforthesimplesourcecircuitgivenabove,butcanbedifferentin
generators.
Voltagecontrol
Agivenexternalcharacteristiccorrespondstoafixedspeedandfixedsettingsofthefield
controlresistors.Ifthesettingsofthefieldresistorsarechanged,mwillalsochange(sincethe
excitationcurrentsarechanged),andoperationshiftstoanothercurve.
Thereforetheoperatingpointmaybemovedfromonecurvetoanotherbychangingthefield
excitation,asshowninthefig.below.Theterminalvoltagemaybekeptapproximately
constantbyautomaticregulatorsthatsensetheterminalvoltageandincreaseordecreasethe
excitationtokeepthevoltageatthesetvalue.
Voltageregulation
Thevoltageregulationofageneratoratagivenloadis
definedby
Voltageregulation=
Itisafigureofmeritthatindicateshowconstanttheterminal
voltageiswithload;agoodvoltagesourceshouldhavesmall
voltageregulation.Thevoltageregulationofgeneratorsequippedwithautomaticvoltage
controlisalmostzero.
8.3Separatelyexcitedgenerator
Ifthefieldcurrentofaseparatelyexcitedgeneratoriskeptconstant,mandEAocwillbe
constant.Theexternalcharacteris cisthenasshowninfig.8.5:VislessthanEAocduetothe
armaturecircuitresistivedropIARA(linearwithcurrent),thedemagnetizingeffectofarmature
reactionE(nonlinearfunctionofIA),andthebrushcontactdropVb(constantnotshownin
thefigure).The
curvatureofthe
characteristiccomes
fromE.Comparewith
thesimplesourcegiven
above.
Fig.8.5
Page81
P a g e |82
8.4Shuntgenerator
Theexternalcharacteris coftheshuntgenerator,fig8.6,issimilartothatoftheseparately
excitedgenerator,buthasanadditionaldropduetoshuntfieldweakening:
IA V V If m EAoc
Toexplainthisprocessinmoredetail,wefirstdrawtheOCCasinfig8.7;notethattheOCC
isobtainedwiththeshuntfieldwdgdisconnectedfromthearmatureandfedfromaseparate
source.NextwedrawtheVIcharacteristicfortheshuntfieldresistance
V=RfIf
Onthesamegraph.Now,foranyfieldcurrentIf,thepoint(If,EAoc)mustlieontheOCC,and
thepoint(If,V)mustlieontheRfline.AtnoloadtheterminalcurrentIiszerosothatIAis
equaltoIfwhichissmall,sothatwemayneglectthedropV;thustheterminalvoltageVis
equaltotheinducedemfEAoc.Thisconditionissatisfiedonlyatthepointofintersectionof
theRflinewiththeOCC;therefore,atnoload,wehave
If=Ifo,EAoc=Eo,V=Vo,withVo=Eo
Considernextthegeneratoronload.IAhasincreasedsothatthedropVisnowlarge
enoughtomakeVlessthanEAoc.operationhastoshiftfromthepointofintersection:
(If,EAoc)movesdowntheOCC,while(If,V)movesdowntheRfline.Ifwilltakeupapositionat
whichthedifferencebetweenEAocandVisequaltothedropV:
If=If1,EAoc=E1,V=V1,withV1=E1V1
ComparingV1andVo,weseethatthedifferencebetweenthemisthedropV1plusan
additionaldrop(EoE1)duetothereductionoftheinducedemfEAocfromEotoE1
correspondingtothereductionofthefieldcurrentIffromIfotoIf1aswasstatedatthe
beginningofthissection.
AteachvalueofloadcurrentI,thefieldcurrentIfmovestoapositionthatmakesthe
differencebetweentheOCCandtheRflineequaltothedropVthatcorrespondstothat
loadcurrentor,moreprecisely,tothearmaturecurrentIA.IfyoustudytheOCCandthe
Rflinecarefully,youwillseethatthereisacertainIfatwhichthedifferencebetweenthemis
maximum.thereforethereisamaximumarmaturecurrentandhenceamaximumloadcurrent,
Imaxinfig.8.6thisiscalledthebreakdownpoint.
Page82
P a g e |83
Theshortcircuitcurrentoftheshuntgeneratorisinherentlylimited:atSCtheterminalvoltage
ViszerosothatIf=0;theemfisEres(inducedbytheresidualfluxalone)whichisverysmall.
Theresultingarmature
currentistherefore
small.
Fig.8.4shuntgenerator
connectiondiagramand
externalcharacteristic
Fig.8.7open
circuit
characteristic
andfield
resistanceline
forshunt
generator.
Fig.8.8eectoffieldresistance
onvoltagebuildupinshuntgeneratorgenerator.
Voltagebuildup
Theprecedingdiscussionhelpsusunderstandhowthevoltageoftheshuntgeneratorbuilds
up.Assumethatthereisnoloadonthegenerator,andthatthereisanopenswitchinthefield
circuitsothatIf=0,EAoc=Eres,andIA=0.Iftheswitchisnowclosed,EresisappliedtoRf,anda
smallcurrentIfflowscausingEAoctoclimbuptheOCC.ButthisincreasedvalueofEAocisagain
appliedtoRfandwillincreaseIf,whichinturnincreasesEAocsomemore.Theprocess
continueswith(If,EAoc)climbinguptheOCCand(If,V)climbinguptheRflineuntilthetwo
pointscoincideattheintersectionpoint.WesaythattheshuntgeneratorvoltageVhasbuilt
uptoVo;whatstopsthebuildupprocessfromcontinuingindefinitelyisthecurvatureofthe
OCC,i.e.saturation.(Exercise:howdoesKVLapplytothecircuitduringbuildup?).
Page83
P a g e |84
Theprocessofvoltagebuilduprequiresthefollowingconditionstosucceed:
(1) Theremustberesidualfluxtostarttheprocess.Anewgenerator,oronethathasnot
beenusedforlongtime,mustbemagnetizedfirst.Thisisdonebyapplyingaseparate
dcsource(forexampleabattery)tothefieldwdgforashorttime;itiscalledflashing
thefield.
(2) ThefluxproducedbyIfshouldaidtheresidualflux.Ifthefieldwdgisconnectedinthe
reversedirection,thevoltagewillbuilddown,i.e.itbecomeslessthanEres(i.e.
almostzero).
(3) TheresistanceofthefieldcircuitshouldbesmallenoughtointersecttheOCCinthe
saturationregion.AsRfismadelarger,theintersec onmovesdowntheOCC,fig.8.8.
ThefieldresistancelinethatistangenttothelinearpartoftheOCCiscalledthecritical
fieldresistance,Rcritinfig.8.8:ifRfisincreasedfurther,therewillbenobuildup.The
criticalresistanceishigherforhigherspeeds(why?);thecriticalspeedcorrespondingto
agivenfieldresistanceisthespeedatwhichthelinearpartoftheOCCbecomes
tangenttothatresistanceline.Iftheshuntgeneratorfailstobuildupatacertainspeed
duetolargefieldresistance,itmightbuildupatahigherspeed.
(4) Properrelationshipbetweendirectionoffieldconnectionanddirectionofarmature
rotation.
8.5Compoundgenerator
Acompoundgeneratorisessentiallyashuntgeneratorwithadditionalmmffromthe
serieswdg:
MMFtotal=NfIf NsIs
Thecompoundingiscumulativeiftheseriesfieldaidstheshuntfield(plussign);the
compoundingisdifferentialiftheseriesfieldopposestheshuntfield(minussign).Forlong
shuntconnection,Is=IA,andforshortshuntconnectionIs=IAIf IA.Ifadiverterisused,
Ismaybelessthanthesevalues.
TheOCCofacompoundmachinecorrespondstoseparateexcitationofshuntfieldalone.
Dividingtheaboveeqn.bytheshuntfieldturns
Theterm
If
Ieq
I istheseriesfieldexcitationreferredtotheshuntfieldcircuit;Ieq
representstotalexcitationintermsofshuntfieldamperes,andcanbereadoffor
projecteddirectlyonthehorizontalaxisoftheOCC.
Page84
P a g e |85
Cumulativecompounding
Asseeninsection8.4theterminalvoltageofashuntgeneratordropsduetoVandthe
reductioninEAoc.Inacumulativecompoundgenerator,theseriesfieldcompensates
forpartorallofthedrop.Theseriesfieldcurrentchangeswithload why? sothatthe
degreeofcompensationchangeswithload.ThenumberofseriesturnsNsmaybe
chosensuchthattheresultingseriesfieldcompensatesexactlyforthedropatfullload;
thefullloadvoltageisthenequaltothenoloadvoltage zerovoltageregulation ,and
themachineissaidtobeflatcompounded orlevelcompounded see ig8.9.Iffewer
seriesturnsareused,wehaveundercompounding:thefullloadvoltageislessthanthe
noloadvoltage positiveregulation ,butstillmorethantheshuntgeneratorfullload
voltage.Ifmoreseriesturnsareused,wehaveovercompounding:thefullload
voltageisgreaterthanthenoloadvoltage negativeregulation .Itisalsopossibleto
chooseNsforovercompounding,andchangetheactualdegreeofcompoundingby
meansofadiverter avariableresistorconnectedshuntwithseriesfieldwinding .
Differentialcompounding
Whentheseriesfieldopposestheshuntfield,iteffectivelyincreasesthedrops.The
externalcharacteristicisthenbelowthatoftheshuntgenerator, ig.8.9.
8.6Seriesgenerator
TheOCCforaseriesgenerator, ig.8.10,isobtainedwiththe ieldsuppliedfroma
separatesource thearmatureisopencircuitedbydefinition .Innormaloperation,the
fieldwdgisconnectedinserieswiththearmature,andtheterminalvoltageVisless
thantheinducedemfEAocduetothedropV;theexternalcharacteristicisthus
belowtheOCCasshownin ig.8.10.Therisingpartofthecurveisnotstable:aslight
changeofloadresistancecauseslargechangesinterminalvoltageandcurrent.Inthe
saturationregion,theOCCisalmosthorizontal,butVcontinuestoincreasewithIAso
thatthecurveisfalling;thefallissharpinseriesgeneratorsdesignedtohavestrong
demagnetizingarmaturereaction.
8.7Applications
Fordcpowergeneration,theseparatelyexcitedgeneratorhasacceptablevoltage
regulation,buthasthedisadvantageofrequiringaseparatesource.Theselfexcited
shuntgeneratordoesnotrequireaseparatesource,buthaspoorregulation.The
cumulativecompoundgeneratorovercomesthisproblem;itcanbedesignedtohave
zeroregulationbysuitablecompounding.Moderngeneratorsareequippedwith
automaticvoltagecontrol,possiblysolidstate,sothattheyhaveexcellentregulation;
thedesignofthecontrolsystemisdeterminedbytheexternalcharacteristicofthe
Page85
P a g e |86
generator.However,solidstaterectifiersarerapidlyreplacingdcgeneratorsinmost
applications;technologicaladvanceshavemadeitpossibletomanufacturecommercial
solidstatecomponentsofhighrating,i.e.componentscapableofpassinghighcurrents
andwithstandinghighvoltages.Forexample,thedcgeneratorintheautomobilehas
beenreplacedbyanacgenerator alternator withrectifier.
Theexternalcharacteristicsoftheseriesanddifferentialcompoundgeneratorsmake
themunsuitablefordcpowergenerationatconstantvoltage.Thefallingportionsoftheir
characteristicscorrespondtoconstantcurrentoperationoverthatrange.Theseriesgenerator
hasbeenusedasabooster:itisconnectedinserieswiththelinebetweenageneratorandits
load;itsrisingcharacteristiccompensatesforthedropintheline.
Page86
P a g e |87
8.8Paralleloperation
Twodcgenerators,ageneratoranddcpowermains,orageneratorandabattery,
maybeoperatedinparalleltosupplyacommonload.Theoverallcharacteristicisobtainedby
graphicalparalleladdi onoftheirexternalcharacteris cs,fig.8.11.Thefigurealsoshowshow
thetwogeneratorssharetheloadcurrentaccordingtotheirindividualcharacteristics.
Whenweintendtooperatetwogeneratorsinparallel,beforeclosingtheparalleling
switchwemustmakesurethatthevoltagesofthetwogeneratorsareequalandhavethesame
polarity;otherwiselargecurrentsmaycirculatebetweenthem.
Chapter9MOTOROPERATION
Inmotoroperation,adcmachineissuppliedelectrically,anddrivesamechanicalload.
9.1Governingequations
Inmotoroperation,weareinterestedintheoutputtorqueandshaftspeed,andtheir
influenceonthecurrentdrawnbythemotor.Frompreviouschapters,theemfandtorque
equationsforadcmachineare
EA=Ke.n.
And
Td=K.IA.
intheseequationsistheresultantusefulfluxperpole,i.e.itincludesany
demagnetizationduetoarmaturereaction.FromKVL,wehave
EA=V(IR+Vb)
Page87
P a g e |88
Visthevoltageappliedtothemotorterminals,andIRisthetotalseriesresistive
drop(armwdg,commutatingwdg,compensatingwdg,seriesfieldwdg,andanyadditional
seriesresistance).Tosimplifyourstudy,weshallapproximatethisequationto
EA=VIAR
i.ethebrushvoltagedropisignored,andRincludesallresistancesinthepathofthe
armaturecurrent.Dividingtheaboveeqn.byKe.,weget
n=
ThisequationtellsusthatspeedisdeterminedprimarilybytheappliedvoltageVand
theflux,withsomereductionduetotheseriesvoltagedropIAR(whichdependsoncurrent,
andhenceonloadtorque).Theaboveeqn.sallowustounderstandmotoroperation.
Load:torqueandcurrent
ThedevelopedtorqueTdisslightlygreaterthantheloadtorqueTLduetorotational
losses:
Td=TL+Trotloss
Thegreatertheloadonthemotor,thegreaterthecurrentitdrawsfromthesupply.
Theloadtorquedeterminesthecurrentofthemotor.
Actually,theaboveeqn.holdsonlyundersteadystateconditions,i.e.whenthespeedis
constant.Undertransient(ordynamic)conditions,thetwosidesoftheequationarenotequal,
andthedifferencebetweenthemproducesanacceleration
J
=Td(TL+Trotloss)
WhereJisthemomentofinertiaoftherotatingparts(rotor,shaft,andload);
is
theangularacceleration.Theaboveeqn.isadevelopmentfromNewtonslawF=ma(i.e.it
relatestothemechanicsofthesystem).
Supposethatthemotorisrunningatsomeconstantspeedsothat
0.Now
supposetheloadonthemotorsuddenlyincreases:themotorwillslowdownaccordingtothe
dynamiceqn.above.Butthiscausestheinducedemftodecrease.Theresultingincreaseinthe
differencebetweenVandEAmustbebalancedbyanincreaseinthearmaturecurrentIA.The
increaseincurrentincreasesthedevelopedtorqueTd,andtheinitialincreaseinloadtorqueis
thusmet.Themotornowoperatesatsteadystateagain,butatareducedspeed.
Page88
P a g e |89
NotethatiftheseriesresistanceRissmall,thenonlyaslightchangeinspeedis
sufficienttocauselargechangesinarmaturecurrent(andhenceindevelopedtorque).
Afteradisturbance(suddenchangeinload),thetimeittakesthemotortosettleata
newspeediscalledtheresponsetime.Itisdeterminedbytheelectricaltimeconstantofthe
motorandthemechanicaltimeconstantsofthemotorandconnectedload.Incertain
applications,particularlyautomaticcontrolsystems,theresponsemustbequick,andthemotor
isdesignedtohavelowinductanceandlowinertia.
Theseriesresistanceinthearmaturecircuitissmall,sothattheinducedemfEAis
approximatelyequaltotheappliedvoltageV,henceforagivenvalueofflux,thespeedis
determinedprimarilybytheappliedvoltageV.
Thefluxisdeterminedprimarilybythemainfieldmmf(i.e.byfieldcurrent),and
maybecontrolledbyfieldresistors.Thetorqueisdirectlyproportionaltoflux,butthespeedis
inverselyproportionaltoit.Thusanincreaseinfluxtendstodecreasespeed,andadecreasein
fluxtendstoincreasespeed.Clearly,then,armaturereactiontendstoincreasespeed,whilethe
seriesfieldincumulativecompoundmotorstendstodecreasespeed.
9.2Definitions
Weshallneedthetermsandconceptsdefinedbelowinourdescriptionofmotor
operationandthefactorsthataffectit.
Mechanicalcharacteristics
Themechanicalcharacteristicofadcmotoristhecurverelatingthemotorstwo
outputvariables,torqueandspeed;thecurveshowshowspeedchangeswithload.
Wecanrewritetheeqn.ofspeedasfollows:
n=
forconstantVand,theaboveeqn.representsastraightlinewithnegativeslope,
fig.9.2.ThefirsttermontheRHSgivesthever calintercept(noloadspeed),andthe
coefficientofTdinthesecondtermgivestheslope.TheloadtorqueTLisalittlelessthanthe
developedtorqueTd,sothattherelationshipcurvesbelowthestraightline.Theshapeofthe
curvemaybefurthermodifiedduetochangesintheflux(whichaffectsbothslopeand
intercept)asthemotorloadchanges;thefluxchangeswithloadwhenthereisaseriesfield,
andwhenthedemagnetizingeffectofarmaturereactionisnotnegligible.
Page89
P a g e |90
Whenthemotorisdrivingamechanicalload,the
torqueandspeedarefoundfromthemotormechanical
characteristicandtheloadtorquespeedcharacteristic,fig.9.2;
thatis,theoperatingpoint(T1,n1)isfoundgraphically.Fig.
9.3showssometypicalcharacteris csofmechanicalloads.
Stability
Theoperatingpointmayormay
notbestable.Infig.9.4aitisstable:ifthe
speedsuddenlyincreasesfromnton,
theloadtorqueT willbegreaterthan
themotortorqueT ,causing
decelerationbacktotheoperatingpoint
(n,T);theoperatingpointwillalsobe
restoredto(n,T)forasuddendecreasein
speed(tryit).
Infig.9.4b,theopera ngpointisunstable:ifthe
speedsuddenlyincreasefromnton,themotortorque
T willbegreaterthantheloadtorqueT ,causing
accelerationandfurtherincreaseinspeedawayfromthe
operatingpoint(n,T);asuddendecreaseinspeedmay
resultinstall(zerospeed).Clearly,then,thestabilityofthe
operatingpointdependsontherelativeshapesofthemotorandloadtorquespeed
characteristics.
Speedcontrol
n=
indicatesthatthespeedmaybecontrolledbymeansoftheappliedvoltage,
mainflux,andtheseriesresistance;theseparametersmaybeadjustedmanuallyor
automatically.AlthoughthearmaturecurrentIAappearsintheequation,andhenceaffects
speed,itisnotapropercontrollingparameterbecauseitcannotbeadjustedasdesired,butis
determinedbythemechanicalload.
Nowagivenmechanicalcharacteristiccorrespondstoaparticularsettingoftheapplied
voltage,fieldcontrolresistor,andseriesresistance.Ifanyofthesettingsischanged,operation
shiftstoanothercurve.Thereforetheoperatingpointmaybemovedfromonecurveto
anotherbychangingthesettingofoneormoreofthecontrolparameters,fig.9.5.Thespeed
Page90
P a g e |91
maybekeptapproximatelyconstantbyautomatic
regulatorsthatsensetheshaftspeedandadjust
oneofthecontrolparameterstokeepitattheset
value.
Speedregulation
Thespeedregulationofamotoratagiven
loadisdefinedby
SR=
Itisafigureofmeritthatindicateshowconstanttheshaftspeediswithload.Formany
applications,agooddrivemotorisonewhichmaintainsitsspeedconstantoverawiderangeof
loads.Thespeedregulationofmotorsequippedwithautomaticspeedcontrolisalmostzero.
Alowvalueofspeedregulationisnotalwaysdesirable.Thereareapplicationsthat
requirethemotortochangeitsspeedwithload,forexampletokeepthetorqueoroutput
powerconstant.Amainfeatureofthedcmotoristhatitsoperationcanbetailoredtosuitany
typeofloadrequirements.
9.3Constantfluxmotors(permanentmagnet;separatelyexcited;shunt)
Thedifferencebetweenshuntandseparatelyexcitedmotorsisthatthefieldofashunt
motorisfedfromthesamesourceasthearmature,whilethefieldofaseparatelyexcited
motorisfedfromadifferentsource,possiblyatadifferentvoltage.Inbothcases,constant
fieldvoltageandresistanceresultinconstantfieldcurrent(Ifdoesnotchangewithload),and
henceconstantmainfieldflux.Permanentmagnetmotorsalsooperatewithaconstantmain
field.
Ifthedemagnetizingeffectofarmaturereactionisneglected,thedevelopedtorqueTd
willbedirectlyproportionaltothearmaturecurrentIA,sothatthetwovariablesarerelatedby
thestraightlineshowndo edinfig.9.6.Armaturereac onmayreducetheflux,and
hencereduceTd,sothattheactualrelationshipbetweenTdandIAiscurvedslightlybelow
thestraightline.TheloadtorqueTLislessthanthedevelopedtorqueduetorotationallosses,
sothattheTLcurveisslightlybelowtheTdcurve,fig.9.6.Therela onshipbetweentorque
andcurrentissometimescalledthetorquecharacteristicofthemotor.
Page91
P a g e |92
Forconstantfluxmotors,themechanicalcharacteristicisastraightlinewithaslight
nega veslope,fig.9.7.Armaturereac onmayreducetheusefulfluxandhenceincreasethe
speed,sothatthemechanicalcharacteristiccurvesslightlyabovethestraightline.Thisupward
curvaturemayleadtoinstability,itisavoidedbydesigningthemotortohavenodemagnetizing
armaturereaction(bytheuseofinterpoles);andbyaddingaweakseriesfieldtocompensate
forthereductioninflux(stabilizedshuntmotor).
Thereductioninspeedwithloadisverysmallforconstantfluxmotors.Themechanical
characteristicissaidtobehard,andthemotorsoperateinanessentiallyconstantspeedmode.
9.4Seriesmotor
ThemainfieldfluxoftheseriesmotorchangeswithloadcurrentaccordingtotheOCC;
thereforetheseriesmotorischaracterizedbyvariableflux,asopposedtotheconstantflux
motors.Atlightloads,operationisonthelinearpartoftheOCC,sothat
IAandTdI
Thusthetorquecharacteris cfollowsaparabolaatlightloads,fig.9.8.Atheavyloads,
themachinewillbesaturatedsothatthefluxisalmostconstant,andoperationapproaches
thatofconstantfluxmotors
constant>>>>>TdIA
Thetorquecharacteris capproachesastraightlineatheavyloads,fig.9.8.
Applyingthesamereasoningtothemechanicalcharacteristic,weseethat
Atlightloads:n
Andatheavyloads:n
K
(similartoshunt)
Page92
P a g e |93
Themechanicalcharacteris cwillthenhavethegeneralshapeshowninfig.9.9.The
changeofspeedwithloadisquitelarge;themechanicalcharacteristicissaidtobesoft,andthe
seriesmotoroperatesinavariablespeedmode.Themotorhasahighstartingtorque,butthe
torquequicklydecreasesasspeedgoesup.Atnoloadthespeedbecomessohighthatitcan
damagethemotor;thereforeseriesmotorsareneverrununloaded,andarealwaysrigidly
coupledtotheirloads(i.e.beltsareneverused).
9.5Compoundmotors
Acompoundmotorhasbothshuntandseriesfields.Forcumulativecompounding,the
motorcharacteristicswillmovefromshuntc/sinthedirectionofseriesc/sasload
increases(i.e.astheseriesfieldbecomesstronger);seefig.s.9.10,9.11.Theactualshapeofthe
mechanicalc/sisdeterminedbythedegreeofcompounding,i.e.bytheratio ,fig.9.11.
Differentialcompoundmotorshaverisingmechanicalc/sbecauseofthereductioninmainfield
fluxwithload.
Page93
P a g e |94
Armaturevoltagecontrol
InPMandseparatelyexcitedmotors,thevoltageappliedtothemotorcanbevaried
withthefieldremainingconstant.Differentvoltagesthengivedifferentintercepts(differentno
loadspeeds),andwegetafamilyofparallel(i.e.sameslope)mechanicalc/sasinfig.9.12.
Similardownwardshi soccurfortheseriesmotor,fig.9.13.Thesimplestmethodof
obtainingvariabledcvoltageistouseavoltagedivider,butthismethodisimpracticaland
uneconomical;itisusedonlyfortesting.
Inmodernapplications,variabledcvoltageforthearmatureisoftenobtainedfroma
solidstatecontrolledrec fier,withthefieldfedfromanuncontrolledrec fier,fig.9.14.The
firingangleofthecontrolledrectifiermaybechangedmanually,butinpracticeitisadjusted
automaticallyusingaspeedsignalorarmaturecurrentsignal(i.e.load),orbothforoptimum
control.
Inroadvehicles,thesupplyisitselfdc,andhenceneedsnorectification.Voltage
controlisoftenobtainedbyanelectronicchoppercircuit.Choppersmayusepulsewidth
modulationPWMatconstantfrequency,orpulsefrequencymodulationPFMwithconstant
pulsewidth.
AnothereffectivemethodforobtainingsmoothvoltagecontrolistheWardLeonard
system.Thedcmotorisfedfromadcgeneratordrivenbysomeprimemover(egacmotor
Page94
P a g e |95
orDieselengine).Byvaryingthefieldexcitationofthegenerator,thearmaturevoltageofthe
motorvaried(andcanbeevenreserved).Themotorfieldisfedfromanexciter(smalldc
generator)orrectifieratconstantvoltage.TheWardLeonardsystemisgenerallymore
expensivethanasolidstatedrive,buthascompensatingadvantagesforcertainapplications.
Armatureresistancecontrol
Foragivenloadtorque,andhencegivencurrent,placinganexternalresistanceinseries
withthearmature,reducestheemfandhencespeed.Theincreasingvalueofresistance
increasestheslopeofthemechanicalc/s,buttheinterceptremainsunchanged.Armature
resistancecontrolmayalsobeusedwithseriesmotors;atheavyloadsthemachineis
saturatedandoperationapproachesthatofconstantfluxmotorswithslopeincreasingas
resistanceisincreased.Armatureresistancecontrolisinexpensiveandsimpletousewithsmall
motors,butitisimpracticalandwastesenergywithlargemotors.
Fieldcontrol
Thismethodofspeedcontrolmaybeusedwithshuntandseparatelyexcitedmotors.If
thefieldcircuitresistanceisincreased,thefieldcurrent,andhencethemainfield,willbe
reduced,andthespeedwillincrease.Thehigherthefieldresistance,thehighertheintercept
andthegreatertheslope(i.e.thec/sbecomessofter).
Thefluxcannotbereducedindefinitelybecausethespeedbecomestoohighandmay
damagethemotor.Moreover,ifthemainfieldbecomestooweak,thedemagnetizingeffectof
armaturereactionbecomesprominent(relativelylarge)whichmayleadtoinstability.
9.7Starting
Atthemomentthemotorisswitchedon,itisatstandstill,sothatthereisnoinduced
emf.Theentirelinevoltageisappliedacrossthearmatureresistance,sincewehave
V=Istart.RAandIstart=
Thestartingcurrentisthereforeveryhigh,especiallyforlargemotorswhichhavevery
smallarmaturecircuitresistance.Thestartingcurrentmaybemorethan20 mesratedvalue,
andwoulddamagethemotorunlesssomemeansisfoundtolimitit.
Oncethemotorstartstorotate,theinternalemfbeginstobuildupandthusreduce
thecurrentinaccordancetoIA=
Notealsothattherateatwhichtheemfbuildsupdependsontherateatwhichthe
motoracceleratesfromstandstillwhich,inturn,dependsonthestartingtorque;
Page95
P a g e |96
Thatis,ahighstartingtorqueisdesirableforrapidinitialacceleration(andhencerapid
buildupofemf,andhencerapidreductionofthehighstartingcurrent).
Directonlinestarting(DOL)
DOLstartingmeanssimplyconnectingthemotortothesupplythroughaswitch.This
methodcanbeusedonlywithsmallmotorswhere(a)thearmatureresistanceishighenough
tolimitthestartingcurrent,and(b)therotorinertiaissmallenoughtoallowrapid
acceleration(andhencerapidbuildupofemfleadingtorapidreductionofcurrent).
Variablevoltagestarting
MotorssuppliedfromWardLeonardsetsorcontrolledrectifierscanbestartedby
raisingthesupplyvoltagegraduallyfromzero.Thelowinitialvoltageresultsinareduced
startingcurrent.
Resistancestarting
Thisisthemostcommonmethodofstartingdcmotors.Aspeciallydesignedvariable
resistorisconnectedinserieswiththearmature,fig.9.21.Whenthemovingcontactismoved
fromtheOFFpositiontotheSTARTposition,allsectionsofthestartingresistorareinthe
circuitsothatthestartingcurrentislimitedto
Istart=
ThevalueofRstartischosentolimitthestar ngcurrenttoasafevalue,usually1.52.5
timesratedcurrent.Althoughthestartingcurrentisstillgreaterthantheratedcurrent,itis
consideredsafebecauseitflowsonlyforashorttime.Moreover,arelativelyhighcurrentis
neededtoobtainahightorqueforrapidacceleration.
Asthemotorbuildsupspeed(andhenceemf),thestartingresistanceiscutoutsection
bysectionuntilitistotallyoutofthecircuit.Duringthisprocess,thestartingcurrentandthe
inducedemffollowsteppedcurvesoftheformsshowninfig.9.22.Inprinciple,agivensec on
iscutoutwhenthecurrenthasfallentosomeminimumvalue,sayratedcurrent;uponcutting
outsection,thecurrentwilljumpupagaintoavaluelimitedbythesectionsremaininginthe
circuit(maximumsafevalue).
Duringstarting,fullvoltagemustbeappliedtotheshuntfieldwindingtomaketheflux
maximum;thismaximizesstartingtorqueandemf,andpreventsoverspeed(thehighstarting
currentmaycauseseverearmaturereaction,i.e.reducetheflux).Forthisreason,thestarting
resistorisconnectedinthearmaturecircuitandnotintheline,andthefieldcontrolresistoris
shortedoutduringstarting.
Page96
P a g e |97
Fig.9.22Fig.9.21ResistanceStar ng.
Gradingofstartingresistanceofshuntmotors
Eitherlowervalueofcurrentmaybefixedorthenumberofstarterstepsmaybefixed.
Resistanceinthecircuitonsuccessivestudsfromgeometricalprogression,havinga
commonratioequalto
R1
R2
R3
Ra
For4studsstarter:
1234
+A
WhenarmAgoestopoint1IA=Imax= whereR1=RA+starterresistance.
Page97
P a g e |98
Asthemotorspeedsup,itsemfgrowsandhencedecreasesIAasshownbythecurvein
fig.9.22.WhencurrenthasfallentopredeterminedvalueImin,armAismovedtostudNo.2.
letthevalueofbackemfbeEb1atthe meofleavingstudNo.1.Then
Imin=
..(1)
WhenAtouchesstudNo.2,thenduetodiminu onofcircuitresistance,thecurrentagain
jumpsuptoitspreviousvalueImax.sincespeedhadnotimetochange,thebackemfremains
thesameasinitially.
Imax=
..(2)
From(1),and(2),weget
= (3)
WhenAisheldonstudNo.2forsome me,thenspeedandhencebackemfincreasestoa
valueEb2,therebydecreasingthecurrenttopreviousvalueImin,SOTHAT
Imin=
..(4)
Similarly,onfirstmakingcontactwithstudNo.3,thecurrentis
Imax=
.(5)
.(6)
WhenAisheldonNo.3forsome me,thespeedandhencebackemfincreasestoanew
valueEb3,therebydecreasingthearmaturecurrenttoavalueImaxsuchthat
Imin=
.(7)
OnmakingcontactwithstudNo.4,currentjumpstoImaxgivenby
Imax=
..(8)
(9)
From(3),(6),and(9),itisseenthat
= = = =k(say)..(10)
Page98
P a g e |99
Obviously,R3=kRa,R2=kR3=k2Ra
R1=kR2=k3Ra
Ingeneral,ifiisthenumberoflivestudsandtherefore(i1)thenumberofsec onsinthe
starterresistance,then
R1=ki1Raor
Or(
ki1
)i1=ki1
orki1= =
ki=
i=1+
sinceR1=
andRaareusuallyknownandkisknownfromthegivenvaluesofmaximum
andminimumcurrents(determinedbytheloadagainstwhichmotorhastostart),thevalueof
icanbefoundandhencethevalueofdifferentstartersections.
9.8Braking
Whentheelectricsupplytothemotorisswitchedoff,therotationdoesnotstopimmediately,
butcontinuesuntilthekineticenergyoftherotatingparts(rotorandload)isdissipated.Butin
manyapplications,suchaselectrictrains,vehicles,cranes,andlifts,themotormustbestopped
quickly,andhencesomeformofbrakingisrequiredatswitchoff.
Externalbraking
Quickbrakingcanbeachievedbyanexternalfrictionbrakemountedontheshaftandoperated
byasolenoid(electromagnet).Attheinstantthesupplyisswitchedoff,thebrakeisappliedto
stoprotation.Ineffect,thekineticenergyoftherotatingpartsisdissipatedquicklyasheatin
thebrakepads.
Theeddycurrentbrakeisanothertypeofexternalbrake.Itismadeupofaconductingdisc
mountedontheshaft,andasetofstationarycoilsadjacenttothedisc.Attheinstantthe
supplytothemotorisswitchedoff,thebrakecoilsareenergizedtoinduceeddycurrentsinthe
rotatingdisc.Thefieldofthecoilsandthecurrentsofthediscproduceatorquethatopposes
Page99
P a g e |100
rotation(generatoraction)andhenceslowstheshaftrapidly.Ineffect,thekineticenergyofthe
rotatingpartsisdissipatedasheatinthediscofthebrake.
Electricbraking
Insteadofusinganexternalbrake,itissometimespossibletousethepropertiesofthedc
machineitselftoachievequickbraking,ortoassistinbraking.
Indynamicbraking(orrheostaticbraking),aresistor(possiblythestartingresistoritself)is
connectedacrossthearmatureterminalsattheinstantitisdisconnectedfromthesupply.With
theshuntfieldstillexcited,themachineactsasageneratorloadedbytheresistor;the
armaturecurrentreverses,andthedevelopedtorquenowopposesrotation.Ineffect,the
kineticenergyisdissipatedasheatmainlyintheresistor,butalsointhearmaturewdg.During
braking,itispreferabletoenergizethefieldfromthelineandnotfromthearmature;
otherwise,brakingactionstopswhenthespeedfallsbelowthecriticalvalue.
Adcmotorissaidtoberegeneratingwhenitsemfexceedstheappliedvoltagesothatthe
armaturecurrentreversesandthemachinebecomesageneratorthatreturnselectricalpower
tothesupply;thesourceofthepoweristhekineticenergyoftherotatingparts,andhence
regenerationslowsthemotordown.Regenerativebrakingusesthisprincipletoaidinstopping
themotororinslowingitdown;regenerationisachievedbystrengtheningthefieldorby
reducingtheappliedvoltage.Themainadvantageofregenerativebrakingisthesavingof
energy,whichisreturnedtothesupplyandnotdumpedasheatasintheothermethodsof
braking.Itisoftenusedinelectrictrainstoexploitdownhillruns,andincranestoexploitthe
descendingpartofthedutycycle.Regenerativebrakingcanbeusedonlyiftheelectricsupply
iscapableofacceptingelectricalenergyfromthemotor(egchargeablebatteriesordcmains);
standardcontrolledrectifierscannotacceptelectricalpowerfromthemotorunlesstheyare
modifiedforthepurpose(egbytheinclusionofinverters).Inregenerativebraking,thebraking
actionstopswhenthespeedbecomeslowenoughtoreducetheemfbelowtheterminal
voltage.
Astrongbrakingeffectdowntozerospeedisobtainedbyplugging(orcountercurrentbraking).
Thesupplyconnectionstothearmaturearereversed,sothatthesupplyandarmatureemfact
asseriessourcesaidingeachothertocirculateaheavycountercurrent
IA=
Themachineoperatesinthegeneratingmodewithaheavycurrent,andhencewithastrong
brakingtorque.Aserieslimitingresistorisinsertedinthecircuittoavoiddamagingcurrents;if
thestartingresistorisused,thepluggingcurrentwillbetwicestar ngcurrent(i.e.upto5 mes
ratedcurrent).Duringplugging,thekineticenergyoftherotatingpartsplusheavypowerfrom
Page100
P a g e |101
thesupply(VIA)aredissipatedinthearmaturewindingandthelimitingresistor.Thesupply
mustbedisconnectedfromthemotorattheinstantthespeedreacheszero,otherwisethe
motorwillruninthereversedirection.Plugginginvolvessuchheavycurrentsandhigh
mechanicalstressesthatitisusedonlywithsmallmotors.
9.9Modesofoperation
Thefourquadrantdiagramhelps
clarifythevariousmodesof
operationofadcmotor.Thefirst
quadrantcorrespondstostandard
motoroperationinonedirection,
whilethethirdquadrant
correspondstomotoroperation
inthereversedirection.The
secondandfourthquadrants
correspondtogenerator
operation.
Takingthe1stQasreference,itis
seenthatmotoroperationinthe
reversedirec on,3rdQ,requires
reversalofeithertheapplied
voltageorthefieldcurrent.If
botharereversedatthesame
me,motoropera onwillcon nueinthesamedirec on,1stQ.
Ifini alopera onisinthe1stQ,thenthe2ndQcorrespondstodynamicorregenerative
braking.Pluggingalsoshi sopera ontothe2ndQ,butattemptstocontinuetothe3rd;the
supplyisdisconnectedwhentheoperatingpointpassesthroughzerospeed.Ifinitialoperation
isinthe3rdQ,i.e.inthereversedirection,thendynamicbraking,regenerativebraking,and
pluggingoccurinthe4thQ.
Forexample,ifthemotorisusedinliftsorcranes,wehave:
QuadrantI:motorraisesload;
QuadrantIII:motorlowersload;
QuadrantII:motorbrakesupward(inertia)motionofload;
Page101
P a g e |102
QuadrantIV:loadmovesdownbyitsownweightwhilemotorappliesabrakingtorquetokeep
speedconstant.
9.10Applications
DCmotorsarelesscommonthanacmotorsbecauseacmotorsarecheaper,morerobust,
andrequirelessmaintenance,andbecausestandardmainsareac.However,therearetwo
maintypesofapplicationforwhichdcmotorsaremoresuitablethanacmotors:battery
operatedequipment(thinkaboutmotorsusedinvehicles),andapplicationsrequiringaccurate
orflexiblecontrolofspeedortorque.
Batteryoperatedequipmentincludessmallportableapparatus(suchasDVDplayers,cassette
recorders,etc),cordlesstools,andtoys,aswellaselectricdrivesinroadvehicles.Theseare
usuallypermanentmagnetorshunt(fixedexcitation)motors,butoccasionallyseriesmotors.
Thehighstartingtorqueoftheseriesmotormakesitsuitableforselfstarterdutyincars.
Electricvehiclesemploypermanentmagnetorseriesmotors,withspeedcontrolbymeansof
choppers(armaturevoltagecontrol)orarmatureseriesresistance.
Theaccuratecontrolofdcmotorsmakesthemsuitableforservomotordutyinautomatic
controlsystems.Themotorsinsuchapplica onsgenerallyhavesmallpowerra ng(lessthan1
KW),andarerequiredtodrivealoadinaccordancewithacontrolsignalappliedtothe
armature(armaturevoltagecontrol).Theyareusuallyconstantfieldmotors(PMorseparately
excited)designedtohavealowmomentofinertiaforquickresponse,andlinearmechanical
characteristicsforaccuratecontrol.
Theflexibilityofcontrolofdcmotorsmakesthemsuitableforcertainheavypower
applicationssuchaslifts,cranes,hoists,andelectrictraction(electrictrains),aswellascertain
drivesinheavyindustry.Theseapplicationscaninvolvefrequentchangesinspeed,stopsand
starts,andpossiblyreversals.Thehardc/ssofshuntmotorswitharmaturevoltagecontrolare
idealforadjustablespeeddrives,whilethesofterc/ssofcompoundandseriesmotorsare
sometimesexploitedintraction(locomotives)todowithoutdifferentgearratios.
Page102

Electrical DC Machines DR Af-Bati

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Electrical DC Machines DR Af-Bati

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

P a g e |1

Fig.5.6Eectofloadonmagne za oncurve.Fig.5.7Representa onof

Remark2:Theinternalcharacteris cisthecurverela ngtheemfandcurrent.Itisa

You might also like