Chapter 17

Second Language
Reading Development
and
Instruction
t
n
e
m
Funda
als of
Teaching
English to
Speakers
of Other
Languages

Ariza, et.
al.

Angela St-Germain, September

2010

L1 Readers
*Click on the images as they appear to hear more about key phrase to
which it is attached.
*After each sound bite, exit from the webpage to return to the presentation.

Research says:
Reading is a process of 6 skills
1. autorecognition
2. knowledge of vocabulary and structure
3. knowledge of formal discourse and structure
4. prior knowledge of content and world
5. evaluation and synthesis skills
6. metacognitive knowledge and skill monitoring
2

Why does L1 research matter

if we are teaching ESL?
Understanding what fluent readers do
directly impacts how we teach second
language learners.
Skills that we use in our first language
transfer to our second (third, fourth,
etc.) language; therefore, how we read
in our first language impacts how we
will read/learn to read in another
language.
3

Interactive Reading
Approach
Reading is:
an active and constructive process.
NOT a passive process.
a combination of 3 skills:
automatic processing skills
comprehension skills
reasoning skills

This approach combines 3 models of reading:

Cognitive
Psycholinguistic
Sociolinguistic

These concepts will be explained in the following slides.

Psycholinguistics

from:
http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_us1281544#m_en_us1
281544

Psycholinguistics
Reading is interactive and active.
Readers use 3 cueing systems to
construct meaning:
syntactic
What do I, the reader, know about how language
works?

semantic
What do I already know about this concept?
The readers past experiences and background knowledge

graphophonic
Do I recognize this word? If not, can I sound it out?
6

Psycholinguistics
Ultimately, in order to construct meaning, the
reader chooses and uses the most relevant
information from these 3 systems.
Example
A student reads the following sentence:
Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun.
He knows something about Jupiter and the sun (background knowledge =
semantic cue)
He can sound out the words fifth and planet (graphophonic cues)

Using 2 of the cueing systems, the student is able to

understand the whole meaning of the sentence, even
though he may not understand each word in isolation.
7

Sociolinguistics

from:
http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_us1292033#m_en_us12920
8
33

Sociolinguistics
Language is social and conveys
meaning.
Reading involves both the reader and
the writer.
Proficient readers are able to see the
writers thoughts, or figurative
message,
in sociolinguistic
spite of the
more
*These
psycho- and
concepts
wereliteral,
posited by
Kenneth
S. Goodman in the 1960s and 1970s.
printed
message.
*Other experts in reading added that Goodmans model was a
combination of top-down and bottom-up procedures.
9

Top-Down or BottomUp

m
o
t
t
o
B

Top
-

Do
wn

If you are at the top, you

have seen everything
you have the big
picture. You can use the
knowledge that you
have.

p
-U

Imagine a Pyramid

If you are at the

bottom, you have
work to do before
you can get that
picture. You have
to build your
knowledge.
10

Top-Down or BottomUp

m
o
t
t
o
B

p
-U

gas pedal + brakes

+
wipers + headlights
+
dashboard + steering
wheel
+

Top
-

I know
what a
car is and
I will learn
all of the
parts of
the car to
understan
d cars
better.

Do
wn

Or think about this:

I will learn
about the
individual
pieces of
the car to
build
understandi
ng about
cars.

11

How does that relate

to teaching reading?
Bottom-Up Teaching

Top-Down Teaching
Teachers emphasize meaning
by creating lessons requiring
students to:

use background knowledge

use text mapping strategies
preview text
understand and discuss key
vocabulary

Early readers tend to memorize

the entire text before focusing
on individual words.

To ease the learning

process, Teachers segment
the large reading task into
small components

Letter and word identification

Letter/sound correspondence
Phrase identification
Reading in meaning chunks

Instruction starts with

simple tasks and moves
to more complex tasks.

12

So what
To summarize so far:
L1 and L2 reading is similar
L2 readers use all of their knowledge (print, sound,
discourse, semantics, grammar) to build meaning
while they read.
SO Background knowledge affects the readers
interpretation of what they read. Which means that
A PERSONAL CONNECTION PRECEEDS THE
AUTHORS INTENDED MEANING. *
*This differs from how many of us were
taught
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A Theory

SCHEMA RESEARCH THEORY

14

Schema Research
Theory
Background knowledge is important
Reader centered model
Texts provide direction for interpretation,
but it is the reader who brings the
background knowledge ,
or schemata
Formal
text structures and genres

Content
knowledge of the context
15

Schema Research
Theory
Children show, early on, that they
understand story grammar, or the
main components of the story.
Characters
Problem
Action
Outcome

16

Schema Research
Theory
Understanding text structure is
important.
Text structures facilitate
comprehension because they
enable use of reading skills:
Predicting
Summarizing
Locating information
Message Recall
17

Schema Research
Theory
Narrative texts are usually easier than
expository texts because
narrative texts usually have familiar
content.
expository texts have a more complex
structure and often use various structures in
the same text.
expository texts tend to use complicated
grammatical structures and phrases that are
uncommon in everyday conversation.
18

Schema Research
Theory
Patterns in Expository Texts
Attributive
Main ideas are followed by supporting details

Compare/Contrast
Similarities and differences are identified and
evaluated.

Cause/Effect
A cause and effect relationship is established and
discussed.

Problem/Solution
A problem is identified and solved, or possible
solutions are given.

Pro/Con
Arguments for and against a topic are explored.

19

Schema Research
Theory
How can I use this knowledge to help ELLs
become proficient readers?
*Teach students how to identify and use cohesive
ties. These are KEY to navigating confusing or
difficult text and grammatical structures.
*Use concept maps or other graphic
organizers (pp. 250-251) to teach structures
and facilitate comprehension.
*Be flexible and use teachable moments when
they present themselves.
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Rosenblatt

TRANSACTIONAL THEORY OF
READING
21

Transactional Theory of
Reading
Neither the text nor the reader has
the meaning.
The meaning comes with the
transaction between the reader and the
text that s/he is reading.
2 differing reader approaches or
attitudes:
Efferent
Aesthetic
22

Transactional Theory of
Reading
Efferent stance
Focus is on getting information.
Solving an equation, reading instructions, etc.

Aesthetic stance
Focus is on experiencing the text.
Literature often requires thought and reflection
about ones self resulting in an aesthetic stance.
Promoting an aesthetic stance is important.
Readers may take one or both stances at the same
time. They also may change stance based on task
requirement and/or experience with the text.
23

Making Connections

READING & WRITING

24

Reading & Writing

Reading

Writing

There are similar patterns and skills used in

both processes.
To make meaning, both activate schemata
about
language
content
form

Skills applied include

phonics
syntax
text genres
conventions
25

Reading & Writing

Reading

Writing

Good readers form ideas and opinions while they

are reading
Their writing can be based on these ideas and opinions.

Research on ELLs also shows a reciprocal

relationship between reading and writing
Understanding of the structure of texts and
choosing how to write varies from culture to
culture.
Knowing this, ELLs who study the rhetoric of the
English language will be able to better understand
what they read and communicate more effectively.
26

The Interactive Perspective

WHY SHOULD ESL TEACHERS

CARE?
27

The Interactive
Perspective
It identifies qualities of good readers
-this is equally
AND those of poor readers
important!
It identifies bottom-up
and top-down

skills needed for comprehension and

interpretation.
It implies that both high and low-level
skills are fundamental to good reading.
It shows that reading is a combination
of linguistic analysis and
comprehension strategies.

28

Another Perspective

SOCIAL-INTERACTIONIST
PERSPECTIVE
29

Social-Interactionist
Perspective
Learning language is a social process.
Lev Vygotsky 1978 Russian
psychologist
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)
Through interaction, learners moveprogress
from where they are now (the zone of actual
development) to where they CAN be (the zone
of potential development).
In order to progress, learners need constant
guidance and stimulation using RELEVANT
and PERTINENT knowledge of the world and
vocabulary that will raise [their] thinking to
30
higher levels.

Literacy Instruction

CRITICAL READING AND

THINKING
31

CRITICAL READING AND

THINKING
ELLs
CAN handle the content if it is made accessible to them.
are expected to function in a highly literate, technological
society.
must be able to think critically, choose important
information and evaluate input in order to make judgments

Teachers must
break the COMPLEX academic content into smaller
components.
use scaffolded strategies

teach, use and facilitate the use of ACADEMIC

LANGUAGE
Content area reading is good for this!
32

The Role of Questions in

Comprehension and Critical Thinking
Because questions guide students understanding
and interpretation of texts, we (teachers) MUST
carefully plan questions.
Low-level questions
ask students to recall information that has been learned
Examples:
Who is the main character?
What formula do we use to find perimeter?

High-level questions
require students to go beyond what is directly presented in
the text.
Examples:
The main characters best friend died. If you died today, what you would
you want people to say about you?
Is love essential to life?
33

Questioning ELLs
Teachers can structure for success by
asking high and low-level questions.
recognizing the students abilities
with content knowledge
with the language itself (Lg. proficiency)

focusing on meaningful and relevant

concepts.
using clear language and scaffolding
strategies to make questions
comprehensible.
sequencing questions logically to guide

34

WHY

IS READING DIFFICULT FOR

L2 LEARNERS?
35

Why is it difficult?
Second Language (L2) readers lack
L2 proficiency
relevant background knowledge/experience in reference to
the text
Think about:
lack of socio-cultural knowledge
lack of vocabulary and grammatical structures in L2
negative transfer (interference)
This happens when the learner uses vocabulary (false
cognates) or grammatical structures from the L1 but it
doesnt work in the L2.
This can be frustrating and cause confusion because,
often, transfer works and makes reading easier (especially
for students who already have an academic background).
36

More difficulties
Orthographic systems
If they come from a logographic system (Chinese),
the English symbols are brand new
they are not used to using graphophonics in addition to
context to understand meaning

If they come from a syllabic system (Japanese),

they are used to symbols representing syllables
English symbols, letters, represent individual sounds.

If they come from an alphabetic system (Russian),

Letter symbols and directionality (left to right vs. right to
left) are often different.

37

and even more

difficulties.
Social contexts vary from culture to
culture
In their culture, are they allowed to
question or reinterpret the truth that
they read in books?
What are their expectations for using
literacy?

38

BUTthere are
advantages!
Students with an academic background
already have a large vocabulary base
in the L1 so vocabulary acquisition will
be easier.
These students also have conceptual
knowledge so can concentrate on the
language itself not always both the
content and the language.
Motivation is high in at least one of the
2 areas.

39

How can we help?

Congratulations you are already 1 step closer to
helping your students! You are AWARE of difficulties
and willing to do something about it!
We can:
provide necessary background knowledge.
preview texts for unfamiliar structures and vocabulary.
Then modify it as needed to make it comprehensible to the
reader.
expose students to various structures and expressions
and cease teachable moments to familiarize students with
them.
plan meaningful activities relevant to our students
learning styles, cultural background and personal
needs.
40

Are needs being met?

CHARACTERISTICS OF
READERS
41

Beginners
They are probably unfamiliar with our alphabet and
must be taught to read left to right.
They must learn and understand sound/symbol
correspondence.
They need to develop a larger sight vocabulary.
They can understand short, simple texts with
predictable structures.
For some, regardless of age, this may be their first
experience with reading and/or writing. They will
need many opportunities to develop these skills.
Students will need to understand the purpose of
their literacy use.
42

Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
The Language Experience Approach (LEA)
is easier for beginner readers.
helps learners feel like part of a community.
is easy for parents and home literacy activities.
allows learners to use their personal experiences
Lets learners dictate their experience to the teacher.
require that the teacher write the story and then
uses it to instruct reading.
uses 4 skills + 1
Reading, Writing, Listening, Speaking (+1 Thinking)

is teacher led instruction which allows the learner to

think and reflect.
43

Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
LEA
2 Approaches to recording dictated experiences
Record students exact words with minimal rephrasing
Shows acceptance of students language
Minimizes chance of student reading unfamiliar language

Record students words, but correct mispronounced words

Reinforces graphophonic awareness
Draws on students culture so they read texts with familiar and
personally interesting content
Good foundation for L2 literacy.

LEA can be used for content area learning

as well!
44

Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
LEA Steps (brief overview)
1. Class shares/talks about shared personal
experiences.
2. Teacher encourages contributions to dictated story.
3. Students read and discuss their story. They can
make revisions as they go along (usually after
teacher models technique).
4. Teacher encourages choral reading, then echo
reading (each student gets to read a section
independently).
5. Teacher uses the story in activities that introduce
students to various types of print.
45

Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
Reading Aloud
Benefits all ages and abilities
Makes reading fun
Models good reading practices
Assists students in developing print concepts,
phonics knowledge, sight vocabulary and
comprehension.
Should consist of texts with predictable
structures and supporting graphics.
Can connect to and support (or be supported
by) themed units being taught.
46

Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
Reading Aloud
Teachers should model good reading practices

How to hold a book

Directionality of reading
Pre-reading activities questioning, predicting, etc.
During reading activities predicting, thinking aloud,
clarifying, etc.
Appropriate language patterns (teacher or taped reading)

Teachers can support comprehension and listening.

Choose several words and substitute them while reading.
Students can listen for and point out mistakes.
Students can eventually do this on their own in small groups.
This is good for content area reading as well.

47

Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
Choral Reading
encourages participation in dramatic activities.
is good for introducing vocabulary words,
sentence and language patterns.
are best when the text has repeated structures
and patterns.
works well when accompanied by graphic aids
and other forms of visual support.
*Be careful with texts that have nonsense words
this can interfere with comprehension.
48

Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
Literature Circles
are discussion groups.
allow for student choice, although teacher can choose
for ability level.
work well in cooperative learning groups.
are usually 5-6 students reading the same text but at
various proficiency levels.
keep students accountable through individual group
roles while practicing good reading strategies

Discussion leader
Summarizer
Reporter
Illustrator
Word chief
Connector

49

Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
Shared Reading with Big Books
allows the students to read big books along with
the teacher.
uses oversized, colorfully illustrated books with
1-3 sentences per page.
has predictable structures and language
patterns.
allows students to buy or make their books.
allows students to write their own versions of a
book.
allows students to engage in fun activities while
learning to read and write, learn new vocabulary
and practice the languages rhythm and syntax.

50

Strategies for Teaching

Beginner Readers
Thematic Units
organize instruction around a central idea.
necessitate student-teacher collaboration
and inquiry and allow for holistic assessment.
has several advantages.
Cross-curricular content helps students make
connections and use higher order thinking.
Helps students see connections across the span of
literacy objectives (read, write, listen, speak, think)
Integrates content with Language Arts for flexible
planning allowing teachers to structure for success.

51

Intermediate
Readers
are more fluent, although not quite
proficient.
have larger vocabulary.
are familiar with a wider variety of
texts.
still require extensive work in reading
and writing, although they may speak
fluently and be able to discuss their
texts.
need scaffolded instruction and

52

Strategies for Teaching

Intermediate Readers
Directed Reading-Thinking Activity
(DR-TA)
coaches students to make connections
between printed material and meaning.
requires that students respond to questions
in specified segments of the texts.
helps develop good reading strategies.
can be used with narrative and expository
texts.
asks students to predict, think about and
reflect upon what they read.

53

Strategies for Teaching

Intermediate Readers
Graphic Organizers
help students understand what they read.
facilitate comprehension of difficult
expository texts.
can be used during all stages of the
reading process.
allow students to see hierarchy and
connections within texts.
enhance student learning and higher level
thinking.
54

Strategies for Teaching

Intermediate Readers
Learning Logs/Journals
encourage students to think, write and
reflect about what they read.
allow for real world discussion,
clarification, and evaluation of concepts in
the text.
can be as structured or unstructured as
the teacher wishes.

55

Literature Selection

SELECTING APPROPRIATE
MATERIALS FOR ESL
READERS

56

Appropriate Literature for

ELLs
Reminder
ESL students lack knowledge of academic language
The material chosen by the teacher matters!
*See pages 274-279 for specific
Suggested criteria*
examples.
Introduce language components in L2.
Begin with predictable patterns and structures.
Use multicultural and global resources.
Scaffold presentation dont start with the most difficult first!
Offer a variety of genres (reading and writing).
Differentiate for learner differences.
Encourage independent reading.
Notice students level of background knowledge.
Use real-world materials.
Use content area materials/textbooks.
Use materials with illustrations.
57

Assessment!

READING ASSESSMENTS
58

Assessment
Reading is a developmental process
Integration of reading, writing and
language arts

Norm-Referenced tests are not enough

Need alternative, authentic
*See pages 279-292 for
assessments*
examples.
Anecdotal records
Informal reading inventory
Miscue analysis
Self-assessment
Running records

59

Assessment
Anecdotal Records
Observation notes
Can be spontaneous or planned
Can record information that would not
show on a test
Identifies quality of comprehension,
strategies, difficulties and successes
Checklists can be tuned to individual
students and are easy for teachers to use.
Good for behavioral issues as well
60

Assessment
Informal Reading Inventory
Records errors in oral reading and
comprehension
Determines students reading levels
Good placement test
Consist of read aloud and silent reading
passages
Begin at low level and keep reading higher
texts until reach independent reading level
ELLs need extra consideration when
scoring Are the errors getting in the 61

Assessment
Miscue Analysis
another test to identify oral reading errors
Steps
Student does a cold read of grade level text (no more than 200
words)
Teacher has a photocopy of the text a tape recorder.
Teacher instructs student in procedure and student reads then
teacher asks questions to assess comprehension.
Student can listen to him/herself on the tape.
Teacher can go back and analyze the taped reading to check
for miscues.
Miscues are analyzed for their role in student comprehension
of text.
Only errors that interfere with meaning are counted, although
other errors can be analyzed and used to help students in
other areas of the language.
62

Assessment
Self-Assessment
Metacognitive knowledge often neglected in
assessment
Research shows that students who engage in selfassessment are more successful.
Helps with goal-setting.
Can be discussed in groups and with the teacher.
Multiple forms:

Checklists
Rubrics
Sentence completion
Learning logs
Reflection logs/journals

Not necessary for students to know how to read in L2

63

Assessment
Running Records
Informal assessment
Oral reading errors determine:
Word recognition skills
Strategies used by reader
Appropriateness of material (level of reader)

Texts usually 100-200 words

Teachers select text or student can choose
Teachers DO NOT have a copy of student text
Teachers take notes to assess students
comprehension when they (the students)
retell the story orally.
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Things to
Remember

*ESL students acquire

language in many ways like
first language learners.
*ESL students bring all of
their past experiences to the
table (classroom ) with
them. These experiences can
be used to help students
read, write, speak and listen.
*Never dumb down the
content for your students.
They want to be respected
and valued for the knowledge
that they do have. You simply
have to make the language
accessible to them this
takes work, but is well worth
your time when your students
are proud of their language
use!
*Being an ESL teacher is a
positive, rewarding
experience and worth every
minute that you put into it!
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