What is soap?

Soap is a salt that is formed from the reaction between an alkali and a fatty acid, RCOOH

source:http://pernille.typepad.com

-sodium palmitate
-sodium stearate
-sodium laurate
-sodium oleate

What is the history of soap manufacturing?

How is soap made?

Stage 1

The two parts of the oil or fat (ester) molecules are separated by heating the oil
with alkaline solution through the hydrolysis process.

In this process, the oil or fat (ester) molecule is broken up into fatty acid and
glycerol by water in the presence of alkali which acts as a catalyst.
Example:

Stage 2

The fatty acid that is released in Stage 1 reacts with alkali to form sodium salt
fatty acid which is soap
Example:

What is detergent?

Is a salt that is produced from the reaction between an alkali and a sulphonic acid.
Detergent is also the sodium salt of sulphonic acid. Examples:-sodium alkyl
-sodium dodecyl sulphate ( sodium lauryl sulphate)

How is detergent made?

-This is a process diagram of detergent production.

-Sodium alkyl sulphate can be prepared through a neutralisation reaction between an alkyl sulphonic
acid with a sodium hydroxide solution.

-The sodium dodecyl sulphate detergent is prepared through a neutralisation reaction

between the dodecyl sulphonic acid and a sodium hydroxide solution.

How Does Soap and Detergent Work?

Generally, the soap ion structure can be represented as below

Soap molecules can reduce the surface tension of water to allow it to wet a material's
surface better.

 The soap molecule dissolves in water and reduces the surface tension of water. Water
wets the dirty surface.
The hydrophylic region dissolves in water.
The hydrophobic region dissolves in dirt such as grease.
The tail region emulsifies and breaks up the grease into small drops.

When shaken, the water molecules will attract the soap ions and cause the grease to
detach from the surface of the material.
The soap bubbles to help float the grease emulsion in the water. When rinsed, the
grease will be removed with the water.

How is soap and detergent different in hard water?

Hard water?
Hard water is the water that contains mineral salts, of which the majority of it
are calcium and magnesium ions.

What are detergent additives for?

My Soap Survey...

1.Shokubutsu

Comments: Uses Potassium Laureate, and Streareth as its soap agent. Also uses orange
peel oil Tetrasodium EDTA as fragrance.

2.Detol

Comments:Uses Sodium Laureth Sulfate as its soap agent.

3.Guardian, Syringa cream hand wash

Comments:Uses Sodium Laureth Sulfate as its soap agent.

References
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
-Google Images
Posted by Sarah at 6:06 AM 1 comment:
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Tuesday, December 13, 2011

FoodAdditives
The Purpose of Food Additives

Example and Function of Food Additives

My Food Additive Survey

Chupa Chups: Contains mixed fruit pure as flavouring, and colouring.

Sunquick cordial: Contains flavouring, conditioner, preservatives and colouring.

Fitnesse Cereal: Contains artificial flavour, emulsifiers and stabilizers.

Heinz Farley's Rusk: Contains emulsifiersand fish oil as flavouring.

Lee Choco Chips: Contains flavouring.

Mum's Bake Cookie: No additives detected.

Oriental Rota Prawn Crackers: Contains artificial colouring and MSG as flavour enhancer.

Lee Special Cookies: Contains emulsifiers, conditioner and flavouring.

Choki Choki: Contains emulsifiers.

Sunsweet Dry Prunes: Contains preservatives.

Prego: Contains conditioner.

Nutella: Contains emulsifiers and flavourings.

Disadvantages of Food Additives

Effects on health
Food additives if taken in access can cause side effects. For instance, the colourings in food can
cause hyperactivity in children. And also, some people are allergic to food additives such as
flavourings and preservatives.
Effects on the environment
Food additives require chemicals and processing, which require the use of more energy
to produce the food. So food additives contribute to a higher carbon footprint for
whatever food product it is, which thus contributes to the carbon greenhouse gases that
should be curbed right now. The food products are like Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) to
make food tastier.
Advice
I would advice to reduce the intake of processed food, especially the ones that contain a lot of food
additives because not only you risk your own life but also the environment as said above. And you
know who uses the environment, rite? =)

References
http://greenanswers.com/q/66107/food-agriculture/beverage/how-do-additives-hurt-environment
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
Posted by Sarah at 8:03 AM 2 comments:
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Medicine
Traditional Medicine
Source: usually comes from plants (herbs) or animals.

Example and uses:

Aloe Vera: Treats skin disease, Relieves skin wounds resulting from contact with hot things.
Garlic: Treats high blood pressure, Prevents cancer and flu.
Turmeric: Treats ringworm and liver disease, Cures diarrhoea.
Bee's Honey: Relieves pain of skin that has been scalded by hot things.

Traditional Chinese medicine

Traditional medicine

Modern Medicine

Side Effects of Medicine

Traditional
Photosensitivity
Individuals taking St. John's wort to treat depression or anxiety may find their
skin becoming more sensitive to the sun. They may burn more easily. Typically,
fair-haired and light-skinned Caucasians have the highest incidence of
photosensitivity, but this herbal side effect is thankfully rare. Typical cases of
photosensitivity occur when people take very high doses of St. John's wort, or
take it over a long period of time. If taking St. John's wort, avoid too much sun
exposure.
Skin Irritation
Topical herbal antifungal and antibacterial agents such as tea tree
oil and lavender may cause rashes or skin irritation, especially if used at full
strength. Before using any topical herbal product, try a skin patch test. Place a

small amount of the product on the inside of the elbow on one arm only. Wait a
few days. If the area remains clear, proceed with using the herbal product.
Sleepiness
Everyone's body is different, and some people are more sensitive to herbs than
other people. Herbs used to treat anxiety, depression and insomnia may cause
excessive daytime sleepiness in certain individuals. These herbs include
chamomile, valerian and kava kava, with valerian and kava being the most
likely culprits. Avoid driving or using machinery until you're sure of the effects
of the herb.
Drug Interactions
Drug interactions are serious side effects of herbal medicine. Many commonly
used medications interact with herbs. Herbs may amplify the effect of the
medication, as in the case of sedatives, anesthetics, and blood thinners.
Others may block the drug from working. This can lead to dangerous
consequences.
Interaction with General Anesthesia
One of the most common side effects of herbal medicine is its interaction with
pharmaceutical drugs. Of particular danger is the interaction between herbs
and anesthetics. Many people undergo general anesthesia for outpatient
procedures and diagnostic tests as well as major surgical procedures. Certain
herbs, such as kava kava and valerian, may magnify the effect of sedatives and
general anesthetics.
Patients must tell their anesthesiologist about all herbs, supplements,
vitamins, pharmaceutical medications and alternative remedies they are taking
to avoid dangerous drug interactions. TheAmerican Society of
Anesthesiologists advises patients not to take herbal remedies two weeks
prior to receiving any anesthesia because so many herbs can interact with
anesthetics as well as cause other complications during surgical procedures.
Many doctors also advise against taking dietary supplementsprior to surgery
for the same reason.
Liver Inflammation
Echinacea, one of the most popular herbs used to boost the immune system
and battle colds, may also cause liver inflammation when it interacts with
certain pharmaceutical compounds. Echinacea may also prevent certain
medications used to treat lupus and other immune-system disorders from
working.
Modern
1. The inability to truly cure, which results in 40% of the American population suffering from a serious
chronic disorder.
2. Adverse side effects, which result in 180,000 deaths per year.

Examples
High blood pressure (hypertension). Modern medicine uses various drugs to drop the blood
pressure - without considering why the body had elevated it in the first place.

Angina - Modern medicine uses drugs to "cover-up" the symptoms of angina and other
forms of heart diease, without telling you you can actually reverse the damage that is causing it!

High Cholesterol - modern medicine uses drugs to artifically force lower cholesterol levels,
without thinking about WHY the body raised them in the first place (clue: it is a defensive
mechanism!)

Depression - modern medicine dopes adults and (increasingly) kids with toxic drugs to
cover up pyschiatric / psychological issues that are caused by malnutrition, plain and simple.
(specifically, a chronic lack of omega-3 fatty acids)

3. Iatrogenic disease of epidemic proportions.

4. Escalating costs that prohibit many from seeking appropriate modern health services.
5. The failure to prevent disease and suffering.

Correct Usage of Traditional and Modern Medicine

Modern
Modern medicine like antibiotics, analgesics and psychotherapeutic medicines can only be taken
under doctor's supervision or obtained through a prescription.
Antibiotics given by the doctor must be consumed within the stipulated time frame this is important to
ensure that all the bacteria that is causing the sickness has been killed by the antibiotics. Otherwise
some of the bacteria that are still alive in the body may develop a resistance towards the antibiotic.
when this happens, the same antibiotics will not be able to cure the disease or a very high dosage is
needed to cure the same disease in the future.
Analgesics such as paracetamol and aspirin must be taken only upon the advice of a doctor. Long
term consumption of analgesics can damage the liver and kidneys.
So, my advice is, follow the doctors advice always as they know better. =)

DRUG ABUSE
Usual Drugs Abused
Tobacco
Alcohol
Heroin
Marijuana

Why Teenagers Take Drugs

Teenagers that feel pressured and are not able to handle that are prone to drug abuse because the
drugs mentioned above stimulate relaxation and this makes them forget about their problems and
thus will lead to addiction from frequent consumption.

Side Effect of Drugs on Health

Nicotine: Increased blood pressure, and heart rate/chronic lung disease; cardiovascular
disease; stroke; cancers of the mouth, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, stomach, pancreas,
cervix, kidney, bladder, and acute myeloid leukemia; adverse pregnancy outcomes;
addiction
Alcohol: In low doses, euphoria, mild stimulation, relaxation, lowered inhibitions; in
higher doses, drowsiness, slurred speech, nausea, emotional volatility, loss of
coordination, visual distortions, impaired memory, sexual dysfunction, loss of
consciousness/increased risk of injuries, violence, fetal damage (in pregnant women);
depression; neurologic deficits; hypertension; liver and heart disease; addiction; fatal
overdose
Marijuana: Euphoria; relaxation; slowed reaction time; distorted sensory perception;
impaired balance and coordination; increased heart rate and appetite; impaired learning,
memory; anxiety; panic attacks; psychosis/cough, frequent respiratory infections;
possible mental health decline; addiction

Heroin: Euphoria; drowsiness; impaired coordination; dizziness; confusion; nausea;

sedation; feeling of heaviness in the body; slowed or arrested breathing/constipation;
endocarditis; hepatitis; HIV; addiction; fatal overdose

Impact of Drug Abuse to Society

The abuse of drugs cause social and economic issues. As crime rate in society increases, the
demand of drug trafficking also increase. This effects nearly all aspects of our lives.

How to Prevent Drug Abuse

A number of different prevention approaches have been found

to be effective in decreasing the risk of drug abuse and
addiction. Simple lifestyle changes, like increased physical
activity, are thought to help prevent drug abuse in teens. There
is also formal programs that are found helpful in preventing
drug abuse.

References
http://www.mum.edu/physiology/hazards.html
http://www.natural-health-information-centre.com/modern-medicine.html
http://herbs.lovetoknow.com/Side_Effects_of_Herbal_Medicine
http://drugabuse.gov/DrugPages/DrugsofAbuse.html
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
-Google Images
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Saturday, September 3, 2011

Ammonia
Uses

The Properties of Ammonia

Haber Process
Ammonia is commercially produced by the Haber Process. This is a flow chart to show the stages in
the manufacture of ammonia, starting with the raw materials.

Ammonium Fertilisers
examples of ammonium fertilisers:

Ammonium phosphate

Ammonium nitrate

Ammonium sulphate

The Effectiveness of Ammonium Fertilisers

It could be measured through determining its percentage of nitrogen content. Plants needs nitrogens to
grow. Usually nitrogen is absorbed by plants in soluble nitrate ions from soils. Ammonium fertilisers consist of
ammonium ions. Bacteria in the soils convert ammonium ions into nitrate ions which absorbed by plants
together with water. fFertiliser with higher percentage of nitrogen content is more effective.
To determine nitrogen content in ammonium fertilizer,

Comparison of Common Fertilizers

Fertiliser

Ammonium Sulphate,
(NH4)2SO4

Ammonium Nitrate,
NH4NO3

Molar mass

(14+(1)4)2+32+(16)4=132

14+(1)4+14+(16)3=80

Percentage of
nitrogen in 1 mol

16/132 x 100% = 12.121%

28/80 x 100% = 35%

You should calculate the percentage of nitrogen content in each fertiliser and compare which one has
higher percentage of nitrogen content. You'll know which fertiliser from the list is more effective.
From this example, ammonium nitrate is more effective.

PreparationofAmmoniumNitrate

Aim:Toprepareammoniumnitrate
Material:1moldm3ammoniasolution,NH3
Material : 1 mol dm-3 ammonia solution, NH3(aq), 1 mol dm-3 nitric acid, NO3, red litmus paper.
Apparatus : 250 cm3 beaker, glass rod, tripod stand, Bunsen burner, wire gauze, filter funnel, filter
paper, measuring cylinder, dropper, asbestos tile.

Procedure :
1. Measure 50 cm3 of 1 mol dm-3 nitric acid, HNO3, with a measuring cylinder and pour into a 250 cm3 beaker.
2. Add 1 mol dm-3 ammonia solution, NH3 (aq), drop by drop from a dropper into the nitric acid, HNO3, while
stirring until an excess amount is used (when ammonia is smelt).
3. Pour the mixture into an evaporating dish.
4. Boil the mixture until it evaporates to form a saturated solution.
5. Cool the saturated solution to room temperature until crystal salts form.
6. Filter and rinse the crystals with a little cold distilled water.
7. Dry the salt crystals on a filter paper.
Analysis : Neutralisation occurs between nitric acid, HNO3, and ammonia solution, NH3(aq), and can
be represented by the chemical equation below:
2NH3(aq) + HNO3 NH4NO3
Conclusion : Ammonium nitrate, NH4NO3, salt can be prepared from the reaction between nitric acid,
HNO3, and ammonia solution, NH3(aq).
Discussion :

1. The mixture formed in the beaker can be tested from time to time with red litmus paper. The adding of ammonia
solution, NH3(aq), drops are stopped when the red litmus paper turns blue.
2. The chemical equation of the reaction between ammonia aqueous solution and nitric acid, HNO3, can be written
as below:
HNO3(aq) + 2NH4OH(aq) NH4NO3(aq) + 2H2O(l)
However, only about 2% of the dissolved ammonia forms ammonium and hydroxide ions.

References
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
Posted by Sarah at 10:08 AM 2 comments:
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SulphuricAcid
Its Uses

Contact Process
Sulphuric Acid is manufactured through the contact process. This is a flow chart to show the steps in
the production of sulphuric acid by the Contact Process, starting from the raw materials until you
finally get the sulphuric acid.

Sulphur Dioxide
This is one of the by-products of the Contact Process. It causes environment pollution. But before
that, let us see the main sources of sulphur dioxide.

Now that we know the sources of sulphur dioxide, let us see the effects of sulphur dioxide towards
human health.

Severe airways obstruction,

Hypoxemia (insufficient oxygenation of the blood),

Pulmonary edema (a life threatening accumulation of fluid in the lungs)

Skin irritation

Eye irritation

Smarting of the eyes and lachrymation (tears)

Permanent pulmonary impairment (prolonged exposure)

may cause Cancers such as lung cancer, stomach cancer or brain tumours

Acid Rain
AcidrainhasapHbelow5.6duemainlytothereactionofwatervapourwithsulfurdioxideandtheoxidesof
nitrogen.

Sulfurdioxidereactswithwatertoformsulfurousacid(H2SO3):
SO2(g)+H2O(l)

H2SO3(aq)

Sulfurdioxide(SO2)canbeoxidisedgraduallytosulfurtrioxide(SO3):
2SO2(g)+O2(g)>2SO3(g)

Sulfurtrioxide(SO3)reactswithwatertoformsulfuricacid(H2SO4):

SO3(g)+H2O(l)>H2SO4(aq)

source: http://www.nzdl.org

EffectsofAcidRain

References
-Longman Essential Chemistry SPM
-http://www.nzdl.org
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Wednesday, June 1, 2011

CompositeMaterials
Definition
Composite materials are produced from the combination of two or more different compounds such as
alloys, metals, glass, polymers and ceramic.

Uses

Composite
Materials
Reinforcement
Concrete

Superconductor

Fibre Glass

Fibre Optics

Composition

Properties

Uses

Cement
Gravel
Sand
Water
Iron or Steel
Niobium
Germanium

Strong
High textile
strength
Cheap

- Construction
materials

Zero resistance
Functions only
under extremely
low temperatures

Silica
Sodium carbonate
Calcium
carbonate
Glass
Copper
Aluminium

Good insulator
of heat and
electricity

- Transportation
Telecommunication
s
- Astronomy
industry
- Medical field
- Protective apparel
for astronauts and
firefighters

Photochromic
Glass

Molten silica
Silver cloride

Ceramic Glass

Produced by
exposing glass that
contains certain
amounts of metal

Enables
information to be
transmitted in light
form at light speed
Dark in colour
when exposed to
light and bright
when in the dark

- Electrical cables
- observe internal
organs without
surgery
- Optical lenses
- Glass windows
- Cooking materials
- Rocket heads

Plastic
strengthened with
glass fibres

to ultraviolet rays
and heating it at
high temperatures
Plastic
Glass

Very strong
Light
Easily formed
Withstands
corrosion

- Helmets
- Body of cars and
aeroplanes
- rods

Fibre Glass
Glass fibreisformedwhenthinstrandsofsilicabasedorotherformulationglassisextrudedintofibreswith
smalldiameterssuitablefortextileprocessing.
Glassisunlikeotherpolymersinthatithaslittlecrystallinestructureandcanbeconsideredasubstance
frozeninitsamorphousstage.Thepropertiesofthestructureofglassinitssoftenedstageareverymuchlikeits
propertieswhenspunintofibre.

AdvantagesofPhotochromicGlassasSpectacles

ThemainadvantageisthattheywilldarkenintoasunglasswhenexposedtoU.V.light,thusobviatingtheneed
tocarryaseparatepairofsunglassesforprotectionagainstharmfulU.V.raysfromthesun.
Secondly,theyprovideabettervisualhealththroughUVprotectionthantraditionalprescriptionsunglasses.