Biology Notes PDF

Edexcel AS Biology Revision Notes
Written by Tim Filtness
Merchant Taylors School
AS Biology Revision Notes

Science is organised knowledge. Wisdom is
organised life - Kant
A word of caution
These revision notes are designed to help you, NOT do the job of revision
for you. Ultimately, only you can learn this material: you cant pay, cajole
or persuade anyone to do it for you! Additionally, these notes are the bare
bones (your text book and class notes are almost certainly better sources
of information if youre aiming for the highest grades). So treat these
notes as a minimalist approach for someone aiming for a solid B grade. At
this point you might want to get your own notes to cross-reference with
the material here. Why not add your own annotations to improve whats
already here?
Understanding the jargon:

1. The 9 Core Practicals are not discussed here.
Dont forget to revise them too!
2. All Key Words are given underlined in red, these
are words specifically mentioned on the syllabus!
3. There are many blue How Science Works boxes
in the text book. In past years these have almost
always been the basis of a number of exam
questions...
Edexcel AS Revision
Unit 1: Lifestyle, Transport, Genes &

Health
Topic 1: Lifestyle, health & Risk
1.1.2
Water molecules are polar
H = Positively charged (+)
O = Negatively charged (-)
This allows them to form Hydrogen
Bonds with other water molecules. This
gives water some useful properties;
Property
Less dense as a solid
High SHC
Present naturally in all
three states
Transparent
Cohesion
Good solvent
Immiscible with
hydrophobic molecules
High latent heat of
evaporation
Buffer
Explanation
Arctic ecosystems float, ice insulates water beneath it
etc
Cells do not heat up or cool down easily, therefore can
hold a fairly stable temp. (cf enzymes)
Allows the water cycle to function
Allows photosynthesis underwater
Generates surface tension, capillary uptake,
transpiration etc
Essential role in transport in biological systems
Allows membranes to form and, therefore, control
movement in / out of cells
Evaporation of water has a strong cooling effect and
comparatively little water is required to lose a lot of
heat
Water is capable of accepting and donating protons,
therefore acts as a buffer
1.1.3
Saccharides are made from sugar molecules, which are made from
combinations of the elements Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen only
Saccharides are used for;
1. Fuels for respiration (e.g. glucose)
2. Energy storage molecules (e.g. starch and glycogen)
3. Structural molecules (e.g. cellulose)
Monosaccharides one sugar molecule only
Disaccharides two sugar molecules joined together
Oligosaccharides a few sugar molecules joined together
Polysaccharides many sugar molecules joined together
Disaccharide Name
Maltose
Sucrose
Lactose
Component monosaccharides
Glucose + Glucose
Glucose + Fructose
Glucose + Galactose
You need to know the different structures of glucose. You should

be able to draw this out if requested.
OH
Glucose
Glucose
There are three polysaccharides specifically mentioned on your

syllabus (starch, glycogen and cellulose). Cellulose is in Topic 4
(2.4.3) but is included here for reference.
Polysaccharide
Glycogen
Structure and Function

1. Made from Poly ( Glucose).
2. Found in muscle and liver cells for energy storage
3. Insoluble, so no osmotic effect in tissues
4. Lots of branches (i.e. 1-6 glycosidic bonds present),
which allows quick access to glucose
5. Compact shape, so good for storage
Starch
1. Actually made from two molecules in combination;

Amylose and Amylopectin
2. Both are made from Poly ( Glucose).
3. Found in Amyloplasts (starch grains) inside plant
cells for energy storage
4. Insoluble, so no osmotic effect in tissues
5. Amylose has no branches (i.e. 1-4 glycosidic bonds
only), so access to glucose is slow
6. Amylopectin has some branches (i.e. both 1-4 & 1-6
glycosidic bonds)
Cellulose
1. Made from Poly ( Glucose).

2. Main component of cell walls as it is a very strong
structural molecule
3. Insoluble for obvious reasons!
4. Cellulose has no branches (i.e. 1-4 glycosidic bonds
only), so adjacent cellulose chains line up close
5. Hydrogen bonds form between adjacent chains,
creating very strong cellulose fibrils
1.1.4
Saccharides join together in condensation reactions, which produce

water. A glycosidic bond forms between the saccharide molecules.
The opposite of a condensation reaction is a hydrolysis. This
requires;
1. Heat + HCL
2. OR an enzyme (e.g. Amylase)
Tests for Sacharides:
- Iodine solution turns brown blue/black in the presence of starch
- Benedicts solution turns blue brick red in the presence of a
reducing sugar
- Non reducing sugars (most disaccharides and all polysaccharides) will
give a positive result to Benedicts if heated in acid first.
1.1.5
Triglycerides are either fats or oils. They are made from the
elements C, H & O only.
Triglycerides are used for;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Long term energy storage molecules

Insulation
Protection (e.g. pericardium)
Buoyancy
Synthesis of specific hormones (e.g. steroids)
Triglycerides are formed in
condensation reactions between;
1 x glycerol
3 x fatty acid
An ester bond forms between the
fatty acid and the glycerol
Saturated triglycerides have no

C=C bonds in them. They form fats.
Unsaturated triglycerides DO have
C=C bonds in them. They form oils.
The C=C bonds form kinks in the fatty acid chains, which push
adjacent triglycerides away from each other. This lowers the
effect of intermolecular forces (e.g. van der vaals forces), which
lowers the boiling and melting temp.
Test for a triglyceride (Emulsion test):
1. Add ethanol (dissolves fat)
2. Add water
3. White precipitate indicates a positive result
1.1.6
Ficks law:
Rate of Diffusion
Surface Area
Conc Gradient
Distance
If we apply this to a cube, the rate at which O2 reaches the centre
of the cube is a product of the ratio of the Surface Area compared
to the Volume (i.e. SA:Vol)
Amoeba
Large SA:Vol ratio
Can rely on diffusion through its

surface.
Human
Small SA:Vol ratio
Diffusion through surface is too slow

to supply O2. Therefore require a mass
transport system and specialized
exchange organs
In humans the mass transport system is the circulatory system and

the heart. The specialized exchange organs include the lungs and
the digestive system.
1.1.7
You need to know;
1. the names of the 4 chambers of the heart
2. the names of the 2 arteries and 2 veins attached to the heart
3. The names of the two sets of valves in the heart
4. The cardiac cycle
5. The initiation and conduction pathways of the heartbeat
Vena Cava
Aorta
Pulmonary Artery
Semi-lunar Valve
Cuspid Valve
Vena Cava
Contraction in the heart:
Remember, the atria contract first. The L & R atria contract at

the same time. The ventricles contract second. The L & R
Ventricles contract at the same time.
0 0.2s
Atrial Systole
0.2 0.3s
Ventricular
Systole
The atria contract, atrial pressure rises and

blood is pushed from atria ventricles
The ventricles contract, ventricular pressure
rises above atrial pressure and the cuspid valves
shut (1)
Ventricular pressure rises, but no blood leaves
the heart yet!
When ventricular pressure rises above pressure
in the arteries the semi-lunar valves open (2)
0.3 0.4s
Diastole
0.4 0.7s
Diastole
Blood leaves the heart

The ventricles relax. Ventricular pressure falls
and when pressure in the arteries > ventricular
pressure the semi-lunar valves shut (3).
The entire heart is relaxed. The cuspid valves
open (4) and both atria and ventricles fill with
blood.
SAN: Sino-Atrial Node

AVN: Atro-Ventricular Node
Purkinje Fibres (in bundle of His)
1. SAN sends a wave of electrical activity (depolarization)

around the walls of the atria.
2. A ring of insulating tissue blocks the wave from passing into
the ventricles.
3. The AVN conducts the wave into the Ventricles slowly, which
gives the ventricles time to fill.
4. The Purkinje fibres are fast-conducting and take the wave to
the apex of the heart first, so the ventricles contract bottom
upwards.
1.1.8
Artery:
collagen &
connective tissue
smooth muscle
& elastic tissue
lumen (blood)
0.1-10mm
Arteries carry high pressure blood away from the heart.
Key Points:
1. Thick muscle layer to withstand high pressure blood

2. Elastic tissue allows artery to stretch when blood is forced
into it. The elastic layer recoils during diastole, converting
pulsatile into laminar (continuous) blood flow.
3. Protective collagen layer
4. Round shape
5. Relatively small lumen
Vein:
collagen &
connective tissue
smooth muscle
& elastic tissue
semilunar valve
lumen (blood)
0.1-20mm
Veins carry low pressure blood towards the heart.
Key Points:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thin muscle layer (low pressure blood)

Valve to stop backflow
Protective collagen layer
Not a round shape (wall not thick enough to hold shape)
Large lumen (decreases effect of friction)
Capillary:
basement
Small holemembrane
(collagen)
endothelium cell
red blood cell
8 m
Capillaries are adapted for exchange they are not connected
directly to the heart.
Key Points:
1. Walls are one cell thick (cells are called endothelial cells)
2. Lumen is the same width as one RBC (therefore more of RBC
in contact with wall, therefore smaller diffusion distance)
3. No muscle or elastic tissue
4. Tiny (compare the scales and remind yourself what a m is)
1.1.9
Dig up your Daphnia Core Practical notes in the Practical
Handbook
1.1.10 & 1.1.11
Atherosclerosis is a disease in which the wall of arteries becomes
furred up with fatty deposits called plaques or atheromas. The
sequence of atherosclerosis is as follows;
1. Endothelial layer on the inside of an artery is damaged
2. Inflammation (an A2 topic) of the artery wall occurs
3. White blood cells move into the artery wall
4. Cholesterol begins to accumulate at the site of damage
5. Atheroma forms
6. Lumen narrows
7. Pressure increases
As hypertension speeds atheroma

formation these steps are a vicious
cycle!
After atherosclerosis has developed there is a chance that a blood

clot might form in the damaged area. This makes the problem much
worse!
Clot formation:
1. Platelets are activated by substances released by the
damaged artery wall
2. Platelets become sticky and form a platelet plug on the
surface of the atheroma
3. Platelet plus releases chemicals which activate thromboplastin
4. Thromboplastin initiates the clotting cascade
Thromboplastin
There is a real danger of the blood clot becoming dislodged from

the site of formation. It could be carried around the bloodstream
and deposited elsewhere. If this occurs;
- in the brain a stroke occurs
- in the coronary arteries, CHD or even an infarction might occur
- anywhere else, ischaemia and even gangrene are possible
1.1.12
Risk factors for CVD. There are lots, but these 7 are specifically
mentioned on your syllabus
Risk Factor
Age
Gender
Explanation
Atherosclerosis occurs naturally as our arteries become
less elastic with age. Less elastic = higher pressure
during systole, hypertension, atherosclerosis
bummer.
Girls have less atherosclerosis: fact. Two explanations;
1. Girls make oestrogen, which has a protective effect
against atherosclerosis. Evidence to support this theory
is that incidence of atherosclerosis in post-menopausal
women rises to that of men.
2. Women tend to have less stressful jobs / be at home

more less stress less hypertension, etc
Hypertension
Speeds up atheroma formation AND causes endothelial
damage (which is the 1st step in atherosclerosis)
Smoking
Nicotine is very, very good at damaging the endothelium.
Remember that next time youre tempted to dally behind
the bike shed
Inactivity
Allsorts of factors here;
- lower BMI = less hypertension
- fitter heart = less hypertension
- exercise decreases LDL levels
- exercise increases metabolic rate lowering BMI
- Possibly some indirect contributing factors as well
if you exercise regularly you probably put stock in
looking after yourself are you likely to be
smoking or drinking as well?
Genetic predisposition Some alleles give you less protection from / greater risk
of developing atherosclerosis. To an extent, a higher
chance of getting atherosclerosis does run in families
Diet
Millions of contributing factors here;
- High salt intake causes hypertension
- Eating saturated fats decreases HDL level
- Eating more calories than you need causes BMI to
increase.
High
BMI
is
associated
with
atherosclerosis
- Alcohol causes hypertension directly
1.1.13
Drug treatments for atherosclerosis and their side effects;
Antihypertensives
Diuretics The Loop of Henle is the part of the nephron (in the
kidney) that regulates water reabsorption. Essentially, it puts Na+
back into the blood by active transport. This lowers the water
potential in the blood, so water follows the Na+ by osmosis. Most
diuretics block the protein that actively transports the Na+, so less
water is returned to the blood, thus reducing the pressure.
Three problems with this, however;
1. The blood gets more viscous, which makes the heart beat
harder
2. Dehydration can occur
3. Only treating the symptom
Blockers block the adrenaline receptor in the heart. This stops
the heart from beating harder in response to stress and, therefore,
reduces hypertension.
There are some side effects in some cases (e.g. sleep disturbance,
depression, vasoconstriction of the extremities) but generally
theyre pretty good. One of the main problems is bradycardia,
which can become serious if you have CHD. Can you explain why?
Ca2+ channel blockers stop the heart muscle from contracting too
hard. You dont need to know why, but if youre interested look up
Starlings Law of the heart
Major side effect is arrhythmia, which can develop into fibrillation
and infarction.
ACE Inhibitors are REALLY complicated, but I dont know how

much of this youre supposed to know, so here is the full version of
things
Renin Enzyme
ACE Enzyme
Angiotensinogen
Angiotensin I
Angiotensin II
A protein made by
the kidneys, which
circulates in the
blood
An
intermediate,
also circulating in
the blood
The important one!

This is the hormone
that increases blood
pressure!
Basically, our kidneys make Angiotensinogen all the time, but it

doesnt do anything itself (its not a hormone) it just circulates in
the blood. However, when we are hyoptensive (i.e. have low blood
pressure) the kidneys start to make Renin enzyme, which turns
Antiotensinogen into Angiotensin I. After this, ACE enzymes (found
in the endothelial cells lining arteries) quickly turn the Antiotensin I
into Angiotensin II, which is a powerful hormone. It has the
following effects;
1. General vasoconstriction
2. Causes the hypothalamus to release ADH (look it up from
GCSE, it was in Unit 3), which increases water reabsorption by
the kidney
3. Stimulates the brain to release aldosterone, which causes the
kidneys to increase salt reabsorption, which in turn increases
water reabsorption.
All of these effects increase blood pressure, so ACE inhibitors will,
therefore, do the opposite.
The major side effect is kidney failure.
Vasodilators dilate blood vessels, reducing blood pressure.
If this occurs too much you get hypotension, which can cause heart
attacks (not enough blood returns to the heart to fill it properly)
Statins
Two effects;
1. Block an enzyme in the liver that makes cholesterol.
2. Remove LDL from the circulation
Associated with liver failure.
Anticoagulants
As the second stage of atherosclerosis is associated with blood
clotting (thrombosis), anticoagulants block the clotting process.
There are many, many different ways of doing this.
Blood clots slowly.
Platelet inhibitory drugs
These work in the same way as anticoagulants but target platelets,
which are required to activate the clotting process. They,
therefore, have the same side-effects.
1.1.14
Cholesterol is the major component in atheromas. High blood
cholesterol level is, therefore, a bad thing. We get cholesterol from
two sources;
1. Diet
2. It is made by the liver
Lipoproteins (also made by the liver) ferry cholesterol around in the
bloodstream and play a role in pushing the liver towards making
more cholesterol, or excreting more cholesterol. There are two
types of lipoprotein;
High Density Lipoproteins (HDLs) take cholesterol out of the

circulation to the liver, where it is converted into bile salts and
(ultimately) excreted. HDLs lower cholesterol levels.
Low Density Lipoproteins (LDLs) take cholesterol from the liver and
put it into the circulation to the liver. LDLs increase cholesterol
levels.
Crudely
High HDL = good
High LDL = bad
High cholesterol = bad
1.1.15
You need to understand that scientists use their scientific
knowledge of the effects of diet, exercise and smoking to try and
predict risk of CVD and, therefore, to give people advice about how
to reduce their risk.
1.1.16
Dig up your Vitamin C Core Practical notes in the Practical
Handbook
1.1.17
Body Mass Index
Mass
(Height)2
Your energy budget balances the number of calories you require

with those that you consume. Ideally, they ought to be the same.
Energy consumed > Energy expended mass gain
Energy consumed < Energy expended mass lost
BMI
BMI
BMI
BMI
< 18.5
between 18.5 and 25
between 25 and 30
> 40
Underweight
Normal
Overweight
Obese
1.1.18 & 1.1.19

You need to be able to analyze data on mortality rates to determine
health risk. Be careful!
If two sets of data follow the same pattern they are correlated
If two sets of data follow the same pattern because one factor
directly affects the other they are causal
In order to assess whether data is correlated or causal scientists
experiment, the idea being to try and falsify the Null Hypothesis
that one factor does not affect the other. However, be aware that
the design of the experiment often affects the results. Things to
watch out for;
1. People selected were not representative of the population
(e.g. all students, all female, etc) i.e. not accurate
2. Only a few people were involved in the experiment (i.e. not
very reliable)
3. Not all the variables were controlled i.e. a systematic error in
the experiment (i.e. smokers included with non-smokers)
If you get a question on this section of the syllabus always

ask yourself WHERE HAS THE DATA COME FROM?
1.1.20
Why might peoples perception of risk be different from the actual
risk?
1. They dont understand the risk fully and underestimate it (e.g.
if you smoke your risk of CVD is X and if you are obese your
risk of CVD is Y. BUT if you are both your risk is not X + Y
but XY much greater!)
2. They dont understand the risk fully and overestimate it (e.g.

the person who thinks they actually might win the lottery this
week)
Broadly speaking, risk factors for CVD tend to be underestimated
because people dont realise that risk factors tend to be associated
with other i.e. if you smoke and drink and are obese, chances are
you also eat a diet high in saturated fat and salt. Quite quickly the
risks stack up
Oxygen Dissociation Curve

This is not mentioned on the syllabus, but it is in the text book. The
prudent man learns it anyway
Remember, each Haemoglobin (Hb) can bind up to 4 O2 molecules.
The affinity of Hb for O2 changes depending on how many O2 are
being carried.
A: The haemoglobin is in the lung and is O2 loading. Affinity of Hb is

high, therefore it fills up with O2 easily.
B: The haemoglobin is in the respiring tissues. Initially affinity is

high, so Hb does not give O2 away easily to tissues that already have
enough. However, when Hb gives up its 1st O2 the affinity suddenly
drops, so Hb tends to unload 3 O2 just where it is required!
C: With 3 O2 removed the affinity is high again, so the last O2 is
kept as an emergency. It is only given up if the Hb passes through
tissues with very low PO2
When the line shifts position
1. Foetal Hb has a higher affinity than adult Hb. This is so the
foetus will load with O2 from the maternal Hb. Foetal ends
with L, therefore shifts to the LEFT
2. Llamas (starts with L) live at altitude and need to have Hb
with higher affinity to load O2 in the thin air.
3. Myoglobin (has an L in it) is an O2 store in muscles. It has
very, very high affinity for O2 so only gives off O2 when in the
emergency section of the graph. Whales and diving mammals
have vast quantities of myoglobin in their muscles.
4. Bohr (ends in R) shift occurs when Hb is exposed to acid. The
affinity drops and O2 is unloaded more easily. Acids tend to
be
- carbonic acid (made from CO2)
- lactic acid (made in anaerobic respiration)
Both acids are produced when O2 is in short supply, so it
makes sense for Hb to give up more O2 in these
circumstances.
End of Topic 1
Edexcel AS Revision
Notes
Unit 1: Lifestyle,
Lifestyle, Transport, Genes &
Health
Topic 2: Genes & Health

1.2.2
Charged phosphate head hydrophilic
Uncharged fatty acid tails hydrophobic
Cell membranes are made from a double layer (bilayer) of

phospholipids, which align heads inwards and tails outward
because of their attraction / repulsion from water. Sat in teh
membrane are transmembrane proteins. The proteins have a number
of roles;
- channels into / out of the cell (see 1.2.4)
- receptors for hormones (tend to be glycoproteins)
- cellular glue joining adjacent cells together (look up
desmosomes if youre interested)
- anchors for the cytoskeleton
1.2.3
Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from high
concentration to low concentration through a partially permeable
membrane.
Water molecules cannot pass through the bilayer itself because
they are charged and are repulsed by the fatty acid tails. There
are a few theories about how the water actually gets through, but
these are the best so far;
1. Passes through special channels called aquaporins
2. Moves through ion channel as ligands on ion complexes (e.g.
with Na+ or Mg2+)
1.2.4
How do molecules move in / out of the membrane?
1. Uncharged hydrophobic molecules (e.g. steroid hormones,
cholesterol, ethanol) pass freely between fatty acid tails by
diffusion
2. Large hydrophilic molecules (e.g. enzymes) move in by
endocytosis and out by exocytosis
3. Small hydrophilic molecules (e.g. glucose, mineral ions, water)
move in and out via proteins in the membrane. There are 3
types of these;
Channel Proteins
Movement is governed by molecules diffusing freely through the

channel. Sometimes the channel will only open under specific
circumstances (i.e. if a certain hormone is present, or under certain
environmental conditions e.g. temp, pressure etc). These are gated
channel proteins
Facilitated Diffusion proteins
Protein channel has an active site specific to a particular hydrophilic

molecule. It attaches to the molecule, spins around in the membrane
and deposits it on the other side. Movement is governed by the
concentration gradient.
Active Transport proteins
As above, but the movement is against the concentration gradient.
Energy (in the form of ATP) is required to get movement to occur.
1.2.5
Dig up your Beetroot Core Practical notes in the Practical
Handbook
1.2.6
Ficks law:
Rate of Diffusion
Surface Area
x
Distance
Conc Gradient
Human Respiratory System

Larynx (voicebox)
Thachea
Ribs
Bronchiole
Alveolus
Bronchus
Intercostal Muscle
Diaphragm
Thoracic Cavity
contained within
pleural membranes
You should be able to explain breathing in terms of volume and

pressure changes in the Thoracic Cavity (GCSE idea)
Adaptations for rapid gas exchange (all related to Ficks Law)
Element of Ficks Law
Surface Area
Distance
Conc Gradient
Adaptation
Each alveolus has a small SA, but there are
millions, which produces a huge total SA
Each alveolus is one cell thick, as are the
capillaries which surround them. Therefore, the
total diffusion distance is only two cells!
Ventilation maintains a constantly high PO2 in
the alveoli. Additionally, as soon as O2 has been
collected by haemoglobin the circulation
removes it, therefore maintaining a low PO2 in
the blood. This keeps the concentration
gradient high!
Remind yourself why humans need lungs in the first place, why
cant we just breathe through our skin like Amoeba do?
1.2.7
Proteins are polymers of
amino acids. There are
~20 amino acids, each of
which has the same basic
structure with a different
variable group (R group)
Amino acids are connected by peptide bonds. They are formed in

condensation reactions and broken up in hydrolysis reactions.
Test for Protein:

- Biuret solution turns blue purple halo in the presence of protein
Primary Structure a long chain of amino acids

connected by peptide bonds. Most proteins do
not function in their primary form
Secondary Structure the long chain of amino
acids is folded into two types of structure;
- Alpha helix
- Beta sheet
Both are held together by hydrogen bonds
Tertiary Structure sections of secondary

structure are folded up further, forming a
protein with a 3D shape. The shape is held
together by covalent bonds (e.g. disulphide
bridges) between R groups of specific amino
acids.
Quarternary Structure formed when two or
more tertiary proteins are combined e.g.
haemoglobin is made from 4 x haem proteins
As the shape of a protein determines its function (think about the
active site of an enzyme, for example) it is really important that all
the bonds holding the shape together form in the right places. The
most important bonds are those that hold the 3o and 4o structure
together and these all form between R groups of specific amino
acids. Therefore;
The specific sequence of specific amino acids determines

the shape of the protein and, therefore, its function.
1.2.8
In the Lock and Key hypothesis, the active site and the substrate
are completely complementary.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Substrate diffuses into the active site

Substrate binds to the active site
Bonds in the substrate are broken as a result
Products form and unbind from the active site
Products diffuse out of the active site
In the Induced Fit hypothesis the mechanism of action is the same

except that the active site changes shape to fit the substrate once
the substrate has bound. The shape change causes bonds in the
substrate to break, forming the products.
All enzymes work by reducing the Activation Energy (Ea). This is

the energy required to get the reaction to start. Enzymes provide
an alternate reaction pathway (i.e. a different way for the reaction
to happen in the active site), which requires less energy to start.
1.2.9
Dig up your Enzyme Core Practical notes in the Practical
Handbook
1.2.10
DNA is made from many nucleotides joined together. It is,
therefore, a polynucleotide
Each nucleotide contains 3 things;
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Sugar molecule,
Nitrogenous base
Phosphate group (negatively charged)
H / OH
There are 2 types of nucleotide;

(i)
(ii)
Ribose nucleotides
Deoxyribone nucltodies
- make RNA
- make DNA
DNA nucleotides have 2H atoms on the C2 carbon atom

RNA nucleotides have an H and an OH on the C2 carbon
Other differences:
RNA is single stranded, DNA is double stranded
RNA has different bases
RNA used to make 3 different things (mRNA, tRNA & rRNA),
DNA only used to determine genetic code
DNA only found in nucleus, RNA in nucleus & cytoplasm
Polynucleotides are formed by connecting the

phosphate group of one nucleotide with the 3rd
carbon atom of another, forming the SugarPhosphate Backbone
DNA is made from 2 strands of DNA polynucleotides,

held together by hydrogen bonds between the bases.
Because the strands face in opposite directions DNA
is an antiparallel molecule.
DNA
RNA
Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T)

Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C)
Adenine (A) pairs with Uracil (T)

Guanine (G) pairs with Cytosine (C)
1.2.11
DNA Synthesis:
DNA synthesis is semi-conservative

(i.e. half of each new strand is old DNA
& half is new DNA)
unwinds
the
DNA
1. Helicase
forming the replication fork.
2. New nucleotides diffuse into the
fork and hydrogen bind with their
complementary partners
3. DNA
Polymerase
joins
the
nucleotides together forming the
new sugar phosphate backbone
You can make this more complicated by
looking closely at what happens on the
lagging strand, but you dont need to
know it (if youre interested look up
Okazaki fragments)
The proof that DNA Replication is semi-conservative (rather than

conservative, or dispersive the other theories) was provided by
Meselson & Stahl. Their experiment is shown on the next page (you
need to know what they did), but you should be able to interpret
their results as follows;
Original DNA, all heavy DNA band at bottom of centrifuge
1st generation DNA, old, new DNA band in middle of centrifuge
2nd generation DNA, some and (forms one band at top) & some all
new second band in the middle of centrifuge. No other theory
predicts formation of TWO BANDS
1.2.12
1.2.12 & 1.1.13

The genetic code is read from the sequence of bases in the DNA.
Each of the ~30,000 instructions in the code is a gene and tells the
body how to make one specific protein. Genes, therefore, code for
proteins.
The genetic code is read in sequences of 3 bases, called codons each
codon represents one specific amino acid.
A Gene
e.g. in this gene the code is ATG CCA

corresponds to the following amino acids
A Protein
1.2.14
Protein Synthesis occurs in two stages;
(i)
Transcription
(ii)
Translation
CTA
GCA
CGC, which
Transcription:
Takes place in nucleus
A complementary copy of the gene is made using RNA
1. Gene opens up. Hydrogen bonds break between bases
2. RNA nucleotides attracted to complementary bases and form
hydrogen bonds.
3. RNA nucleotides joined together by enzyme RNA Polymerase.
4. Complementary RNA copy of gene now made. It is called mRNA
(messenger RNA)
5. Single stranded mRNA molecule diffuses out of gene
6. mRNA molecule leaves nucleus through nuclear pore (large holes
in nuclear envelope)
7. Many mRNA strands are made before gene closes.
MRNA is complementary, not a copy!
DNA
TAC GAA TCT GAG CAC GGC TAT ATC
mRNA.
AUG CUU AGA CUC GUG CCG AUA UAG
Translation:
Takes place in cytoplasm
MRNA code read by ribosome and amino acids assembled in
correct order to make protein
1. mRNA strand binds to cleft in ribosome. Start AUG codon fits
into bottom of P site
2. tRNA diffuses into P site and recognises the mRNA codon using
its specific anticodon
3. A second tRNA diffuses into the A site and recognises the

mRNA codon there.
4. The amino acids between the two tRNAs join together forming a
peptide bond
5. The tRNA in the P site diffuses into the cytoplasm and binds to
another specific amino acid.
6. The ribosome moves one codon down the mRNA chain so that the
P site is filled with the tRNA from the A site and the A site is
empty
7. When the ribosome reaches the stop codon it releases the
mRNA and the amino acid chain.
Most ribosomes translate whilst attached to the rER. The
completed primary protein is inserted into the rER, where enzymes
fold it into its secondary and tertiary shape.
Many ribosomes can translate the same piece of mRNA at the same
time. A polysome forms
1.2.15
A Mutation = a change in the genetic code.

By changing the genetic code mutations ultimately change the
sequence of amino acids in primary proteins. This changes the
sequence of R groups in the protein and, therefore, the way in which
the protein folds up. This affects on the function of the protein
Mutation
Neutral mutations
Deletion mutations
Insertion mutations
Frame-shift
mutations
Non-sense mutations
Explanation
The function of the protein is unchanged after the
mutation (i.e. the protein still does its job as well as it
did before the mutation). There are 2 possible causes;
One codon is altered. However, the codon still codes
for the same amino acid. Therefore, the protein is the
same
A codon is changed, leading to a different amino acid in
the primary protein. However, this protein is not in a
place crucial for folding, so the protein is still the same
shape and functions the same.
A nucleotide is deleted from the DNA code, which
changes all the codons after the deletion. This causes
frame-shift.
A nucleotide is inserted into the DNA code, which
changes all the codons after the insertion. This causes
frame-shift.
All the codons in the sequence are altered, meaning
that every amino acid after the addition / deletion is
different. Normally, this has a huge impact on the
function of the protein.
One of the altered codons in the frame-shifted
sequence changes to become a stop codon. Protein
synthesis stops half-way through the gene, resulting in
only half of the protein being made. Almost always the
protein does not function.
Any mutation in the CFTR gene that stops / impairs the function of
the CFTR protein causes Cystic Fibrosis. To date over 2000
different mutations have been catalogued, each of which causes CF.
1.2.16
Key Definitions:
Gene: a sequence of DNA coding for a specific protein
Allele: an alternative version of a gene
Genotype: the pair of alleles an individual possesses
Phenotype: the physical appearance
Recessive: allele does not affect the phenotype in the presence of a
Dominant allele
Dominant: always affects the phenotype
Homozygote: individual possesses two copies of the same allele
Heterozygote: individual possesses two different alleles
A Genetic Diagram
Parents Phenotype:
Brown eyes
Brown eyes
Parents Genotype:
Bb
Bb
Gametes:
F1 Genotype:
F1 Phenotype:
BB
Bb
Bb
bb
3 : 1 Brown eyes : blue eyes
Note the gametes are always put in circles
Disease
Heritability
Sickle Cell Anaemia
Recessive
Thalassaemia
Recessive
Achondroplasia
Dominant
Albinism
Recessive
Effect
A mutation in the haemoglobin genes Cause
haemoglobin molecules to stick together inside
red blood cells. RBCs become distorted into a
sickle shape. They can become stuck inside
capillaries leading to clots and stroke. RBCs have
limited oxygen carrying capacity.
A mutation in (usually) the gene coding for alpha
haem causes very slow haemoglobin production.
This results in anaemia and reduced haemocrit (%
RBCs per unit volume of blood). Regular
transfusions are required.
Caused by a mutation in one of genes controlling
collagen production in bones. As a result bone
growth plates fuse too early, leading to
shortening of the long bones. Homozygous
dominant genotype is fatal.
A mutation in the gene coding for melanin protein
stops melanocytes from producing melanin.
Melanin colours hair, skin etc and provides
protection from UV rays.
You also need to interpret inheritance problems involving seed

morphology (shape) and plant height.
1.2.17
Goblet cells secrete mucus onto the surface of the epithelium,
which lines the lungs. Epithelial cells regulate the water content of
mucus. In the alveoli mucus is very watery to allow it to be wafted
easily by cilia. However, higher up the lungs water is drawn out of
mucus to reduce its volume: one cannot fit the mucus from 6 small
bronchioles into one larger one, so water is removed.
In Cystic Fibrosis the mechanism controlling the water content of
the mucus does not work properly and the water removal process is
constantly switched on in all parts of the lung. This means the
mucus is too sticky in the alveoli and cannot be wafted.
Normally:
Cl- moves out of epithelial cells

into mucus via the CFTR protein.
Mucus
Water
Cl-
Water
Na+ is drawn into mucus to

balance the charge. Na+ passes
between epithelial cells.
The combined effect of Na+ and
Cl- reduces water concentration
making hypertonic mucus.
Tissue Fluid
Na
Water is drawn into mucus by

osmosis and mucus is dilute.
Cystic Fibrosis:
Mucus
Water
X
Cl-
Na+ does not move into mucus as

there is no charge to balance.
Mucus is hypotonic.
Tissue Fluid
Na+
CFTR is blocked or absent, so

Cl- stays inside epithelial cells.
Water
Water is drawn into epithelial

cells by osmosis and mucus is
sticky.
The sticky mucus causes the effects of CF and affects;

a) Lungs,
b) Digestive system
c) Reproductive system
Tissue
Lungs
Reproductive
system
Digestion
Effect of CF
Mucus produced is too sticky and blocks the
alveoli. This makes the person breathless. The
mucus also provides ideal conditions for bacteria,
so chest infections are common.
Mucus blocks the vas deferens in boys and the
fallopian tubes in girls, making the individual
infertile
Mucus blocks the bile duct and the pancreatic
duct. Enzymes do not reach the small intestine and
food is not digested properly.
1.2.18
The problem with genetic diseases is that they are caused by a
mutation that is present in every cell of the body. In order to cure
the disease you need to change the DNA in every cell of the body,
which is impossible. However, in the case of CF because the CFTR
protein is only transcribed by epithelial cells (the cells lining the
lungs, digestive system and reproductive tracts) only these cells
need to be targeted.
So how can you change DNA inside living cells? Answer: use gene
therapy, which attempts to add a normal copy of the CFTR gene to
the DNA inside epithelial cells.
Gene Therapy (in humans no plasmids are used)
Step 1: cut out a working copy of the gene from normal DNA using a
restriction enzyme. OR use reverse transcriptase enzyme to make
a copy of the gene from CFTR mRNA
Step 2: add the gene to a vector, which will insert the new gene into
the DNA of the target cell
Step 3: hope the gene is successfully incorporated in the DNA in
the nucleus
Vectors are used to get the working gene into the epithelial cells.
Vector
Liposome
Virus
Explanation
An artificial vesicle. A little bubble of
membrane in which the CFTR gene is placed.
When the liposome is inhaled the gene can
enter the epithelial cell by endocytosis.
Viruses naturally insert their own DNA into
host cells DNA. So, if we remove the viral
DNA and replace it with the CFTR gene that
ought to be inserted instead.
Somatic Cells = Body cells. Somatic Cell Gene Therapy therefore

only affects the targeted cells
Germ Cells = Gametes. Germ Cell Gene Therapy therefore affects
the entire organism that is produced when the gamete is fertilised.
NB: Genetic engineering of bacteria is different and involves
plasmids and DNA ligase enzyme as well (look it up)
1.2.19
Genetic screening is used to determine whether a person has a
genetic disease or not.
Method
Amniocentesis
Chorionic villus
sampling
Pre-implantation
genetic diagnosis
(PIGD)
Summary
A long needle is inserted through the mothers
abdomen into the amniotic fluid of the developing
embryo. As this is produced by the embryo it will
contain embryionic cells and, therefore, embryo
DNA
As above, but cells are taken from the placenta,
which is also made by the embryo.
Gametes are fertilized in vitro (outside of the
body) and the resultant embryos are then tested.
Only embryos known NOT to have the disease are
implanted in the uterus.
1.2.20
Advantages of genetic testing
Can opt for termination
Can get counselling
Can buy special medical
equipment
/
care
in
preparation for birth
Can opt not to have children
(if parents are tested)
Utilitarian argument
Disdvantages of genetic testing

Abortion is morally wrong
Tests can be inaccurate
Small
chance
of
test
resulting in miscarriage
Unnatural procedure
Embryos right to life
Embryos
cannot
give
informed consent
End of Topic 2
Edexcel AS Revision
Unit 2:
2: Development, Plants & the
Environment
Topic 3: The Voice of the Genome
2.3.2 & 2.3.3
Prokaryotic Cell
Prokaryotic Organelles:
Ribosomes. Same function as eukaryotic cells (protein synthesis),
but are smaller (70s rather than 80s).
Nuclear Zone. The region of the cytoplasm that contains DNA.
There is no nuclear membrane.
DNA. Always circular, and not in chromosome form.
Plasmid. Very small circles of DNA, containing non-esential genes.
Can be exchanged between different bacterial cells.
Cell membrane. made of phospholipids and proteins, like eukaryotic

membranes.
Mesosome. Tightly-folded region of the cell membrane containing all
the proteins required for respiration and photosynthesis.
Cell Wall. DIFFERENT from plant cell wall. Made of murein (a
protein). There are two kinds of cell wall, which can be distinguished
by a Gram stain:
A: Gram positive bacteria have a thick cell wall and stain
purple
B: Gram negative bacteria have a thin cell wall with an outer
lipid layer and stain pink.
Capsule (or Slime Layer). Thick polysaccharide layer outside of the
cell wall. Used for:
1. Sticking cells together
2. As a food reserve
3. As protection against desiccation (drying out) and chemicals,
and as protection against phagocytosis (being broken down by
a white blood cell).
Flagellum. A rotating tail used for propulsion.
Eukaryotic Cell
Endoplasmic Reticulum. Site of protein folding (see 2.3.4)

Ribosome. Site of protein synthesis
Nucleus. DNA store & site of mRNA synthesis.
Golgi apparatus. Site of protein folding and packaging (see 2.3.4)
Centriole. Makes spindle protein, which pulls chromosomes apart
during cell division
Vesicle. Bubble of membrane, used to transport materials around a
cell and between cells
Lysosome. A vesicle filled with digestive enzymes. Protects against
bacterial attack and removes cell debris.
Cell membrane. Made of phospholipid and protein, controls
movement in / out of the cell
Mitochondrion. Site of respiration
Chloroplast. Site of photosynthesis
Prokaryotic Cells
Eukaryotic cells
Small cells (< 5 mm)
Larger cells (> 10 mm)
Always unicellular
Often multicellular
No nucleus or any membranebound organelles
Always have nucleus and other

membrane-bound organelles
DNA is circular, without proteins
DNA is linear and associated

with proteins to form chromatin
Ribosomes are small (70S)
Ribosomes are large (80S)
No cytoskeleton
Has a cytoskeleton
Cell division is by binary fission
Cell division is by mitosis or

meiosis
Reproduction is always asexual
Reproduction is asexual or sexual
2.3.4
Amino acids are stuck together in the correct order during
translation. This take place using ribosomes, which are therefore
the site of protein synthesis.
After synthesis, proteins are put into the rER, which folds primary
proteins into their specific secondary and tertiary forms. 20 and 30
proteins are packaged into vesicles and sent to the Golgi
In the Golgi, 30 proteins are stuck together to form completed 40
proteins. They are packaged into large secretory vesicles, which
bud off the Golgi and go the cell membrane for exocytosis. The
Golgi also makes lysosomes.
2.3.5
Tissue: a group of specialized cells, which all carry out the same
function.
Organ: a group of different tissues.
Although every cell contains the entire library of genes, each tissue
only expresses a select few of them. This is because, as cells
become specialized, they progressively switch off genes. This is
called cell differentiation.
The Cell Cycle
2.3.6
G1 Phase:
Growth phase
Approximately 40% of cell cycle
S Phase:
DNA replication occurs

G2 Phase:
Preparation for mitosis

Organelles replicate
Mitosis:
Cell divides
Cytokinesis:
Cell physically splits

Stage
Explanation
Stage is: Prophase
1.
2.
3.
4.
DNA coils up onto chromosomes

Centriole divides
Centrioles move to cell poles
Nuclear envelope disappears
Stage is: Metaphase

1.
2.
3.
4.
Chromosomes move to equator

Spindle attaches to centromeres
Centrioles split
Chromatids separate
Stage is: Anaphase

1. Chromatids separate completely
2. New nuclear envelope grows
Stage is: Telophase

1. Cytokinesis occurs
2. Cells separate
Stage is: Interphase

As above (G1, S & G2)
Underlined comments = definition of stage end
2.3.7
Dig up your Mitosis Core Practical notes in the
Practical Handbook
2.3.8
Mitosis produces genetically identical daughter cells, whereas
Meiosis produces genetically dissimilar gametes. The variation in
gametes comes from;
1. Random fusion of gametes
Each individual makes many gametes, each of which is
genetically different. This creates a huge number of
potentially different embryos as which two gametes are
selected for fertilization is largely random.
If the number of different gametes made by both parents is
n, therefore the total number of possibilities is n2, which is
huge!
2. Independent assortment
During meiosis, chromosomes pair up at the equator (they
dont at during mitosis). Whichever way up the pair are aligned
will affect the combination of alleles in the gamete.
i.e.
AA BB AB
aa bb ab
aa BB aB
AA bb Ab
3. Crossing Over
When the chromosomes are paired up during metaphase
sections of DNA are swapped between chromatids (this is
called crossing over). This means that alleles which were
previously linked with others (i.e. in set combinations of
alleles) become unlinked, thus increasing the potential
number of combinations of alleles
2.3.9
A Mammalian Ovum:
Follicle cells (from ovary)
Zona Pellucida
Cytoplasm
Nucleus
Lysosomes
Lipid droplets
Cell membrane
Adaptations:
Part of Ovum
Nucleus
Adapted for
Contains only one copy of each chromosome
(haploid)
Follicle cells
Secrete chemicals that secrete the acrosome

reaction
Cytoplasm
Very large so fertilised cell can divide immediately
Lipid droplets
Source of energy for future growth and division
Zona pelludica
Hardens once sperm has entered ova, stops further

cells entering.
Lysosomes
Cause the zona pellucida to harden once a sperms

nucleus has entered the ova.
A Mammalian Sperm:
Adaptations:
Part of Ovum
Nucleus
Adapted for
Contains only one copy of each chromosome
(haploid)
Head
Detachable. Contains the nucleus.
Middle
Contains lots of mitochondria, which make ATP
Tail
Made from motor proteins, which use ATP to propel

the sperm forwards
Acrosome
An adapted lysosome on the top of the sperms

head. The acrosome swells and bursts when the
sperm embeds in the zona pellucida (zona pellucida
releases chemicals that trigger this). The enzymes
in the acrosome digest the follicle cells and the
zona pellucida and allow the cell membranes to fuse.
Cytoplasm
Very little cytoplasm, which means cells are small

and therefore can be released in large numbers.
2.3.10
Fertilization is the successful fusion of two haploid gametes to
create a diploid cell (a zygote). The zygote then divides rapidly by
mitosis to become an embryo.
Mammalian fertilisation:
1. The sperm is attracted to the ovum by hormones released
by the follicle cells surrounding the ovum
2. When the sperm reaches the ovum it embeds its head in
the zona pellucida, triggering the acrosome reaction
3. The acrosome swells and bursts, releasing proteolytic
enzymes
4. The enzymes digest a hole into the ovum
5. Sperm membrane fuses with ovum membrane and the
sperm nucleus enters the ovum by endocytosis
6. Lysosomes in the ovum cause the zona pellucida to harden
once the sperms nucleus has entered the ovum, stopping
further sperm from penetrating the ovum.
Plant fertilisation:
1. The pollen grain (male gamete) lands on the stigma
2. Pollen grain grows a pollen tube down into the stigma. The
pollen nucleus is at the tip of the tube
3. The pollen tube enters the ovule
4. The pollen tube reaches an ovum and the nucleus enters it
by endocytosis forming a zygote.
5. Many pollen grains may fertilize many ova
2.3.11
Stem Cell: an undifferentiated cell (i.e. a cell that can grow into
more than one type of cell).
Totipotent Cell: an undifferentiated cell capable of growing into a
new embryo
Pluripotent Cell: an undifferentiated cell capable of growing into
any cell, but not a new embryo
Multipotent Cell: an undifferentiated cell capable of growing into a
few types of cell
Stem Cells are very useful because they can be used to grow
replacement organs. However, it is not yet possible to get a
differentiated cell to revert to being a stem cell. Therefore, stem
cells tend to be harvested from embryos, which causes serious
ethical problems.
You might like to consider;

Where do the embyos come from?

Is an embryo a human?
Do embryos have the same rights as adult humans?
Can we use animal embryos (or human-animal hybrids) instead?
The utilitarian argument
The right to life (for both adult and ambryo)
2.3.12
Dig up your Plant Culture Core Practical notes in the
Practical Handbook
2.3.13
Cells become specialized (or differentiated) by progressively
switching genes off. This is sometimes done by adding methyl
groups to the gene, which stop it being opened in transcription. The
gene is then permanently inactivated in the adult cell, but also in

any daughter cell produced through mitosis.
In addition, some genes may require a transcription factor to
activate them i.e. the gene is normally off, but will be transcribed in
the presence of a TF. Usually the TF is a hormone (e.g. Steroids think about their effects), but sometimes it can be an
environmental factor (e.g, the presence of lactose in E.coli see
text book)
2.3.14
The phenotype is a product of the genotype and the environment.
For some genes the environment has minimal effect (e.g. blood
group), but for the majority the environment plays a significant
role. You need to know 4 examples
Animal Hair Colour:
Some animals have fur colour that is a product of the environment
e.g. Siamese cats should have black fur all over as their genotype
codes for the enzyme tyrosinase that converts tyrosine into
melanin (which is a dark protein remind yourself of Albimism in
1.2.16). However, the enzyme is denatured by body heat, so only the
cold parts of the animal are black (tail, ears etc) and teh rest is
white.
Human Height:
Is controlled by many genes, each with a range of alleles, making it
an example of polygenetic inheritance (i.e. controlled by lots of
genes). In addition, diet has a huge effect on height.
Mono Amine Oxidase A (MAOA):
MAOA enzymes break down neurotransmitters released by nerves
in the brain. High levels of MAOA have been linked to risk-taking
and aggression, whereas low levels of MAOA can cause depression
and Parkinsons disease. Mutations of MAOA are the genetic

component to these conditions, but environmental factors such as
stress levels also have a profound effect.
Cancer:
A tumour is a ball of cells dividing quicker than they should.
Tumours that split apart and spread around the body (metastasis)
are the most dangerous (malignant)
The rate of cell division is controlled by;
Oncogenes speed cell cycle up
Tumour Supressor Genes slow cell cycle down
Mutations in either of these genes can cause tumours. Although
mutations occur naturally, the environment can have an effect e.g.
radiation, free radicals, carcinogen chemicals all increase the
mutation rate.
2.3.15
Discontinuous variation: phenotypes appear in discrete categories
(i.e. blood group). Usually controlled by one gene where the
environment has little effect.
Continuous variation: phenotypes appear in a range of categories
(i.e. height). Usually controlled by many gene (polygenes) where the
environment has a large effect.
End of Topic 3
Edexcel AS Revision
Notes
Unit 2:
2: Development, Plants & the
Environment
Topic 4: Biodiversity & Natural Resources
2.4.2
Animal and plant cells are both eukaryotic cells, they have common
eukaruyotic features. However, plant cells also have some features
unique to them.
Cell wall: A structure made from cellulose fibrils and pectin crosslinks. It strengthens the cell and allows it to be turgid without
bursting.
Amyloplast: A membrane-bound organelle full of starch (starch
grain)
Chloroplast: Site of photosynthesis.
Vacuole: A water-filled membrane-bound organelle that helps a cell
maintain turgor pressure
Tonoplast: The vacuolar membrane

Plasmodesmata: A junction between adjacent cells where the
cytoplasm of one cell joins the cytoplasm of the other. Used for
intercellular communication
Pit: A thin patch in the cell wall where plasmodesmata can form or
have formed previously
Middle lamella: A pectin glue attaching one cell wall to another
2.4.3
Plant cells are strong because they are wrapped in a protective
layer of cellulose. This forms the cell wall.
Cellulose is a polysaccharide made from glucose monomers.
Alternate glucose molecules flip over in the chain, forming
hydrogen bonds between adjacent cellulose chains. Because
cellulose has no side branches the chains can be packed closely
which increases the strength of the hydrogen bonds further.
Alternate glucose molecules flipping over

Individual cellulose chains are packaged together into microfibrils.
The microfibrils wind around each other forming cellulose fibres.
The cell wall is build from layers of these fibres.
2.4.4
Primary cell wall: First to form, cellulose fibres laid down in the
same direction
Secondary cell wall: Forms later, cellulose fibres laid down at right
angles to those in the primary wall. Provides much greater strength.
Collenchyma: found around the outside of the stem have their cell
walls further strengthened with more cellulose (secondary
thickening) to form thick supporting cells.
Sclerenchyma: in larger plants strings of collenchyma begin to lay
down the protein lignin in their cell walls to form very strong fibres
within the stem. These tend to form as a cap to the vascular
bundles in the stem. Sometimes the sclerenchyma can be extracted
by humans for making into rope (e.g. hessian) or clothes (e.g. flax or
jute).
2.4.5
Vessel
Xylem
Phloem
Sclerenchyma
Collenchyma
Location in stem
Inside of vascular
bundle
Middle of vascular
bundle
Cap on vascular
bundle
Inside epidermis
Purpose
Carries water and minerals up
the stem
Carries sucrose up & down the
stem
Support for the stem
Lesser support for the stem
2.4.6
Plant materials are used for three main reasons;
1. Sustainable - they are not a limited resource as, although
they are used, they can be replanted.
2. Carbon neutral - do not contribute to rising CO2 levels
(although they may give off CO2, replanting uses the CO2
up again).
3. Biodegrade.
Plant materials are used as fibres (wood, cotton etc) as they have a
high tensile strength and can be used in clothing, building industry
etc. Oils from plants can be used as biofuels and starch can be used
in packaging, glues, absorbants as well as for food.
2.4.7
Xylem
Regular rings of lignin

Wide lumen
No end walls (continuous
tube)
Location at inside of VB
Sclerenchyma

Irregular layers of lignin

Tiny lumen
End walls with pits
Location as cap to VB
Presence of sclerids
2.4.8
Dig up your Celery Fibres Core Practical notes in the
Practical Handbook
2.4.9
Mineral
Nitrate
Calcium
Magnesium
Function in plant
Used to make amino acids, which the plant uses to form
proteins
Used to make pectin for cell walls
Central ion in the chlorophyll molecule.
Plants also need water for;

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Photosynthesis (~5%)
Cooling via transpiration (~90%)
Transport of substances (e.g. sucrose, mineral ions)
Maintain turgor
Solvent for chemical reactions
Gamete distribution
2.4.10
Dig up your Plant Mineral Deficiencies Core Practical notes
in the Practical Handbook
2.4.11
Dig up your Mint / Garlic Core Practical notes in the
Practical Handbook
2.4.12
William Withering experimented with foxglove extract as a cure
for dropsy (oedema caused by congestive heart failure). He gave
the drug in increasing amounts until the patient became ill, then he
worked out a dose based on that. He also killed someone. His

studies, though important are NOT ethical and do not follow the
basis of modern clinical trials
Clinical Trial Process:
Stage
Pre-clinical
testing
Clinical Trials
Phase 1
Clinical Trials
Phase 2
Clinical Trials
Phase 3
Purpose of stage
1. Proposed drug is tested in a lab with cultured cells to
see the general effects of the drug
2. Proposed drug is given to animals to see the effects on
a whole animal. Any side effects away from target cells
are noted.
1. A small group of healthy volunteers are given different
doses of the drug. They are told what the drug does
2. The distribution, absorbance rate, metabolism &
excretion profile of the drug are assessed.
3. The effects of the different doses are assessed to try
and determine the optimum dose
4. An independent organisation (UK Medicines Control
Agency) assesses whether it is appropriate to move to
Phase 2
1. A small group of people with the disease are given the
drug.
2. Studies are very similar to Phase 1
3. The optimum dose is worked out
1. A large group of people with the disease are given
optimum doses of the drug
2. The patients are either given the drug or a placebo in a
double-blind test
3. The results are analysed
4. If the drug has had a significant positive effect in the
treatment of the disease it is put forward to licensing
authority
2.4.13
Biodiversity: The number of species, the number of individuals
within those species and the number and variety of alleles those
individuals.
Endemic: Where a species is found only within a particular niche in a
particular ecosystem.
Species richness: is a measure of biodiversity where the number
and variety of species in an area is recorded. Can be measured in
different ways;
Indicator species i.e. the presence of specific species (usually
those least tolerant to pollution / climate change etc) are
used to indicate the health of the ecosystem.
Population of keystone species i.e. the population of crucial
species (usually those providing prey for the rest) are used to
measure the health of the ecosystem
Quantitative sampling a direct way of sampling the
biodiversity using quadrats
Capture / recapture a direct way of working out populations
of species.
Genetic diversity: the number of different alleles within the gene
pool. The greater the diversity, the more likely the species is to
survive environmental change or disease.
2.4.14
A niche is the specific part of the ecosystem in which a species
lives and any adaptations the species has that make it successful
there. Adaptations can be;
Behavioural e.g. Iguana on the Galapagos islands dive for seaweed they are the only lizards to venture into the sea.
Physiological e.g. some Ethiopians have evolved a different shaped

haemoglobin molecule that resembles foetal Hb. It loads O2 much
more efficiently at altitude (see end of Topic 1)
Anatomical e.g. the Fiddler crab
has two very different claws. One
is huge and is used for fiddling
i.e. signalling for a mate. The
smaller
claw
is,
rather
disappointingly, used for feeding.
2.4.15
Darwin made two observations and a conclusion;
O1: More offspring are born than can survive
O2: There is variation within a species
Conclusion: There is a struggle for survival only the fittest can
survive and reproduce. This is Natural Selection
In order for NS to lead to evolution a few extra conditions are
required;
1. Isolation (see table below) so no flow of alleles
2. Small population & inbreeding
3. Mutation (generates new fitter alleles)
4. Mutations accumulate within population
5. Eventually the isolated population cannot reproduce with
the originals. At this point a new species has formed
(speciation)
Method of isolation
Ecological isolation
Temporal isolation
Behavioural isolation
Physical incompatibility
Hybrid inviability
Hybrid sterility
Description
The species occupy different parts of the
habitat
The species exist in the same area, but
reproduce at different times
The species exist in the same area, but do not
respond to each others courtship behaviour
Species coexist, but there are physical
reasons which stop them from copulating
In some species, hybrids are produces but
they do not survive long enough to breed
Hybrids survive to reproductive age, but
cannot reproduce
Allopatric speciation occurs when species are far from each other
Sympatric speciation occurs when species are close to each other
2.4.16
The taxonomic classification system follows a hierarchy of groups
(the 5 Kingdoms at the top, individual species at the bottom) in
which all species are categorised according to their anatomy.
However, this is not necessarily the best approach as species with
similar anatomies (e.g. dolphin and shark) are not necessarily closely
related. A better system is based on molecular phylogeny i.e.
comparing the molecules species are comprised of. The best
molecule to examine is DNA.
A recent proposal along this line (the three domain theory) argues
that all organisms evolved into three broad groups;
Bacteria prokaryotes, fundamentally different structures
Archaea those species that exhibit characteristics of both (i.e.
early eukaryotes and their descendents)
Eukaryotes eukaryotes, fundamentally different structures
2.4.17
Seed banks and Zoos help because they allow us to preserve
biodiversity, reintroduce species, set up captive breeding
programmes, educate people about ecology and generate money
from tourism.
However, be aware that some species (those that have a lot of
leaned behaviours e.g. tigers) do not tend to fare well on
reintroduction programmes.
Cohesion-Tension Theory of Transpiration

This is not mentioned on the syllabus, but it is in the text book. The
prudent man learns it anyway
Epidermis: A single layer of cells often with long extensions called
root hairs, which increase the surface area enormously. A single
plant may have 1010 root hairs.
Cortex: A thick layer of packing cells often containing stored

starch.
Stele: contains the Xylem, Phloem & Cambium and is protected by a
layer of endodermis cells
vascular
tissue
epidermis
cortex
endodermis
pericycle
phloem
cambium
xylem
root
hairs
Endodermis: A single layer of tightly-packed cells containing a

waterproof layer called the casparian strip. This prevents the
movement of water between the cells and helps waterproof the
stele keeping water in.
casparian
cell
cell
cytoplasm
vacuole
strip
wall membrane
Water moves through the root by two paths:

(i)
(ii)
Symplast pathway (10%)

Apoplast pathway (90%)
Symplast pathway: water moves from cytoplasm to cytoplasm

through plasmodesmata (holes in the cell walls, where cell
membranes of adjacent cells are joined - so there are no
membranes for the polar water molecules to cross).
Apoplast pathway: water moves from cell wall to cell wall. The cell
walls are quite thick and very open, so water can easily diffuse
through cell walls without having to cross any cell membranes.
However the Apoplast pathway stops at the endodermis because of
the waterproof casparian strip. At this point water has to cross
the cell membrane and enter the symplast pathway. This effectively
water-proofs the Stele, which stops water loss higher up the root.
Root Pressure:
Water moves from high water potential to low water potential by
osmosis. However, most soils are dry (especially in the desert) and
the water potential of the soil is low. Plant cells are full of water, so
why doesnt water leave the plant cells and enter the soil?
The answer is that plant roots take up lots of ions from the soil,
which lowers the water concentration of their cytoplasm enough for
water to enter the root by osmosis, even if the soil if very dry. The
ions are taken up by active transport, by proteins in the cell
membrane of the root hairs. This uses up lots of energy (uses lots
of ATP).
Because of the low water potential root cells become very turgid.
This creates a small pressure, which forces water up the xylem in
the stem. This is called Root Pressure. In small plants root pressure
is very important for transpiration. In woody plants it does not
have a significant effect.
Xylem Tissue
small xylem vessels

(tracheids)
Xylem tissue is composed of dead cells

joined together to form long empty
tubes.
large xylem vessel
Different kinds of cells form wide and

narrow tubes, and the end cells walls are
either full of holes, or are absent
completely.
Transverse Section (T.S.)
thick cell wall

empty interior
Longitudinal Section (L.S.)
lignin
rings
Before death the cells form thick cell

walls containing lignin, which is laid down
in rings, giving these cells a very
characteristic appearance under the
microscope.
remains
of end wall
perforated
end walls
Lignin makes the xylem vessels very strong, so that they dont collapse under
pressure, and they also make woody stems strong. The xylem vessels form
continuous pipes from the roots to the leaves. Water can move up through these
pipes at a rate of 8m h-1, and can reach a height of over 100m.
Water molecules are polar and bind to each other by hydrogen
bonds forming a strong column of water (for its diameter the
column is stronger than steel!)
1. Water evaporates out of the leaves and causes low

pressure in the leaves.
2. This creates a suction (or tension) force which sucks water

up the stem
3. Because water molecules are polar they stick to each other

and the entire column of water in the Xylem moves
upwards.
4. This mechanism is called the cohesion-tension theory.
End of Topic 4
O
H
O
H
O
H
H
O
H

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