Mechanisms of Hormonal

Regulation
Chapter 20

Hormones

General characteristics

Specific rates and rhythms of secretion

Diurnal, pulsatile and cyclic, and patterns depending

on circulating substances

Operate within feedback systems

Affect only cells with appropriate receptors
The liver inactivates hormones, rendering the
hormones more water soluble for renal excretion

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The Endocrine System

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Regulation of Hormone Release

Hormones are released:

In response to an alteration in the cellular

environment
To maintain a regulated level of certain substances
or other hormones

Hormones are regulated by chemical,

hormonal, or neural factors
Negative feedback
Positive feedback

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Feedback

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Hormone Transport

Hormones are released into the circulatory

system by endocrine glands

Water-soluble hormones circulate in free,

unbound forms
Lipid soluble hormones are primarily circulating
bound to a carrier

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Cellular Mechanism of Hormone

Action

Target cell
Up-regulation
Down-regulation
Hormone effects

Direct effects
Permissive effects

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Cellular Mechanism of Hormone

Action

Hormone receptors

Water-soluble hormones

Located in or on the plasma membrane or in the

intracellular compartment of the target cell
High molecular weight
Cannot diffuse across the plasma membrane

Lipid-soluble hormones

Easily diffuse across the plasma membrane and

bind to cytosolic or nuclear receptors

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Cellular Mechanism of Hormone

Action

Water-soluble hormones

First messenger
Signal transduction
Second-messenger molecules

Calcium
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP)
Cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP)

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Cellular Mechanism of Hormone

Action

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Cellular Mechanism of Hormone

Action

Lipid-soluble hormones

Steroid hormones

Diffuse across the plasma membrane

Androgens, estrogens, progestins, glucocorticoids,

mineralocorticoids, and thyroid hormones
Bind to cytoplasmic or nuclear receptors

Activate

RNA polymerase
DNA transcription and translation

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Lipid-Soluble Hormones

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Structure and Function of the

Endocrine Glands

Hypothalamic-pituitary axis

Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland

Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)

Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis)

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The Pituitary Gland

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Posterior Pituitary Hormones

Synthesized with their binding proteins in the

supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the
hypothalamus
Secreted by the posterior pituitary

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

Controls plasma osmolality

Oxytocin

Uterine contractions and milk ejection in lactating

women

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Posterior Pituitary Hormones

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones

Adrenocorticotropic hormone
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone
Growth hormone
Prolactin
Thyroid-stimulating hormone
Luteinizing hormone
Follicle-stimulating hormone
-lipotropin
-endorphins

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones

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Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

Thyroid gland

Two lobes lateral to the trachea

Isthmus
Follicles (follicle cells surrounding colloid)
Parafollicular cells (C cells)

Secrete calcitonin

Regulation of thyroid hormone secretion

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone and thyroid

stimulating hormone

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Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

Thyroid hormones

90% T4 and 10% T3

Bound to thyroxine-binding globulin, thyroxinebinding prealbumin, or albumin

Affect growth and maturation of tissues, cell
metabolism, heat production, and oxygen
consumption

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Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

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Thyroid and Parathyroid Glands

Parathyroid glands

Small glands located behind the upper and lower

poles of the thyroid gland
Produce parathyroid hormone

Regulator of serum calcium

Antagonist of calcitonin

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Parathyroid Glands

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Parathyroid Glands

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Endocrine Pancreas

The pancreas is both an endocrine and an

exocrine gland
Houses the islets of Langerhans

Secretion of glucagon and insulin

Cells

Alphaglucagon
Betainsulin
Deltasomatostatin and gastrin
F cellspancreatic polypeptide

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Endocrine Pancreas

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Endocrine Pancreas

Insulin

Synthesized from proinsulin

Secretion is promoted by increased blood glucose
levels
Facilitates the rate of glucose uptake into the cells
of the body
Anabolic hormone

Synthesis of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids

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Endocrine Pancreas

Glucagon

Secretion is promoted by decreased blood glucose

levels
Stimulates glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, and
lipolysis

Somatostatin

Possible involvement in regulating alpha and beta

cell secretions

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Endocrine Pancreas

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Adrenal Glands

Adrenal cortex

80% of an adrenal glands total weight

Zona glomerulosa
Zona fasciculata
Zona reticularis

Adrenal medulla

Innervated by the sympathetic and

parasympathetic nervous systems

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Endocrine Pancreas

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Adrenal Glands

Adrenal cortex

Stimulated by adrenocorticotropic hormone

(ACTH)
Glucocorticoid hormones

Direct effects on carbohydrate metabolism

Anti-inflammatory and growth-suppressing effects
Influence awareness and sleep habits
Most potent naturally occurring glucocorticoid is
cortisol

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Adrenal Glands

Adrenal cortex

Mineralocorticoid hormones

Affect ion transport by epithelial cells

Increase the activity of the sodium pump of the epithelial

cells
Cause sodium retention and potassium and hydrogen loss

Most potent naturally occurring mineralocorticoid is

aldosterone

Regulated by the renin-angiotensin system

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Aldosterone

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Adrenal Glands

Adrenal cortex

Adrenal estrogens and androgens

Estrogen secretion by the adrenal cortex is minimal

The adrenal cortex secretes weak androgens

Androgens are converted by peripheral tissues to stronger

androgens such as testosterone

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Adrenal Glands

Adrenal medulla

Chromaffin cells (pheochromocytes)

Chromaffin cells secrete the catecholamines

epinephrine (majority) and norepinephrine

Release of catecholamines has been characterized

as a fight or flight response
Catecholamines promote hyperglycemia

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Catecholamines

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Neuroendocrine Response to Stress

The endocrine system reacts with the nervous

system to respond to stressors
The stress response also involves the immune
system
Influenced by corticotropin-releasing
hormone from the hypothalamus

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Tests of Endocrine Function

Radioimmunoassay
Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay
(ELISA)
Bioassay

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Aging and the Endocrine System

Thyroid gland

Glandular atrophy, fibrosis, nodularity, and

increased inflammatory infiltrates

Parathyroid glands

Related to alterations in calcium balance

Inadequate intake, malabsorption, or renal changes

Adrenal glands

Decreased clearance of cortisol

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