Seismic methods:

Seismic reflection - II

Reflection reading:
Sharma p130-158; (Reynolds p343-379)

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Seismic reflection processing

Flow overview

These are the main

steps in processing
The order in which
they are applied is
variable

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Reflectivity and convolution

The seismic wave is sensitive to
the sequence of impedance
contrasts
The reflectivity series (R)

We input a source wavelet (W) which is

reflected at each impedance contrast
The seismogram recorded at the surface
(S) is the convolution of the two
S=W*R

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Deconvolution

undoing the convolution to get back to the

reflectivity series what we want

Spiking or whitening deconvolution

Reduces the source wavelet to a spike. The filter that best achieves this is
called a Wiener filter
Our seismogram S = R*W

(reflectivity*source)

Deconvolution operator, D, is designed such that D*W =

So D*S = D*R*W = D*W*R = *R = R

Time-variant deconvolution
D changes with time to account for the different frequency content of
energy that has traveled greater distances
Predictive deconvolution
The arrival times of primary reflections are used to predict the arrival times
of multiples which are then removed
Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Spiking deconvolution

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Spiking
deconvolution

Recorded
waveform
Deconvolution
operator

Output

-1

Recovered
reflectivity
series
Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Spiking
deconvolution

Recorded
waveform

-1

Deconvolution
operator

Output

Recovered
reflectivity
series
Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Spiking
deconvolution

Recorded
waveform

-1

Deconvolution
operator

Output

Recovered
reflectivity
series
Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Spiking
deconvolution

Recorded
waveform

Deconvolution
operator

Output

-1

Recovered
reflectivity
series
Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Spiking
deconvolution

Recorded
waveform

-1

Deconvolution
operator

Output
Recovered
reflectivity
series

A perfect
deconvolution
operator is of
infinite length

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Source-pulse deconvolution
Examples

Original
section

Deconvolution:
Ringing removed

Source wavelet becomes spike-like

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Deconvolution using correlation

If we know the source pulse
Then cross-correlating it with
the recorded waveform gets
us back (closer) to the
reflectivity function

If we dont know the source pulse

Then autocorrelation of the waveform gives us something similar to
the input plus multiples.
Cross-correlating the autocorrelation with the waveform then
provides a better approximation to the reflectivity function.

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Multiples
Due to multiple bounce paths in the section
Looks like repeated structure
These are also removed with deconvolution
easily identified with an autocorrelation
removed using cross-correlation of the
autocorrelation with the waveform

Sea-bottom reflections
Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Seismic reflection processing

Flow overview

These are the main

steps in processing
The order in which
they are applied is
variable

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Velocity analysis
Determination of seismic
velocity is key to seismic
methods
Velocity is needed to convert the
time-sections into depth-sections i.e.
geological cross-sections

Unfortunately reflection surveys

are not very sensitive to velocity
Often complimentary refraction
surveys are conducted to provide
better estimates of velocity

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Normal move out (NMO) correction

The reflection traveltime equation
predicts a hyperbolic shape to
reflections in a CMP gather. The
hyperbolae become fatter/flatter
with increasing velocity

Tx2 = T02 +

reflection
hyperbolae
become fatter
with depth
(i.e. velocity)

x2
V1

We want to subtract the NMO

correction from the common depth
point gather
2

TNMO

x
2T0V12

But for that we need velocity

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Stacking velocity
In order to stack the waveforms we
need to know the velocity. We find the
velocity by trial and error:

TNMO =

x2
2T0V12

For each velocity we calculate the hyperbolae and stack the waveforms
The correct velocity will stack the reflections on top of one another
So, we choose the velocity which produces the most power in the stack

V2 causes the
waveforms to
stack on top of
one another

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Multiple layer case

s
tiple
mul

Stacking velocity
A stack of multiple horizontal layers is a
more realistic approximation to the Earth
Can trace rays through the stack using
Snells Law (the ray parameter)
For near-normal incidence the
moveout continues to be a hyperbolae
The shape of the hyperbolae is related
to the time-weighted rms velocity
above the reflector
Velocity semblance spectrum
Pick stacking velocities

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Stacking velocity

Note: the sensitivity

to velocity decreases
with depth

Multiple layer case

Stacking velocity panels: constant velocity gathers

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Multiple layers
zi

Interval velocity

Vi =

Average velocity

V '= Z

Root-meansquare velocity

ti

T0

V t
t
2

VRMS =

Two-way traveltime of ray reflected

off the nth interface at a depth z

tn =

The interval velocity of layer n

determined from the rms velocities
and the two-way traveltimes to the
nth and n-1th reflectors

Vint =

x2 + 4z 2
VRMS

(V

) t (V
2

RMS , n

)t
2

RMS , n 1

n 1

t n t n 1
Dix equation

The interval velocity can be determined from the

rms velocities layer by layer starting at the top
Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

10

Velocity sensitivity: Example

Shallow: Two layer model:
1 = 3 km/s, z = 5 km

Deep: Two layer model:

1 = 6 km/s, z = 20 km
2
2
2
1
Equation of the
400 + x
t=
z2 + x
=
4 3
4
1
reflection hyperbolae:

Normal move out

correction:

t NMO =

x2
2 t

2
1 0

x2
480

For a 5 km offset:

t=

2
1
25 + x
4
1.5

t NMO =

x2
60

For a 5 km offset:

1 = 6.0 km/s then 0.052 sec correct value

1 = 3.0 km/s then 0.417 sec

1 = 5.5 km/s then 0.062 sec

1 = 2.5 km/s then 0.600 sec

1 = 6.5 km/s then 0.044 sec

1 = 3.5 km/s then 0.306 sec

Are these significant differences?

What can we do to improve
velocity resolution?

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Frequency filtering
Hi-pass: to remove ground roll
Low-pass: to remove high
frequency jitter/noise
Notch filter: to remove single
frequency

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

11

Resolution of structure
Consider a vertical step in an interface
To be detectable the step must cause an
delay of to a wavelength
This means the step (h) must be 1/8 to
the wavelength (two way traveltime)
Example:
20 Hz, = 4.8 km/s then = 240 m
Therefore need an offset greater than 30 m
Shorter wavelength signal (higher
frequencies) have better resolution.
What is the problem with very high
frequency sources?

Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

Resolution of structure

When you have been mapping faults in the field what

were the vertical offsets?
Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

12

Fresnel Zone
Tells us about the horizontal resolution
on the surface of a reflector
First Fresnel Zone
The area of a reflector that returns energy to
the receiver within half a cycle of the first
reflection
The width of the first Fresnel zone, w:
2

w
2
d + = d +
4

2
w2 = 2d +

2
4

If an interface is smaller than the first Fresnel

zone it appears as an point diffractor, if it is
larger it appears as an interface
Example:
30 Hz signal, 2 km depth where = 3 km/s then = 0.1 km and the width of the
first Fresnel zone is 0.63 km
Applied Geophysics Seismic reflection II

13