CHEMISTRY Test the Hypothesis

Doing Scientific Investigation - Must indicate thorough procedure

- Include a detailed list of materials
Scientific Investigation - a systematic approach to solving problems or
studying phenomena and communicating the results to the scientific Experimental Variable - any factor, trait or condition that can exist in a
community. It involves a process called Scientific Method. given experiment.
Scientific Method - An organized method used to answer questions.
Types of Experimental Variables
Steps in Scientific Method Independent Variable - the variable that you change or manipulate
1. Observation Dependent Variable - observable result due to the independent
2. Asking Questions variable
3. Conduct a Research Controlled Variable - the variable that is held constant or unchanged.
4. Formulate A Hypothesis
5. Test the Hypothesis Example: What happens to the color of white soap when a grape juice
6. Record and Analyze Data is added to it?
7. Conclusion
8. Communicate Results Independent - kind of fruit juice
Dependent - change in the color of the soap water
Observation Controlled - soap brand / amount of water
- This is a necessary first step in the scientific method.
- Observing any changes in the environment.
- It also involves the use of measuring instruments to obtain Record and Analyze Data
more accurate details about the subject or phenomenon. - Gathering data using tables and spreadsheets allows easy
data recording.
Asks Questions - Taking videos and/or pictures of the experiment will also help
- Develop a question or problem that can be solved through document and analyze the experiment.
experimentation. - The results can be presented in a graph or chart. It can be
- This step may involve brainstorming with a group of people analyzed using mathematical equations and statistical tools.
who had the same observation.
- Think about what you want to know then state the problem. Conclusion
- Make conclusions based on observations and results
Conduct a Research answering the inquiry question or problem.
- This entails gathering information about your inquiry or - State whether the hypothesis is true or false.
problem. - Include recommendations for further study and possible
- Information can be obtained from reliable sources like improvements of the procedure.
articles, experiments, and people.
- The more you know about the subject, the easier it is to Communicate Results
organize experiments. - Results are communicated either through written or oral
reports.
Formulate Hypothesis - The report should include the title, researchers, abstract,
- A tentative testable statement or prediction about what has introduction, objectives, procedure, data and results,
been observed. conclusion and references.
- It can either be accepted or rejected. - A recommendation on the improvement in the conduct of the
- Predict a possible answer to the problem or question. experiment and further study should also be included.

Matter
Kinds of Hypothesis:
Null - a general statement that shows no significant relationship
States of Matter
between two observed variables.
● Solid
● Liquid
Alternative - a general statement that shows that there is a significant
● Gas
relationship between two observed variables.
● Plasma
● Bose-Einstein Condensate
Cause and Effect - a conditional statement that shows a presumes
specific relationship between two observed variables.
Solid
- Definite shape and volume
Example: What happens to the color of white soap when a grape juice is
- Hard to compress
added to it?
- Particles are compact
- High density
Null - White soap does not change color when grace juice is added to it.
- Might not conform to the shape of a container
Alternative - White soap changes color when grape juice is added to it.
Cause and Effect - If grape juice is added to white soap then the soap
Liquid
turns green.
- No definite shape
 - Has definite volume - Ex. density, color, the physical state, melting, boiling, freezing
- Particles are less compact points.
- It flows Chemical Property - is characteristic that can be observed with an
- Low high density relative to solids accompanying change in chemical compositions of substance. (Ex.
flammability)
Gas
- indefinite shape and volume
- Highly compressible
- Particles are far apart
- Low density
- Conforms to the shape of container

Phase Changes

Matters whether solid, liquid, or gas undergoes changes in the physical

state. Only physical qualities are changed but there is no alteration in its
chemical composition.

Melting (solid to liquid) - the solid absorbs energy as temperature

increases making particles vibrate strongly and weakening their
attraction to each other.

Freezing (liquid to solid) - As heat leaves, the particles move slowly

making their attraction stronger and thus forming neat arrangements.

Pure Substance
Sublimation (solid to gas) - Due to abrupt changes in temperature and
pressure, the particles of solid instantly loosen up to form gas.
Elements and Compounds
Deposition (gas to solid) - Due to abrupt changes in temperature and
Element
pressure, the gas particles instantly change to solid without going
- It is composed of one basic unit of matter called an atom.
through the liquid state.
- It cannot be broken down into simpler substances by physical
or chemical means.
Vaporization (liquid to gas) - happens when the liquid phase changes to
- There are 118 known elements.
the gas phase at a temperature below the boiling point at a given
pressure.
Classification of Elements
● Metals
Substance vs Mixture
● Metalloids
● Non-Metals
Matters can be classified according to: State (solid, liquid, gas) and
Composition (pure substance, mixture).
Metal
- an element that is normally solid at room temperature with
Pure Substance
the exception of mercury (Hg).
- Can either be an element or a compound
- Examples: nickel, silver, cobalt
- Chemically combined and separated
Properties of Metal
- Properties are consistent all throughout
- Measure of the ease at which an electric charge or heat can
- Has a definite and unchanging chemical composition
pass through a material.
- Material’s ability to be hammered or rolled into sheets.
Mixture
- A material's ability to be stretched into thin wires.
- Two or more pure substances that are physically combined.
- Properties are inconsistent throughout a given sample.
NonMetals
- Has an indefinite and changing chemical composition.
- An element that does not have the properties of a metal.
- Can either be homogeneous (ex. alcohol and water) or
- They can exist in solid, liquid, or gaseous form.
heterogeneous (ex. oil and water).
- Examples: bromine, neon, sulfur
Properties of NonMetals
Physical Property - is one that can be observed without changing the
- Poor thermal and electrical conductivity
composition of a substance. (Ex. color, solubility, density, melting, boiling
- Brittle
point).
- Little luster and seldom reflects light
Types of Physical Properties
Extensive Property
Metalloid
- dependent on the amount of substance present.
- An element that has physical and chemical properties of both
- It can be used to classify a substance.
metal and nonmetal.
- Ex. mass, volume
Examples of Metalloid
Intensive Property
Silicon - can conduct electricity but not as well as metals
- Depends on the type of matter.
 - Shiny but brittle and chips easily like glass Types of Heterogeneous Mixture
Antimony - shiny like a metal but brittle like a nonmetal
Boron - somewhat shiny and conducts electricity like a metal but brittle Suspension
like a nonmetal. - Large sized particles
- Particles settle
- Example: oil and water mixture
Diatomic Elements
Colloid
Hydrogen - Has medium sized particles
Nitrogen - Particles don’t settle
Fluorine - The particles of which the colloid is made are called the
Oxygen dispersed material
Iodine - Any colloid consisting of a solid dispersed gas is called
Chlorine smoke.
Bromine - A liquid dispersed in gas is referred to as a fog.
..
Have
No
Fear
Of
Ice
Cold
Beer

Compound
- Composed of 2 or more varying atoms.
- They can be separated into their constituent elements and/or
compounds through chemical reaction.
Techniques in Separating Mixtures
- The name of most compounds are derived from the names of
the elements that compose them.
Filtration
Each compound has a set of properties different from the elements that
- Commonly used for solid-liquid mixtures
compose them. For example;
- A mixture is poured into a filter paper
Formation of Salt
- The solid particle (residue) retains in the filter paper
Sodium (solid) + Chlorine (gas) = Sodium Chloride (solid)
- The liquid (filtrate)

Mixture Distillation
- Commonly used for solid-liquid and liquid-liquid mixtures
Mixture - Employs the differences in boiling point of the components
- a combination of two or more substances without undergoing - Done if you want to recover both components
chemical change.
- Can be physically separated Evaporation
- Indefinite and unchanging composition - Commonly used for solid-liquid mixtures
- Properties are inconsistent throughout the sample. - Employs the differences in boiling point of the components
- Done if you want to recover one component
Classification of Mixtures
Magnetic Separation
- Commonly used for solid-solid mixtures
Homogeneous Heterogeneous - Employs the difference in magnetic property

Exists in a single phase Exists in two or more phases

Types of Solutions

Has visibly indistinguishable Has visibly distinguishable parts

parts Solution
- describes a homogeneous mixture composed of two or more
Uniform composition and Composition is not uniform in the physically combined substances.
appearance throughout a given sample - Has a uniform composition and appearance throughout the
sample sample

Components can be separated
physically
Generally called solutions
Components can be separated
physically
Can be suspension or colloid
Components of a Solution : solute and solvent
Solute
- The component that is dissolved in a solution.
- typically present in lesser amounts in a solution
Solvent Qualitative Way - descriptive and comparative way
- The component that is used to dissolve the solute in a
solution or the dispersing medium in a solution. Diluted Solution - lesser amount of solute that is dissolved
- Typically present in larger amounts in a solution. Concentrated Solution - greater amount of solute that is dissolved

Types of Solutions Quantitative Way - measured or numerical way

● Solid Solution
● Liquid Solution Unsaturated Solution - less amount of solute dissolved in the solution
● Gaseous Solution Saturated Solution - contains the maximum amount of solute that the
solvent can dissolve.
Solid Solutions Supersaturated Solution - excess amount of solute dissolved in a
solvent by heating

Solute Solvent Example

Factors Affecting the Solubility

Gas Solid Hydrogen in

palladium Solubility
- is the maximum amount of substance that dissolves in a given
Liquid Solid Liquid mercury in amount of solvent
solid sodium - Primarily used for solid-liquid solutions
- For liquid-liquid, the term “miscibility” is used
Solid Solid steel
1. Nature of Solute and Solvent
More examples: This pertains to the polarity of the solute and solvent.
Carbon-Iron Alloy (Carbon Steel) Polarity - refers to the way in which atoms of a compound are
Chromium-Iron Alloy (Stainless Steel) bound to each other.
Tin-Copper Alloy (Bronze)
Zinc-Copper Alloy (Brass) 2. Temperature
Solids generally dissolve in liquids much faster at higher
Liquid Solutions temperatures.
Gases generally dissolve in solute at lower temperatures.

Solute Solvent Example 3. Pressure

A small change in pressure does not affect the solubility of
Gas Liquid Carbonated Drink solids and liquids. However, if more pressure is done, then
the solid will eventually dissolve.
Liquid Liquid Rubbing Alcohol
Pressure has a significant effect on gases. The greater the
pressure, the more a gaseous solute is dissolved in a solvent.
Solid Liquid Salt in Water

More examples:
Carbon dioxide (water solution)
Isopropyl alcohol (water solution)
Acetic acid (water solution)
Sucrose (water solution)
Gaseous Solutions
Solute
Gas
Liquid
Solid
More examples:
Oxygen-nitrogen solution
Water-air solution
Naphthalene-air solution
Concentration of Solutions
● Qualitative Way
● Quantitative Way
4. Particle Size
Solubility is faster when solute particles have more surface
area exposed to the solvent.
Concentration - it measures the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent
solution.
Expressing Concentration of Solution
● Percent by Mass
Solvent Example
● Percent by Volume
Gas Air ● Molarity
● Molality
Gas Water Vapor in air
Percent by Mass - defined as the amount of solute in grams present in
Gas Mothballs sublimed 100 grams of solution.
in air
Examples:
10% solution of sugar by mass means that 10 grams of sugar is present
in 100g solution (10g sugar has been dissolved in 90g water)
Nichrome wire is a mixture of 75% nickel, 12% iron, and 11% chromium,
and 2% manganese by mass. This means that 100 grams of wire has
75g Ni, 12g Fe, 11g Cr, and 2g Mn.
 Strong Acids - have pH that range from 0 to 3
Weak Acids - have pH greater than 3 but less than 7

Strong Bases - have pH that are greater than 10 but less than 14
Weak Bases - have pH that range greater than 7 to 10.

Acid and Base Indicators

- Substances that change color when exposed to an acidic or
basic solution.

ACIDS AND BASES

Common properties of acids and bases: color and appearance

When dissolved in water, When dissolved in water,

acids... bases...

Have a sour taste Have a bitter taste

Conduct electricity Conduct electricity

Application of Acids
Neutralize bases Neutralize acids ● Remove rust (e.g acetic acid and hydrochloric acid)
● Electrolyte in car batteries (e.g. sulfuric acid)
Corrosive (reacts with metal) Slippery feeling ● Production of fertilizers (e.g. phosphate minerals react with
sulfuric acid to make fertilizers)
Examples: lemon, vinegar, apple Examples: bleach, laundry ● Food preservatives and preparation (critic acid in lemon and
detergent, soap orange juice and acetic acid in vinegar)
● Key elements in biological functions (fatty acids, amino acids,
Classifying Whether the Solution is Acid or Base DNA, and RNA)
● pH Scale
● Acid and Base Indicators Application of Bases
● Used in cooking and relief acid reflux (e.g, baking soda or
pH scale sodium bicarbonate)
- It measures how acidic, basic, or neutral a substance is. ● Remove dirt (e.g. sodium hydroxide)
- It is a scale that ranges from 0 to 14. ● A major component of soaps and detergents (e.g. sodium and
potassium hydroxide)
- A neutral solution has a pH of 7 ● Bleach and disinfectants (e.g. sodium hypochlorite and pool
- less than 7 is acidic cleaners)
- greater than 7 is basic
When acid and base combine, it undergoes neutralization. The
production of neutralization is salt

Application of Neutralization
Plant Production
- Plants don’t grow well in acidic soil.
 - For acidic soil, lime (which is base) is used to neutralize the BROMINE
soil. Atomic number: 35
Atomic mass : 80
In Health # of protons : 35
- People who are suffering from gastric problems take # of electrons : 35
antacids. # of neutrons : 45
- Vinegar (an acid) is used to treat wasp sting (which is basic)
- Baking powder (a base) is used to treat bee stings (which are '
acidic).
- In tooth decay, acid is formed thus we put a little toothpaste
(slightly basic) to lessen the pain.
- Shampoos (mild base) can cause slight scaling in the scalp
thus we use hair conditioners (mild acid) to remove scaling.
- To remove patches or scaling in cement (a slight base), you
add a conditioner (an acid) to neutralize the walls.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

Subatomic Particles
● Protons
● Neutrons
● Electrons

Protons (+)
- Positively charged particles
- Found in the nucleus
- Determined what the element is
- # of protons is the atomic number

Neutrons
- Has no charge
- They don’t change the properties of an atom
- Serve as the buffer between the protons
- Contributes to the mass of the atom

Electrons (-)
- Negatively charged particles
- Spread out around the nucleus
- Responsible in creating a compound
- (for a neutral atom) # of protons = # of electrons

How do elements differ?

Atomic Number
- Elements differ by the number of protons in their atom

Atomic number = # of protons

= # of electrons

How do atoms differ?

- The mass number of an atom is the sum of its protons and
neutrons.
Mass number = # of protons + # number of neutrons

Formulas :
Atomic # = number of protons
# proton = # electron
Mass # = proton + neutron
Neutron = mass # - proton