LESSON 4 - Can change in value or amount, like
magnitude or intensity
Solvable Problem
- Possible to obtain sample
- Sample
- Representative
- Acceptable
- Problem, we want to explore to gain
information
- We conceptualize to identify problem that
we wish could be solved or magkaroon ng
solution
- Can come from personal
experience
- Wish to explore kung valid nga din
ba siya
- vicarious experience, not own
experience, but gained learning from
experience of other people
- From study’s recommendations,
literature
- Recent events, from postings sa
social media
- Current social problems
- These can be sources of problems
Unsolvable Problem
- Things that are out of control
- Hindi kayang ma solve agad
- Walang malinaw na sagot
- Not necessarily na walang solution forever
- Dahil may mga limitations
- Kulang ang source
- Kulang or walang instruments
- Vague, malabo pa
- SMART (stands for solvable problems)
- Specific (specific enough)
- Measurable (dapat kayang
i-measure, beauty ay hindi kaya
ma-measure)
- Attainable
- Realistic (pwedeng ma conduct,
makatotohanan)
- Time-bounded
Scientific Procedure
Variables
- Person, place, thing, phenomena that you
are trying to measure
Independent variable
- Experimentally studied
- Singular characteristic that other variable in
experiment cannot change
- Causes change sa dependent variable
- Cause, can be manipulated
- Being controlled
- Yung stable na variable yung independent
sa descriptive
- Organismic independent variable
- Relatively stable during the data
gathering process
- Physical characteristics
- Gender, eye color, personality traits
- Stable physical characteristics of
organism
- Not used in experimental for these
cannot be controlled
- For descriptive research
- Stimulus independent variable
- Intention na binibigay
- Hindi papatulugin ganon
- Stimulus or event intentionally given
to participants
- Any aspect of environment (physical,
social, etc.) that excites the
receptors
Dependent Variable
- Can be changed by other variable
- Being tested and measured
- Changes in response to independent
variable
- Effect
- Cause by IV
- Lesser stable daw
- Response Measures
- Diverse phenomena such as volume
of saliva, number of errors a rat
makes in a maze
- Accuracy
- Can be measure through
metric system
- How near or far sa target
behavior
- Latency
 - Time onset of a stimulus to
start a response
- How late or quick sa
response
- Experiment sa reaction time
- Duration
- Speed
- How long or how short it
takes to finish
- How long it takes to complete
a response once it has
started
- Frequency & Rate
- Operant conditioning
- How many times a
response occurs
- Mostly used sa psychological
studies
Validity of Dependent Variables
- Measures what it intends to measure
- Use of commonly accepted dependent
variable - conceptually defined
- Kailangan exact
- Have a good conceptual definition
- Meaning of DV based on references
na related sa study mo
- Manggaling dapat sa specific study
yung definition para tama
- Specimen in Psychology, sample in
population
- Specimen in Medicine, specimen ng
urine, stool
- Operational definition
- How you intend to measure the DV
Reliability of Dependent Variables
- Degree to which participants receive the
same scores when repeated measurements
of them are takes
- Consistent, repeated measures
- Stable dapat yung variable
Example
- Sunlight, independent variable dahil it gives
effect sa dependent variable which is plant
Controlled variable
- Constant variable
- Constant in intensity
- Do not change during a study
- Stable, hindi basta nagbabago
- No effect on other variables
- Might intentionally keep a control variable
the same throughout an experiment to
prevent bias
- Age 15, March ang birthday
- You make it constant na ganon lang
Extraneous Variables
- Affect dependent variable but researcher
did not originally consider when designing
the experiment
- Can change study’s result
- Affect the dependent variable but the
researcher did not originally consider
- Failure ang study pag mas malaki ang effect
ng extraneous variables
- External factors
- TYPES:
- Physical Variables
- Physical aspect that needs to be
controlled
- Noise, temperature, size, other
distractions
- Personal Variables
- Response style
- Personal characteristics of
participants in answering the
questions
- Social Variables
- Participants wish to fulfill
- Expectations from experiment
- Kapag may trauma sa lalaki yung
tao
- Experimental bias can occur din where
experimenter give social cues
TO CONTROL EXTRANEOUS
- Elimination
- Directly removing extraneous
- Kapag problema ang ventilation
bigyan ng ventilation
- Kapag walang gadget, bigyan ng
gadget
 - Kapag madilim, lagyan ng ilaw
- Constancy of conditions Null hypothesis
- Subjecting participants in same time, - No relationship between two variables
room temperature - Less biased
- To eliminate noise sa bahay, bawal
yung madaming kasama sa bahay - Hindi kailangan parehas ng hypothesis
- Balancing
- Kapag nag exam, biglang nag - Need i- identify to determine direction ng
brownout sa kabila, patitigilin din study
exam sa lahat - Hypothesis serves as guide for our study
- Change that happens sa one should
be changed din sa another How to write Hypothesis?
- Counterbalancing - Identify key variables
- Letting them experience both - Know difference ng dependent at
conditions independent
- Uses all possible sequences of - Operationalized variables investigated
conditions and uses every sequence - Dapat physically observed or
in same number of times measured
- Both should experience - Makes sure na kayang ma-observe
- Randomization - Decide on a direction
- Allows participant - One tailed (possibility of effect on
- Distributed evenly one direction, either positive or
- Order Effects negative)
- Maintain same order of treatment - Two tailed (non directional, could be
among participants positive and negative)
- - Write hypothesis na concise &
parsimonious
Hypothesis - Concise = short
- Testable predictions of study’s outcome - Parsimony = simple, short
- Hindi lang siya prediction but also guide or - Clear and simple
overview - Ang goal ay to be shared to others
- Predict kung may relation yung mga kaya dapat simple
variables
- Should be rejected or supported Population
- Falsifiability, pwedeng ma-test, to be - Entire group you deduce conclusions about
rejected or supported - Whole group
- Parameter (unknown & unpredictable dahil
Alternative hypothesis large group)
- States connection between variables - True representation
- May significant relationship - Bigger sample size
- States result are not random and are
significant in terms of supporting the theory Sample
- May direct link daw dapat - Taken from population
- Specific group you collect data from
- Dapat very sure na may effect - Part of a larger group
- Dapat lahat ng literature states na may - Statistics (predictable)
effect talaga - Has a margin of error
- How much IV effects DV (effect size)
 - Pipili sa each group ng respondent
- First divided into sub categories or
strata
- Members will be randomly selected
from each group
- Adopted when population is not
homogenous
- Year levels or hierarchy
- Random sample will be
drawn from each strata thru
How large should a sample be?
simple random sampling or
- Depends on kind of data analysis the
systematic
researcher plans
- On how accurate sample has to be
d. Cluster sampling
1. Degree of accuracy required
- Divide to clusters (tends to
2. Degree of variability or diversity in
represent whole population)
population
- Buong group yung kukunin
3. Number of different variables
- Based on demographic parameters
examined simultaneously in data
- Define population
analysis
- Ano yung focus ng
- Slovin, raosoft, cochran, gpower
study na population
- Divide sample into clusters
- Need na diverse as
Sampling Techniques
possible para ma
1. Probability Sampling
represent entire
- Sets a selection of a few criteria
population
- All members have equal chance of
- Have similar
being part of the study
distribution of
- Time & cost effective
characteristics
- More accurate
- Should cover entire
- May randomization
population
- Bawal din na may
a. Simple Random Sampling
overlapping
- Chosen by chance
- Randomly select clusters
- Random in particular population
- Collect data from population
- Put in a fishbowl
- District 1 or 5 of teachers in Cavite
- Simple but hard
e. Multistage Cluster Sampling
b. Systematic sampling
- Complex form ng cluster sampling
- Selection of member after fixed
- Randomly select in cluster
interval of time
- Kth element
f. Within Household Sampling
- For the interval, identify the sample
- Household
size and population size, sample
- Random household
size is divided by the number of
population
g. Random Digit Dialing
- Every 30 members
- Phonebook, randomly dial for quick
survey
c. Stratified random sampling
- Strata, sub groups
 - General public is interviewed by
phone
2. Non Probability Sampling
- Not all members have equal chance
to be chosen
- Cannot be generalized to population
- Frequently used in descriptive
a. Convenience sampling
- Haphazard / Accidental /
Convenience
- Relies on availability of subjects
- Kapag limited time and resources
- Not appropriate for drawing
conclusion sa population
- Accidentally mo nakasalubong
b. Judgemental sampling or Purposive
sampling
- Based on characteristics that are
important for research question
- Kapag little information sa
population
- Can be used to target specific
groups that can be hard to reach
- Cannot be generalized to population
too
- Uses judgement of an expert in
selecting cases or it selects cases
with a specific purpose
- Special / Unique Cases
- Particular Types
- Mahirap hanapin pero visible
c. Snowball sampling
- Used when desired population is
hard to reach
- Hahanap ng isa tapos mag tatanong
kung may kakilala
- Kapag rare phenomena
- Can be biased
- Mas mahirap mahanap na
population dahil mandalas hindi
visible
- Also called network / chain referral /
reputational sampling
d. Deviant Case Sampling
- Very peculiar
- Sobrang hirap talaga hanapin
- No record
- Pinaka mahirap hanapin
e. Quota Sampling
- Does not need detailed accuracy
from outcome of survey
- May categories of people
- Selects sample based on
predetermined quotas for subgroups
- Uses gender, economic status, age
- Divide entire population into
3 age brackets
- Determine number of
individuals to include from
each age group
- Survey individuals from each
group that are convenient to
reach
f. Self- selection or Volunteer sampling
- Participants choose whether or not
to participate in a study
- Based sa judgement ng researcher
- Can introduce bias
g. Sequential
- For qualitative data
- Has specific experience or
characteristics
- Similar to purposive sampling
- Gathers cases until amount of info or
diversity is filled
- Gather cases until saturation point is
acquired
h. Theoretical Sampling
- Carefully selected as researcher
develops grounded theory
- Used for qualitative data
- Sample is very specific experience
or characteristic
 LESSON 5
NON-EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
- Lacks manipulation of independent
variable
- Measure variable as they occur
- Cannot provide strong evidence that
changes in an independent variable cause
differences in a dependent variable
- Descriptive in nature ang result
- Non-experimental research simply measure
variables as they naturally occur
- relationship
QUANTITATIVE Research Designs
- Involves large sample size
- Concentrate on quantity of responses as
opposed to gaining more focus or emotional
insight
Survey Research
- Quantitative
- SURVEY, gain great understanding about
individual or group perspectives relative to a
particular concept
- Poses a set of predetermined questions
- When researcher aims to describe or
explain features of a very large group/s
- Gain general details about population of
interest
- Strength: Cost-effective, Generalizability
- Weakness: Lack of Depth
Correlational
- Two different variables are observed to
determine whether there is a relationship
between them
- Measures two continuous variables with
little or no attempt to control extraneous
variables
- A researcher interested in the relationship
between self-esteem and school
achievement could collect data on
students’ self-esteem and their GPAs to see
if the two variables are statistically
related.
- If there is a significant relationship between
two variables or no significant relationship at
all.
- Positive Correlation
- One variable increases, it leads to
another variable to increase as well
- Negative correlation
- One increases and the other
variable decreases
- Limitations of Correlation
- Demonstrates existence of
relationship
- Does not provide explanation for
- Does not demonstrate cause-effect
relationship between variables
- Low internal validity
- Correlation does not imply
causation
Comparative / Cross-sectional
- NO Manipulation of IV to measure and
explain influence of the dependent variable
- NO random assignment
- Analyze two different group which to
seek comparison
- Determine similarities and differences which
are related to particular situation
- When there is ample enough population to
conduct a data, do not use comparative
design when data are not measured
accurately which may result in an error or
unknown result
- 2 EXISTING GROUPS
- Experimenter-selected independent
variable (dahil existing groups na)
- Advantage: relatively cheap and less
time-consuming
- Disadvantage: no internal validity
(observed results represent truth in
population)
Longitudinal
- Multiple observations are made on the
same population over a period of time
- Can span a week, month, year, decades
- Useful for identifying any changes,
developments or trends
 - Establish a sequence of events
- Used in clinical & developmental
psychology
- Advantage: has internal validity, flexibility,
allows researchers to change over time
- Disadvantage: time consuming, costly,
attrition
QUALITATIVE Research Design
- Understanding human behavior from
informant’s perspective
- Data are collected through observation &
interviews
- Non-numerical data such as text, video,
photographs, etc.
- Study things in natural settings

Phenomenological
- Meaning of the phenomena to the
respondents
- Lived experience
- Meaning of the lived experiences of the
person
- Considering the person
Ex-post Facto - Describe their experience
- Qualities that already exist are compared on - Aims to describe the meaning that the
some dependent variable experiences hold for each subject
- Systematically examines the effects of - Gain deeper understanding to how humans
subject characteristics without manipulating think and attempt to make sense of
them experience
- Starts after the fact has occurred without - Methods:
interference from the researcher. - Asked to describe experiences
- Ex. age & gender based on their perception (through
- “After the fact” survey / personal interview)
- No manipulation, causation, random - Descriptive phenomenology,
assignment identify expectations towards the
- Advantage: cheap, less time consuming respondents and put these ideas
- Disadvantage: Lack internal validity aside called bracketing
- Learn about behavioral ramifications of - Gain insights around
individual differences in psychological people's actions and
functioning & personality processes motivations
- Interpretative phenomenology,
researchers preconceived
assumptions and concepts are used
intentionally to create new
Methods QUALI QUANTI
understanding of the phenomenon.
Induction Deduction - interpret the accounts of
(specific to (starts with people of their personal lived
general) theory/general experience and explicate an
to specific) underlying structure in
these accounts
Characteristics Subjectivity Objectivity (no
(from the influence of - Data collection & analysis
subject’s POV) bias or - “What is it like for a mother to live
personal with a teenage child who is dying of
opinions) cancer?”

Context Generality
 - Advantage:
- Understand people’s meaning
through unique perspective
- Helps adjust to new issues and
ideas as they emerge
- Contributes to development of new
theories
- Gathers data which is seen as
natural rather than artificial
- Disadvantage:
- Subjectivity of approach may lead to
problems establishing reliability of
data
- Maintaining pure bracketing can be
very challenging
- Analysis and interpretation of data
may be difficult
- Policy-maker may give low credibility
to a phenomenological study
Discourse Analysis
- Language
- How the language is used
- Not after the person
- Studying written or spoken language in
relation to social context
- How language is used in real life situations
- Analyzes form and content of the
language
- Ways people use language to
communicate ideas and beliefs
- Institutional and organizational factors
that might shape the way the language is
used
- Advantage:
- Allows researchers to uncover
deeply held attitudes and
perceptions that are important in an
organization’s image and
communication practices
- Can provide a positive social
psychological critique of any
phenomenon.
- Has a relevance and practical
application at any given time, place,
and for any given people.
- Disadvantage:
- Takes large amount of time and
effort
- Focuses solely on language, it rarely
tells the whole story
Case Study/ Analysis
- In-depth analysis of experience
- Intensive study about person / group of
people aimed to generalize over several
units
- Specific case
- Not after the person, but after the case the
person has
- “Case of Anna O.” not si Anna O but yung
hysteria niya
- In-depth multi-faceted understanding of a
complex issue in its real-life context
- Methods:
- Select a Case
- Good case study should:
- Provide
- Challenge
- Propose
- Open up
- Build a theoretical framework
- Conduct literature review
- It should have some
connection with theory in the
field specifically:
1. Exemplify
2. Expand
3. Challenge
- Collect & Analyze data
- Phineas Cage Accident, Genie Wiley Case
- Advantages:
- See relationship between
phenomena, context, people
- Flexibility to collect data through
various means
- Capture context and lived reality of
participants
- Flexibility to be used at various
points in a research project
- Ability to explore deeper causes of
phenomena
- Ease of explaining results to a
non-specialist audience
- Disadvantages:
- Difficult generalizing findings from
one case study to other settings
- Risk of bias
 - Difficult convincing readers who are
accustomed to clear cut statistical
answers
- May not be suitable for the audience
Archival
- Not dealing with people
- Deals with existing records
- Does not go to history or read books
- Use of existing records
- Provides information of interest to research
professionals or research archivist across a
wide range of fields including journalists and
other media professionals, researchers, and
historians
- 5 steps approach of archival research:
- Discovery
- Access Authorization
- Assessment
- Sifting
- Cross checked
- Advantage:
- Offers a thorough comprehension
and examination of topic
- Several resources available to for
collecting and validating data for
research
- Helps save time
- More affordable
- Disadvantage:
- Archived materials may be beyond
researcher’s comprehension
- Finding appropriate file could take
hours or days
- Results are not readily available
- Archived sources may be outdated
or not available/accessible
- Researchers compute how long it
took each student who started
college during the last 10 years to
finish their degrees by looking at
their course loads, grades,
extracurricular activities
Narrative Analysis
- Cluster of analytic methods for interpreting
texts or visual data that have a storied
form
- It is concerned with the structure, content,
function of stories in written and oral
communication
- May distinct beginning, middle and end
- Meaning of the experiences
- Gain insight to how users interact with
things in natural environments
- After the story of the person himself
- Researchers write their findings, then
review and analyze them.
- To conduct narrative analysis, researchers
must understand the background,
setting, social and cultural context of the
research subjects.
- Researcher conducting an in-depth
interview, or a series of in-depth interviews
with an individual over an extended period
of time.
- Advantages:
- Easy in getting people tell their story
- Gains in-depth data
- Willing to reveal self & account
reflection
- Disadvantages:
- They all have text and talk that may
either represent partly, selectively, or
imperfectly part of the story.
Ethnography
- Interpret cultural characteristics
- Not specific person
- Studies a particular social/cultural group
with aim to better understand
- Gain a holistic understanding of a
social/cultural group
- Methods:
- Data are collected through observation &
interviews
- Passive Observation, “shadowing”, user
are shadowed while they go about everyday
tasks, documented through taking notes,
photographs, sketch, videos
- Contextual Interviews, researcher interact
with users while observing them going
about everyday tasks, asking questions to
gain insight
- Advantages:
- Gives researcher direct access to
culture and practices of a group
 - Useful approach for learning
first-hand about behavior and
interactions of people
- Disadvantages:
- Takes much longer to generate and
analyze all the findings
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
● True Experimental Designs
- Randomization
- Observation (Pretest/Posttest)
- Treatment (control & experimental
group)
Between-Subjects Experiments
- Tested in only one condition
1. Posttest Only Control Group Design
- participants get randomly assigned
to either receive an intervention
or not, and then the outcome of
interest is measured only once
after the intervention takes place in
order to determine its effect.
- May treatment and control
- Post test lang, walang baseline
data (pretest)
- Advantage: less expense, faster
- Disadvantage: risk of internal
validity dahil walang baseline
2. Pretest Posttest Control group
- May pretest na
- participants get randomly
assigned to either receive an
intervention (the treatment group)
or not (the control group). The
outcome of interest is measured 2
times, once before the treatment
group gets the intervention — the
pretest — and once after it — the
posttest.
- Advantage: stronger internal validity
Controlling Threats to Internal Validity
1) History: did some other current event affect the
change in the dependent variable?
2) Maturation: were changes in the dependent
variable due to normal developmental processes?
3) Statistical Regression: did subjects come from
low or high performing groups?
4) Selection: were the subjects self-selected into
experimental and control groups, which could affect
the dependent variable?
5) Experimental Mortality: did some subjects
drop out? did this affect the results?
6) Testing: Did the pre-test affect the scores on
the post-test? Both groups got a pre-test; but a
pre-test may have made the experimental group
more sensitive to the treatment.
7) Instrumentation: Did the measurement method
change during the research?
8) Design contamination: did the control group
find out about the experimental treatment?
3. Solomon Four Group Design
- combination of the two
- Subjecting data to more complex
statistical procedure
- Both between & within groups
- participants get randomly assigned
to either 1 of 4 groups that differ in
whether the participants receive the
treatment or not, and whether the
outcome of interest is measured
once or twice in each group.
The four groups in this design are
(see figure below):
 extraneous participant
1. A treatment group with both variables.
pre-intervention and - mixed factorial design
post-intervention measurements -manipulating one
(a.k.a. pretest and posttest) independent variable
2. A control group with both pretest and between subjects and
posttest measurements another within subjects
3. A treatment group with only a
posttest measurement - TWO RESULTS:
4. A control group with only a posttest - Main Effect, Individual effects of
measurement each independent variable
- Interaction, combined effects of
each independent variable

Within-subjects experiment
- Tested under all conditions

1. Cross Over Design

- Expose sila sa different interventions
- May wash out period na walang
exposure
4. Factorial Design - May risk of carry over effect kung
- One IV has two or more factors and walang wash out period (minimum
another DV has two or more factors of 2 weeks)
too
- Each level of one independent
variable (also known as a factor) is
mixed with each level of the other
independent variables to create all
possible combinations. Thus, any
combination enters the experiment
as a condition.

- between-subjects factorial design

-all independent variables
- Period, time of treatment
are controlled between
administered
subjects
- Sequence, order in which
-it is theoretically simpler,
treatments are administered
avoids implications and
reduces the time and effort
required from each
participant
- within-subjects factorial design
-all of the independent
variables are controlled
within subjects
-it is more efficient for the
researcher and controls for
 2. Latin Square Design
- Madaming conditions
- Mas complicated
- If there are a lot of conditions sa
independent variable
- Advantage: you can identify or
clarify data well
- Disadvantage: need lots of time &
participants

Carryover effects
- when participants' behavior changes as a
result of being tested in one condition, this
is known as a carryover effect.
a) Practice effect
- Participants have had the opportunity to
rehearse, therefore they perform better
in later conditions.
b) Fatigue effect
- Due to fatigue or boredom, participants
perform a task worse under later
conditions.
c) Context effect (or contrast effect) ● Small n / Single Case Experimental
- Being assessed in one condition can Design
alter how individuals see stimuli or - Konting participants
interpret their task in later conditions. - Hindi pinagsasama-sama
- Per participant
Washout Periods - Individual analysis
- time between treatment periods.
- The length of the washout intervals between 1. AB Design
treatment administrations may influence - Enable researcher to ascertain if
whether or not higher-order carryover baseline period is stable
effects should be administered. - Two phase experiments
- From baseline data to the treatment
period ay may change or wala
- Hindi pinagsasama-sama yung
scores
- Analysis is individual
2. ABAB Design
- Reversal design
- Baseline and treatment conditions
are contrasted
- Aalisin yung treatment sa second
time

- Hindi dapat dependent dapat yung

tao sa therapy or gamot
- Purpose of therapy is to help them
deal with it and be adaptive
- Ma-apply yung natutunan

3. Multiple Baseline Design

- Multiple Baseline Across Subject
- Yung drop ng depressive ay
consistent with one another
- Multiple DV’s in single subject
- Dalawang subject (anxiety &
depression)
- Multiple Baseline across settings
- Consistency of maladaptive behavior
- If anxiety manifests sa specific
settings
- PROBLEMS:
- Can be unstable which can
be hard to interpret
● Quasi-experimental Designs
- No randomization
1. Non-Equivalent Groups Design
- Non-randomized control design
- Identical to pretest posttest design
- Group 1 is not equivalent to
another group
- Basta walang randomization
- Characteristics are not
equivalent or the same
- Compares existing group
- Already known characteristics
 3. Pretest Posttest Nonequivalent Design
with additional pretest
NonR O1 X O2
- Similar to pretest-posttest control
NonR O3 O4 group design except walang random
assignment + Dalawang pre-test
- Exposed na or may characteristics na (they - There is a treatment group that is
sleep less than 5 hrs then you give them given a pretest, receives a
exercise or treatment) treatment, and then is given a
posttest. But at the same time there
is a nonequivalent control group that
2. Proxy Pretest Measure is given a pretest, does not receive
- May alternative method (proxy) the treatment, and then is given a
- Kapag impossible mag pretest posttest.
- Someone represents
- Data would be represented by Non R O1 O2 X O3
someone else
Non R O4 O5 O6

NonR O A1 X O B2
4. Reverse Treatment Pretest-Posttest
NonR O A1 O B2 - Morse & Raimer
- X+, expected to influence posttest in
- Administer similar but non identical one direction
dependent variable but will not sensitize - X-, expected to influence in opposite
participants to treatment intervention direction
- Ideally dapat the same and pretest sa
posttest O1 X+ O2
- Results are correlated with the post-test
results and used in quasi-experimental O1 X- O2
designs having non-equivalent groups for
the purpose of demonstrating partial - May nag iincrease at isa ay dedecrease
equivalence of the groups. - Needs placebo control group = supposed
may effect pero wala talaga
- Recollection Proxy Pretest, - No-treatment control group = provide no
common but can suffer bias cause baseline
- Participants are asked to
recall or imagine the previous - Strength: high construct validity (prove
value of the variable being exact opposite), high internal validity
assessed, such as how they
felt about an issue ● Complex Designs
beforehand. - More than one variable is manipulated at
- Archived Proxy Pretest design, the same time
- Existing records are - Multi-factorial
examined, such as previous - More powerful, economical
ability test results or - Less likely to be by chance
qualifications.
1. Cohort Design
- Follows participant over period of
time
 - Type of longitudinal study
- Strength: effective in establishing
cause and effect
- Disadvantage: time consuming &
expensive, madaming confounding
variable
Simple Interrupted Time Series
O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 O6 X O7 O8 O9 O10 O11
- Tatakbo anim na beses tas biglang lalagyan
ng intervention
- Tapos record ulit 6 times

Interrupted Time Series with Nonequivalent

Dependent Variables
O A1 O A2 O A3 O A4 X O A5 O A6 O A7 O A8
O B1 O B2 O B3 O B4 X O B5 O A6 O A7 O B8

- Dalawang intervention or treatment

Posttest only Cohort Design

O1

X O2

- Dalawang group of participants minsan

- Very much the same characteristics dapat

Posttest only Cohort w/ Partitioned Treatment

O1

X O2 A

X2 O2 AB

Pretreatment Posttreatment Cohort

O1 O2

O3 X O4

2. Time Series
- Sub category of longitudinal
- Large series of observations made
on the same variable consecutively
over time