Literature Review

Issues in Cross-cultural Communications and the Implication for

Global Business

Scenario
A North American company, Spot On, while very successful in the U.S., has
remained a fledgling enterprise across international borders, most notably in
Asian and European countries. Upper management has avidly sought solutions
to what appear to be impenetrable barriers of cultural differences, though
theyve always remained unspoken. Meetings with Asian businessman have
proven especially fruitless, with seemingly little accomplished at each meeting.
Furthermore, the upper management of Spot On desires to hire local managers
from each foreign region to help manage operations in the international
countries, aided by U.S. employees sent to train and co-manage the operations.
Yet, they realize this collaborative effort will never come to fruition without
more effective communication.
Questions
How can this company improve its relationship within the international
business community, and thereby solidify its success both nationally and
internationally? What research studies and strategies, if any, will enable a state
of cultural cohesiveness to emerge from Spot Ons present state of cultural
cacophony?
Background and Introduction
Global trading and commerce have thrived in recent decades, much to
the celebration and chagrin of many. With this shift to international commerce
has come a complex mlange of factors, including profitability and recession

amid both surging and crippled economies. Though many barriers to

international trade have been erased, some remain steadfast, invisible and
resistant to change. While goods and services travel with greater ease across
global seas, in spite of tariffs and taxes, the flow of communication between
culturally diverse people has not always mimicked such a smooth transition.
Corporations with a trans-global thrust are continuously seeking ways to
improve communication amid a climate of diversity and deeply-ingrained
cultural ideologies. This research assesses the complexities posed by
communication across terrains of cultural variance and explores current
trends in research, training and literature to address such efforts in the
business sector.

Defining Culture and its Origin

No analysis of cultural diversity in the corporate space would be complete
without an initial submersion into the roots and origins of culture. The context
for this discussion begins with defining culture and the characteristics that
render each culture unique. With the help of leading theorists Cohen,
Matsumot, Heine, authors define for the reader what culture is and is not. It is,
perhaps, most important, to note that culture is not synonymous with
nationality or race, as some literature states. Fittingly, this research process
also focused on the universal dimensions of culture, such as time, power,
public spaces, and cultural taboos, contrasting and comparing their impact in
different cultural settings. Both familiar and unfamiliar terms are unearthed in
this research, as the subjects of primary and anticipatory socialization are
introduced, in addition to the concepts of high-context and low-context cultures
(McIlwain, 2005).

Conclusively, a study of cultural origin cannot be considered definitive

without a discussion of ethnocentrism, which is the tendency of each culture to
consider itself superior to others intrinsically different (Keith, 2011, p.20).
More specifically, researchers exploring ethnocentrism consider the
psychological and biological origins of cultural bias, and examine solutions to
ameliorate this universally human phenomenon. Can we reduce
ethnocentrism? Research reveals mixed results in the effort to reduce
ethnocentrism through education and intergroup exposure.
Finally, Authors Moore and Baker introduce a relatively new concept,
third culture individuals or TCIs, in their study Confused or Multicultural: Third
Culture Individuals Cultural Identity (Moore & Baker, 2012, p. 553). They
further define these individuals as people who lived outside their passport
country during their developmental years. In their study, the authors weigh the
magnitude of such intercultural exposure during developmental years. Clearly,
the findings of this research reflect an emphasis upon the positive
consequences of early intercultural immersion and its potential impact on an
increasingly globalized world hypothesizing that the main benefits of the TCI
lifestyle include adaptability, cultural awareness, fluency in multiple languages,
and open-mindedness. Moore and Bakers research findings regarding third
culture individuals confirm the theory that suggests the process of cultural
assimilation occurs through socialization.
Thusly, this evidence validates the assumption that through processes of
learning, socialization and assimilation, cultural convergence is possible, as
literature and research continue to suggest. The articles in this research are
but a sampling of that literature, measuring and predicting the trajectory of

cultural studies and communication, from its inception to its future global and
social impact.

Group Dynamics
Current literature and research devote significant coverage to the impact
of racial and cultural diversity on group dynamics and group effectiveness. To
determine the effectiveness of diversity on decision-making meetings,
researchers Aritz & Walker sought to understand, through discourse analysis
and observation, how member participation in meetings changed when the
teams are comprised of multicultural members. Introducing an arsenal of new
communication jargon, the pair discusses means of measuring and tracking
member contribution in group discourse through the use of conversational
overlaps, backchanneling, latching, and turn-taking styles (Aritz & Walker, 2009,
p. 101-102). Additional literature explores The Cross-cultural Communication
Competence Model, as outlined by Matveev and Nelson, and reveal how its four
dimensions of interpersonal skills, team effectiveness, cultural uncertainty, and
cultural empathy impact group dynamics (Congden, Matveev, & Desplaces,
2009, p.75). Further consideration is given to the five essential concepts
developed by Matveev and Nelson, including power distance, individualism,
communication context, uncertainty avoidance, and performance orientation
(Matveev et al. p. 77).
It is not surprising that studies show a positive correlation between
competence in cross-cultural communication and performance of multicultural
teams. Research and literature devoted to group dynamics provide vital insight
into group communication and factors enhancing and inhibiting the

effectiveness of multicultural groups. Studies of new concepts and practices

discovered, such as backchanneling, conversational overlaps, and uncertainty
avoidance may prove vital to addressing and overcoming the subtle
communication differences that impede group effectiveness. Corporate
executives may find additional study in the area of group dynamics to be
justified and ultimately advantageous to productivity and profits.

Cultural Variance in the Marketplace

Much of the todays research on communication among diverse groups
finds its origins in the research of anthropologists Hall and Hofstede, who
coined the terms low-context and high-context cultures and explore the concept
of face, a familiar and highly esteemed practice in Asian countries. The
concepts of individualism, collectivism, achievement culture and affiliation
culture, may also be attributed to this team of early researchers, who have
made an immeasurable contribution to the study of cross-cultural
communication (Barnaum, 2011, p. 132-133). Highlighting and examining Hall
& Hofstedes cultural concepts in detail, Carol Barnaum, presents an analysis
of rhetorical differences in communication between Asian and North American
writers. More specifically, through actual email correspondence from Asian
writers, she provides insightful strategies to manage the complexity of
communication in electronic format and the implications for mismanagement
of delicate international communication.
Other authors confidently write and research against the backdrop of
Hall and Hofstedes research, comparing and contrasting Asian and American
business and social practices. Dong & Liu plunge into their study of crosscultural management research in China and compile this information into four

research domains, including the essence of Chinese culture, and the effects of
individual characteristics on organizational outcomes, among others (Dong &
Liu, 2010, p. 225). With China a rising star in the global marketplace, no
literature review of global economics would be comprehensive in scope without
an overview of current business practices in China and the impact of
multiculturalism. Researcher and writer Ephraim Okoro builds his argument
for cultural sensitivity and global etiquette by underscoring key differences in
American and Asian communication styles in business, highlighting significant
yet often overlooked rules of etiquette which often lead to ineffective
communication for the global manager. The author introduces the concept of
cultural convergence, and stresses the need to eliminate negative perceptions,
cultural imperialism, ethnocentric predispositions, and parochialism, in order
to achieve effective international leadership and management (Okoro, 2012,
p.131).
Aside from the Asian marketplace, writers target global communication
issues in various industries, spanning international locales. Ochieng and Price,
provide a keenly insightful comparative analysis of the key characteristics
defining business relationship between U.K. and Kenyan engineering and
construction firms. This literature looks at the impact of ethics, language,
currency, and even customs and import duties upon the multicultural
relationships in the global marketplace. In their probe of multicultural issues
in construction and engineering, the authors uncover and address what they
define as eight essential categories. While this astute literature highlighted the
construction-industry relationship between these two particular countries,
these same multicultural characteristics may also emerge in other industries
and global communities, as well.

In Cross-cultural Communication: A Critical Competence for Planners, Dory

Reeves examines cross-cultural communication as it impacts project planners.
This article reflects the significance of competence in cross-cultural
communication, to avoid discrimination in the area of planning, but it also
highlights the problems presented by over-identification, which exists when
planner and client are of the same ethnic background. Reeves concludes the
article with adaptive steps for applying the five essential habits to planning and
planning education, and further punctuates his conclusion with supportive
case studies.
Regardless of international locale or industry, research and professional
literature spotlights communication issues among international organizations,
often presenting new theories, habits, strategies or key concepts to implement
or eliminate to facilitate communication.

Education and Training

Research and literary efforts would be remiss to examine the problems
associated with global communications and not consider educational strategies
and training initiatives for improvement. Literature with this emphasis begins
with an inquiry into global communication at the academic level, with a study
of college students and intercultural skills. In his study Developing Intercultural
Competence in Multilingual and Multicultural Student Groups, Krajewski
identifies cultural competence as an essential skill for success in international
environments. Further, the author notes that it is not enough for cultural
competence to be taught in higher education, but that the skill is best obtained
through practical life experiences.

Building upon this premise of personal experience as an educational

tool, authors Stringer and Cassidy, writers of 52 Activities for Improving CrossCultural Communication, offer practical hands-on activities to foster
understanding and communication across cultures. The manuals
communication themes include Conflict, Decision-Making, Gender, Gestures,
and Style Differences, with emphasis on both interpersonal communication,
and team or organizational communication issues. Utilizing a practical rather
than theoretical thrust, the manual includes charts, handouts, and checklists
to accompany the 52 interactive activities, designed to address hidden
stereotypes and preconceived notions about race and cultures.
Add to this manual an innovative and very personal book, written by D.
Livermore, which introduces the concept of cultural intelligence, or CQ
(Livermore, 2011, p. xiii). Like Stringer and Cassidy, this texts focus is
awareness, education and action. These instructional texts address the issues
of emotions and the role they play in intercultural communication. Along with
the concept of CQ or cultural intelligence, literature discusses emotional
intelligence, also. As the name implies, it centers on the emotions and the
ability to use and manage them effectively. Not surprisingly, emotional
intelligence encompasses personality traits such as conflict management, selfconfidence, adaptability, and optimism.
There are steps for the corporate trainer to employ to ensure that global
managers and employees are adequately prepared for a climate of cultural
diversity. Researcher and author Wei-Wen Chang, notes the importance of
language translation when training is initiated in international environments,
and highlights the positive outcome when learners are accommodated with
instruction and instructors native to their own language and culture. Perhaps,

the most poignant truth to be gleaned from Changs analysis is the realization
that little literature has addressed the practice of custom-fitting training for
international implementation. In addition to discussing the effect of language
and translation changes, the author also examines the aspects of ambiguity in
silent language, cultural buffers, empowerment and localization, as they pertain
to accommodative adjustments in multinational training programs (Chang,
2009, p.563).
Each text of literature analyzed and digested for this research is
significant, and offers insight and hope for improving communication and
enabling cultural cohesiveness. Theories abound in literature, and in every
aspect of society; the corporate space is no different. Yet, practical application
is a key component to unraveling the intricate web of cultural diversity in the
group and corporate dimensions. Imperative will be the ability of organizations
to study and acquaint themselves with the subtle communication differences
that hinder the effective transmission of thoughts, ideas, goods and services
across international waters and around the globe.

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