Ground improvement techniques and lining systems 119

gaskets, one synthetic and one hydrophilic (see below). The tunnel boring
machines used for the tunnelling on this project were slurry machines
designed to be used in mix-shield mode, whereby the face would be
supported by a combination of pressurized slurry and a balancing air bubble.
This had two advantages for the tunnel lining segments. The first was that
the bentonite in the area behind the cutterhead (plenum) of the machine
helped to reduce the jacking pressures on the segments and resulted in very
little jacking damage. The other advantage was that the cutterhead torque
was greatly reduced enabling a better control of the roll of the rings, thus
avoiding any shearing failure of the bolts in the previously constructed ring.
WATERPROOFING

Waterproofing is important in tunnel lining construction to prevent excessive

water flow into the tunnel. This is a particular problem if the tunnel is
constructed below the groundwater table where it can act like a drain.
Waterproofing of segmental linings has traditionally been by the use of
caulking (applying a sealing material to the inside of the lining at the joints),
but these days is generally achieved by the use of preformed gaskets. There
are two basic forms (BTS/ICE 2004, King 2006):

compression seals these are manufactured from man-made rubbers

(ethylene-propylene-diene monomer (EPDM) or neoprene) and are
fitted around individual precast concrete or SGI segments;
hydrophilic seals these are made from specially impregnated rubbers
or specially formulated bentonite compounds that swell on contact with
water.

These waterproofing systems are not used for waterproofing the segments
themselves, but to prevent water from penetrating between adjacent segments. The gaskets require a compression force to be applied to the lining
as it is erected (compression seals more so than hydrophilic seals), which
creates a line load on the segment that needs to be considered in the design.
TOLERANCES OF SEGMENTS

This needs careful consideration as they have practical implications for the
constructability of the ring and performance of the gaskets. Herrenknecht
and Bppler (2003) recommend the following dimensions/tolerances:

segment width 0.6 mm;

segment thickness 3.0 mm;
segment length 0.8 mm;
longitudinal joint evenness 0.5 mm;
ring joint evenness 0.5 mm;
cross-setting angle in longitudinal joints 0.04
;
angles of the longitudinal joint taper 0.01
.