Design of Canals

A network of canals is required to carry water from source ie headworks (storage reservoir or
diversion weir) to destination ie fields.
Classification of canals
Based on size/source
1. Main canal
2. Branch canal
3. Major distributaries
4. Minor distributaries
5. Water course/field channel
Based on alignment
1. Watershed canal
2. Contour canal
3. Side slope canal
Based on canal surface
1. Rigid boundary canals
2. Loose boundary canals

Geometric Properties of Canal Sections

Fig. 1 depicts commonly used canal sections. Triangular sections are generally constructed
for carrying small discharges. Rectangular sections are constructed for moderate discharges.
For carrying large discharges rectangular sections are not preferred. This is on account of
stability of side slopes. Vertical side walls require large thickness to resist the earth pressure.
Trapezoidal section is better for such cases since sloping side walls require less thickness.

yn

yn

b
(a)

(b)

1
yn

D/2

yn

b
(d)

(c)

T
1

Y
m

yn

(e)

T
NGL

h2

1
m

h1

(f)

(g)

(h)
Fig 1. Canal Sections (a) Triangular (b) Rectangular (c) Trapezoidal (d) Circular (e)
Parabolic (f) Combined (g) Rounded corner trapezoidal (h) Rounded bottom triangular
For small discharges, semicircular sections are often adopted for irrigation canals. River
beds, unlined canals and irrigation furrows all tend to approximate a stable parabolic shape.
Therefore, unlined canals can be made more hydraulically stable by initially constructing
them in a parabolic shape. Since the channel side slopes along the cross section are always
less than the maximum allowable side slope at the water surface, parabolic channels are
physically more stable. A lined parabolic channel has no sharp angles of stress concentration
where cracks may occur. A parabolic canal is described by:

Y = aX 2
in which Y = ordinate; X = abscissa; and a = parameter. The flow area is

y nT T / 2
2
8
A = 2
YdX = y nT = my n2
3
0
2
3
where T = top width of the canal at the water surface (m) given by

4
T = 4my n
in which m = side slope at Y = yn.
P = ds =

1
1
1
1
1 + 2 + ln + 1 + 2
= 2 yn m 2
m
m
m
m

(dX )2 + (dY )2

(1)

Approximate Perimeter: When m 1 or 0 < 4 y T 1 , Eq. (1) can satisfactorily be

approximated to
P = 4 yn m +

2 yn
8y2
=T + n
3m
3T

(2)

Geometric elements of a combined (circular bed trapezoidal) section can be defined as

follows

= cot 1 m ;

sin = 1 1 + m 2 ;

y = h1 + h2 = r (1 cos ) +

cos = m

1+ m2

(T 2r sin )
2m

T = 2r sin + 2h2 m
m

T
r =
y
1 + m2 m
2m
T
m
y
h1 =
2m
1+ m2
h2 =

2y T 1+ m2 m
2 1+ m2

( 1+ m

T 2m y
T2
T 2 r2

A = A1 + A2 =
1 m cot 1 m =

m 1 m cot 1 m

2
4m m
4m
1+ m m

P = 2 r + 2 h2 1 + m 2 =
=

T
m

T
m

(1 + m ) 2mr (1 m cot

(1 + m ) 2(1 m cot
2

T 2m y

2
1+ m m

where, A = flow area of channel section (m2); A1 = area of circular portion (m2); A2 = area of
trapezoidal portion (m2); y = depth of flow (m); h1 = depth of circular part (m); h2 = depth of
trapezoidal part (m); r = radius of bed section or circular part (m); T = top width of channel
(m); m = side slope of channel (H:V) at water surface; and = side slope angle.

5
Table 1. Geometrical Properties of Canal Sections
Section Shape

Flow Perimeter P

Area of Flow A

Triangular

2 yn 1 + m 2

my n2

Rectangular

b + 2 yn

by n

Trapezoidal

b + 2 yn 1 + m 2

(b + my n ) y n

Circular

0.5r 2 ( sin )

1
1
1
1
2 yn m 2
1 + 2 + ln + 1 + 2
m
m
m
m

8 2
myn
3

2 y ( + cot )

y 2 ( + cot )

b + 2 y ( + cot )

by + y 2 ( + cot )

Parabolic

Rounded Bottom
Triangular
Rounded
Corner
Trapezoidal

Rigid boundary canals

Rigid boundary canals are designed for uniform flow considering hydraulic efficiency,
practicability, and economy. A maximum hydraulic radius results in a section of minimum
excavation area and best hydraulic design. When an open channel is constructed, the
excavation and the lining constitute major cost. Obviously it is desirable to keep these costs
at a minimum by adopting the most economical canal cross section.
Flow Requirements

A rigid boundary is designed to convey the required discharge under uniform flow
conditions. The most commonly used uniform flow formula is the Manning equation.
Mannings equation, as an equality constraint function, will be used to provide uniform flow
condition in the canal. The uniform flow rate or discharge Q (m3/s) in a canal by Mannings
equation is
Q = AV =

1
1
1/ 2
AR 2 / 3 S f =
n
n

A
A
P

2/3

Sf

1/ 2

1
n

A
A
P

2/3

S0

1/ 2

where V = mean velocity of uniform flow (m/s); R = hydraulic radius (m), defined as the
ratio of flow area to the flow perimeter; n = Mannings roughness coefficient; Sf = energy
slope (dimensionless); and So = bed slope of the canal (dimensionless). For uniform flow Sf =
So. In the Mannings formula all the terms except n can be directly measured. The roughness
coefficient is a parameter representing the integrated effects of the channel cross-sectional

6
resistance. The selection of a value of n is subjective, based on experience and engineering
judgement. Standard text books list values of n for different conditions of a canal.

Optimal Canal Section

The classical optimal section is the best hydraulic section which has the maximum flow
velocity or the minimum flow area and wetted perimeter for a specified discharge and canal
bed slope. Mathematically, it could be stated as
Minimize

A = A( y, b, m )

Subject to = Q

1 A5 / 3 1/ 2
S 0 = ( A, P ) = ( y , b, m ) = 0
n P2/3

This is a nonlinear optimisation problem with nonlinear equality constraint. Using

Lagranges method of undetermined multipliers it can be converted into an unconstrained
optimization problem in terms of an auxiliary function as
Minimize

F = A +

where is the undetermined multiplier. Since F is function of 4 variables (m, b, y, ) the

optimal conditions are
F
=0
y

+
=0
y
y

F
=0
m

+
=0
m
m

F
=0
b

A
+
=0
b
b

F
=0

( y , b, m ) = 0

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

Eliminating from (a) & (b) and (a) & (c) and (b) & (c)
A A
=
y m m y

(e)

A A
=
y b b y

(f)

A A
=
b m m b

(g)

From (d)
S 01 / 2 A 2 / 3 P
A
2A
=
5P
5/3
b 3 n P
b
b

7
S 01 / 2 A 2 / 3
=
y
3n P5/3

P
A
2 A
5 P
y
y

S 01 / 2 A 2 / 3
=
m 3 n P 5 / 3

P
A

5P

2A
m
m

Using these in (e), (f) and (g)

A P A P
=
y m m y

(h)

A P A P
=
y b b y

(i)

A P A P
=
b m m b

(j)

Trapezoidal Section
For a trapezoidal section
A
A
A
2my
P
P
P
= b + 2my;
= y;
= y 2 ; and
= 2 1 + m2 ;
=
= 1;
y
b
m
y
m
b
1 + m2

Applying optimal condition (i)

b + 2my = y 2 1 + m 2

b
= 2 1 + m2 m
y

Applying optimal condition (j)

y

2my
1+ m

= y2

1 + m 2 = 2m

m = 1/ 3

Limits on Side Slope: Many times the value of m is fixed if the side slope is chosen based on
the angle of repose of material (See Table 2) for better stability or for vehicles to cross the
channel during no flow periods. If restrictions are put on the canal side slope, then the
optimization problem reduces to a case of two variables (y and b) i.e. Minimize A = A( y, b ) ,
Subject to ( y , b ) = 0 . Lagranges method for two variables (y and b) gives condition (j)
hence
b + 2my = y 2 1 + m 2

b
= 2 1 + m2 m
y

Parabolic shape
Since a parabolic canal is completely described by two independent variables y and m,
Substituting A and P in (h)

1
1
1 8 2 2 1
1
1
16

1 + 2 + ln + 1 + 2
ym 4 ym ln + 1 + 2 = y 2m
m 3
m
m
3

m
m
m
Simplifying

1
1 1
1
3 ln + 1 + 2 =
1+ 2
m m
m
m
Solving by trial and error

m * = 0.514
where superscript * denotes optimum value.
Approximate Perimeter : Substituting the values in (h)

16
2y
8 2 2

2
6m 2 + 1
ym 2 6m 1 = y
3
3m
3 3m

Simplifying

m* = 1

2 = 0.707
Table 2: Recommended Side slopes by IS 10430:2000
Side Slopes (Horizontal : Vertical)

S. No.

Type of Soil
in Cutting

in Embankment
2:1 to 3:1

Very light loose sand to

average sandy soil

2:1 to 3:1

ii

Sandy loam

1.5: 1 to 2: 1

2:1

iii

Sandy gravel/murum

1.5 : 1

1.5 : 1 to 2: 1

iv

Black cotton

1.5 : 1 to 2.5: 1

2: 1 to 3.5 : 1

Clayey soils

1.5: 1 to 2: 1

1.5: 1 to 2.5: 1

vi

Rock

0.25: 1 to 0.5: 1

0.25: 1 to 0.5: 1

Combined Section
Applying optimal conditions on a combined section
T = 2r 1 + m 2 ; T = 2r
Solving for m

1 + m2

* = 2

m* = 0 ;

This condition implies that the resultant optimal section is a semicircular section. Solving
Manning Eq. with this condition

y * = r * = T * 2 = 1.004 Qn / S

3/8

Therefore
A* = (2 )

1 4

(Qn / S )

3/ 4

P * = (2 )

58

(Qn / S )

3/8

3.1542 Qn / S

3/8

Limits on Side Slope: the optimization condition for two variables (y and T) gives
T = 2r 1 + m 2

This implies that

y* = r * ;

m
h1* = y 1
1+ m2

m
; h2* = y

1+ m2

A* = y 2 m + cot 1 m = y 2 ( + cot ) ;

P * = 2 y m + cot 1 m = 2 y ( + cot )

This is the recommended section by Bureau of Indian Standards as shown in Fig 1(h).

Table 3 Limiting Velocities for Channel Surfaces

Channel surfaces

Limiting Velocity (m/s)

Sandy soil

0.3 0.6

Black cotton soil

0.6 0.9

Muram and hard soil

0.9 1.1

Firm clay and loam

0.9 1.15

Gravel

1.0 1.25

Boulder

1.0 1.5

Disintegrated rock

1.3 1.5

Brunt Clay Tile

1.5 2.0

Concrete Tile

2.0 2.5

Concrete

2.5 3.0

Hard rock

3.0 4.0

10

Design of Loose Boundary Canals

If velocity is low silting will take place and if velocity is high scouring will happen.
Therefore design should ensure nonsilting and nonscouring condition in the canal. Design
methods
1. Silt theories
a. Kennedys method
b. Laceys method
2. Tractive force method

Silt Theories
Also known as regime theory. Water carries silt and there is equilibrium between silt load
and bed material and hence the canal is nonsilting and nonscouring. The shape of canal
section is Trapezoidal in regime canals. In long run the canal side slope acquire 0.5:1.

Kennedys method
Nonsilting and nonscouring velocity V = 0.55 CVR y 0.64
Critical velocity ratio = 0.7 (fine bed material) to 1.3 (coarse bed material)
Kutters equation is used as uniform flow equation.
1
0.00155
+ 23 +
n
S
V =
0.00155 n

1 + 23 +

RS

The side slope is assumed 0.5:1. Still there is shortage of one equation, so either b/y ratio or
bed slope S is assumed. For design Woods table or Garrets chart is used. Shortcomings
one equation is short so no unique solution and depend upon Kutters equation so drawbacks
of Kutters equation also involve in Kennedys method.

Laceys method
Lacey gave Four equations
1. Characteristics of silt f = 1.76 d 50
2. V 2 =

2
fR
5

3. Af 2 = 140V 5
4. Regime flow equation for bed slope V = 10.8R 2 / 3 S 1 / 3

11
In this method sufficient equations are available so all the parameters can be expressed in
terms of given/known Q and f
Velocity: multiply both sides of Eq. (3) by V, use AV = Q and then solve for velocity

V = Qf

140

1/ 6

Wetted perimeter: Eliminate f between Eqs (2) and (3), use R = A/P and then P = 4.75 Q
Hydraulic radius: Hydraulic radius is approximately = depth of flow = normal scour depth
during flood. Maximum scour depth = 1.5 R to 2 R below HFL. Substitute V into Eq (2) to
1/ 3

Q
5V2
5 Qf 2

= 0.481
=
get R =
2 f
2 f 140
f
R y;
so
q = Q / P = Q 4.75 Q
(4.75q )2
R = 0.481
f

1/ 3

q2
= 1.35
f

1/ 3

. Alternatively rivers are wide so P b and

Q = (4.75q )

and

hence

1/ 3

Canal bed slope: Eliminate V between Eqs (2) and (3), substitute R and then solve for S ie
2
f 3/ 2
f 5/3
f 5/3
=
=
fR = 10.8 2 R 4 / 3 S 2 / 3 S =
5
4980 R 1 / 2 3340Q 1 / 6 5813q 1 / 3

Tractive Force Method

It is assumed that canal water is clear so no problem of silting. To avoid scouring the velocity
should be less than critical (incipient motion) velocity. For details see Appendix. There are
two cases (1) Canal shape is trapezoidal and (2) Canal shape is corresponding to maximum
efficiency.
Trapezoidal canal: Incipient motion condition (drag force = resistance force) on bed and side
slope along with Mannings equation can be used to find canal dimensions.
Stable hydraulic section for maximum efficiency: In this case incipient motion condition
prevails throughout the perimeter. The relationships for this condition can be derived as per
Appendix. Resultant shape of the stable canal is cosine curve as
tan
y = y 0 cos
y0

tan T
y0
tan T

As y = 0 at x = T/2 so 0 = y 0 cos
; Area
hence top width T =
=
tan
y0 2 2
y0 2
T /2
T /2
2 y0
2Ty 0
2 y 02
2
and perimeter P = 2 1 + (dy / dx ) dx =
A = 2 ydx =
=
E (sin ) where
sin

tan
0
0
E(sin ) is complete elliptical integral of second kind.

12
Most efficient stable channel can carry a particular discharge only, if the design discharge is
less or more than that then canal area at centre section should be removed or added by
maintaining same velocity.

Canal Section Design steps

(A) Design steps for Lined Canals
Given data Q, S (based on topography), and n & Vper (See Table 3: depending upon
type of lining material)
1. Consider shape of canal and other condition (if given);
2. Use optimal conditions for the shape and condition of Step 1.
3. Calculate y from Mannings

Qn
S

A5 / 3
P2/3

4. Find other parameters from optimal & known conditions and then A and P.
5. Compute V = Q / A If V < Vper then optimal design is OK.
6. If V > Vper then optimal design is not possible, so provide nonoptimal section.
3/ 2

, second
V n
per
, and other condition may be assumed if required depending

Q
7. For nonoptimal section one condition is Mannings Eq P =
V per

condition is A = Q V per

upon the shape of canal. Using these conditions find all the parameters for the section.

(B) Design steps for unlined Canals

i.

Kennedys method
Given data Q, n, S, CVR and take canal shape is trapezoidal with m = 0.5
1. Assume y;
2. Compute V = 0.55 CVR y 0.64

3. Determine b from A = Q V = by + 0.5 y 2 thus b = A 0.5 y 2 y

4. Calculate P = b + 5 y
5. Compute R = A P and then V from Kutters equation.
6. Check Velocities in step 2 and step 5 should be same, if not repeat steps. Increase or
decrease y for the next step if V from Kutters equation is more or less than from step
2.

13

ii.

Kennedys method
Given data Q, n, CVR, b/y and take canal shape is trapezoidal with m = 0.5
1. A = ((b / y ) + 0.5) y 2 ; Q = AV = ((b / y ) + 0.5) y 2 0.55 CVR y 0.64
2. Solve y 2.64 = Q{0.55 CVR ((b / y ) + 0.5)} 1 and then b =

b
y
y

A (b / y ) + 0.5
=
y
P (b / y ) + 5

3. Compute R =

4. Determine V = 0.55 CVR y 0.64

5. Calculate S from Kutters equation or Mannings equation.

iii.

Laceys method
Given data Q, & silt factor f and take canal shape is trapezoidal with m = 0.5

5. Compute V = Qf

140

1/ 6

6. Form one equation A = Q V = by + 0.5 y 2

7. Form second equation P = 4.75 Q = b + 5 y
8. Compute two unknowns b and y from these two equations.
9. Calculate bed slope S = f 5 / 3 3340Q 1 / 6
5V2
. Both should be same, if not check calculations.
10. Determine R = A P and R =
2 f

iv.

Tractive force method

Given data Q, n, S, , b,per and take canal shape is trapezoidal
1. Assume m; m = cot
2. Compute K = cos 1

<
tan 2
sin 2 s
1
=

=
tan 2
sin 2 b

3. s , per = K b , per
4. Find y from s , per = 0.75 w y S

14

5/3

A5 / 3
by + my 2
= 2/3 =
S P
b + 2 y 1 + m2

Qn

5. Calculate b from Mannings

2/3

6. V = Q A
7. Check (a) flow should be subcritical Fr = V

v.

gD < 1 and (b) b = w yS < b , per

Most efficient stable channel

Given data Q, n, S, , and b,per
1. Compute y0 from b , per = w y 0 S
tan
2. Canal profile y = y 0 cos
y0
3. Top width T =
T /2

y0
tan

4. Area A = 2 ydx =
0

5. V =

2Ty 0

2 y 02
tan

0.9 0.8 tan 2 / 3 1 / 2

y0 S
n

6. Find Q = AV
7. Compare Q with design discharge
8. If design discharge is more than Q then provide additional area at centre of canal of
n(Q"Q)
width T " = 5 / 3 1 / 2 and hence new top width = T + T; new area = A + Ty0
y0 S
9. If design discharge is less than Q then remove some area at centre of canal of width

Q'
T and hence new top width = T T; new area =
T ' = 1
Q

T /2
tan T '

2 y 0 cos( x tan / y 0 )dx and new depth at centre y 0' = y 0 cos

T '/ 2
y0 2

15

Appendix

16

17

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26