Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

8 OPEN CHANNEL FLOW

8.1 Classification & Definition

Open channel flows are flows in rivers, streams, artificial channels, irrigation ditches, partially filled pipe etc. Basically, it is a flow with free surface. (Free surface is a surface with atmospheric pressure)
Open Channel Flow

Steady flow
Uniform Varied

Unsteady flow
Varied Uniform

Gradually varied flow

Rapidly varied flow

Gradually varied flow

Rapidly varied flow

Classifications of Open Channel Flow

8.1.1 1.

Open Channel Geometry

Depth of flow, y: vertical distance from the bottom to surface.

Free surface B flow A y

Bottom
(cross-section)

Top width, B: the width of the channel at the free surface Flow area, A: cross-sectional area of the flow Wetted perimeter, P: the length of the channel cross-section in contact with the fluid
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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Hydraulic radius (hydraulic mean depth), R: R =

Flow area A = Wetted perimeter P

Average depth (hydraulic average depth), yave: yave =

Flow area A = Top width B

8.1.2
B A P R

Rectangular channel =b
y

= b*y = b+2*y = b*y b + 2* y

yave

=y

8.1.3
B A P R

Trapezoidal channel = b + 2*m*y

y

= y*(b+m*y) = b+2*y* 1 + m 2

m b

y * ( b + m * y) b + 2 * y * 1 + m2

yave

y * ( b + m * y) b + 2*m* y

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

8.1.4
B

Triangular channel = 2*m*y = m*y

2

y
m

P R

= 2*y* 1 + m 2 =
m*y 2 * 1 + m2

yave

y 2

8.1.5
B

Circular channel = 2 * y * ( D y) D 2 * ( sin ) = 8

*D = 2 =
D sin 1 4
y

( in radian)

yave

D * ( sin ) 8 * sin 2

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

8.2 Steady Uniform Flow

For a steady uniform flow depth is constant along the flow velocity is constant over the cross-section time independent Manning Equations

8.2.1

In 1890, Manning, an Irish engineer derived a better and more accurate relationship, Manning equation, based on many field measurement. V

2 1 1 * R 3 *S 2 n

(8.1)

n - Mannings coefficient, s/m1/3 (can be found in most of the hydraulic handbooks)

To incorporate the continuity equation, Manning equation becomes Q

2 1 A 3 2 * R *S = n

(8.2)

As the flow according to Manning equations is for normal steady uniform flow, the flow is Normal Flow the depth is Normal Depth

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Worked examples:

1.

Water flows in a rectangular, concrete, open channel that is 12 m wide at a depth of 2.5m. The channel slope is 0.0028. Find the water velocity and the flow rate. (n = 0.013)

Answer

By Manning equation,
2 1 1 V = * R 3 *S 2 n

with n = 0.013 S = 0.0028 A P R = 12* 2.5 m2 = 30 m2 = 12 + 2*2.5 m = 17 m = A/P = 30 / 17 m = 1.765 m V

2 1 1 * (1.765) 3 * (0.0028) 2 0.013 = 5.945 m/s

hence

Discharge, Q = A*V = 30*5.945 m3/s = 178.3 m3/s

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

2.

Water flows in a rectangular, concrete, open channel that is 12 m wide. The channel slope is 0.0028. If the velocity of the flow is 6 m/s, find the depth of the flow. (n = 0.013)

12m

Answer

By Manning equation,
2 1 1 V = * R 3 *S 2 n

with V = 6 m/s n = 0.013 S = 0.0028 A P R = 12* h m2 = 12 + 2*h m A 12 * h 6*h = = = P 12 + 2 * h 6 + h

6*h = 1.790 6+h h = 2.551 m Depth of the flow = 2.551m

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Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

3.

A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 2/3, a depth of 2 m, a bottom width of 8 m and a channel slope of 0.0009 has a discharge of 56 m3/s. Find the Mannings n.
14m

2m 1.5 3m 8m 3m

Answer

= (14+8)*2/2 m2 = 22 m2 P = 8 + 2* 2 2 + 32 m = 15.211 m A/P = 22 / 15.211 m = 1.446 m A By Manning equation, Q= Q

2 1 A * R 3 *S 2 n

= 56 m3/s,

= 0.0009

56 = n

2 1 22 * (1.446) 3 * (0.0009) 2 n = 0.01507

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

4.

Determine the depth in a trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 1 to 1.5, a bottom width of 8 m and a channel slope of 0.0009. The discharge is 56 m3/s and n = 0.017.
(8+3*y) m

y 1.5 8m

Answer

A P R

= (8+8+3*y)*y/2 m2 = (8+1.5*y)*y m2 = 8 + 2*y* 12 + 1.5 2 m = 8+3.6056*y m = A/P = (8+1.5*y)*y / 8+3.6056*y

By Manning equation, 2 1 A Q = * R 3 *S 2 n Q = 56 m3/s, S = 0.0009

or

(8 + 1.5 * y) * y (8 + 1.5 * y) * y 56 = * 0.017 8 + 3.6056 * y

* (0.0009)

[(8 + 1.5 * y) * y]5 3 = 31.7333 [8 + 3.6056 * y]2 3 [(1 + 0.1875 * y) * y]5 3 3.9667 = 0 [1 + 0.4507 * y]2 3

By trial & error, y = 2.137 m. The depth of the trapezoidal channel is 2.137m.

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Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

5.

Water flows in the triangular steel channel shown in the figure below. Find the depth of flow if the channel slope is 0.0015 and the discharge is 0.22 m3/s. (n=0.014)

60

Answer

A P R

= 2ytan30 * y/2 m2 = y2*tan30 m2 = 2y/cos30 m = A/P = y2*tan30 / 2y/cos30 m = ysin30/2 m

By Manning equation, 2 1 A Q = * R 3 *S 2 n Q = 0.22 m3/s, S = 0.0015

2

y 2 tan 30 y sin 30 3 * 0.22 = * 0.0015 0.014 2 8/3 = y * 0.6338

or

0.22 y = 0.6338 = 0.672 m

Depth of the channel is 0.672 m.

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

8.2.2

Optimum Hydraulic Cross-sections (REFERENCE ONLY)

From Manning equation,

1 A 3* S Q = * 2 n P 3 Hence, Q will be maximum when P is a minimum.
5

For a given cross-sectional area, A of an open channel, the discharge, Q is maximum when the wetted perimeter, P is minimum. Hence if the wetted perimeter, P for a given flow area is minimised, the area, A will give the least expensive channel to be construct. This corresponding cross-section is the optimum hydraulic section or the best hydraulic section. Rectangular section width depth =b
y

8.2.2.1

=y

area, A = by P = b+2*y A = + 2y y
dP A = 2 +2=0 dy y

Hence i.e.

y=

A or 2

b = 2y

Therefore, the optimum rectangular section is

2y

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

8.2.2.2

Trapezoidal section B A P = b+2*m*y

y

= (b+m*y)*y = b+2*y* 1 + m 2

m b

By eliminating b from P, A P = + ( 2 * 1 + m 2 m) * y y For a minimum value of P, P = 0, dP dP i.e. =0 =0 and dy dm From dP = 0, dy y2 = A 3

From

dP 1 = 0, m = dm 3 It implies the side slope of the channel is 60 to horizontal. A y 2 3 = y b = my = 3y y 3 3 2 3 4 y+ y = 2 3y and P = 3 3 i.e. P = 3*b

The optimum section is given as follow:

60 b b

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

8.2.2.3

Other sections

N-side Channel from the conclusion of the previous two sections reflection of the rectangular optimum section about the water surface will form a square of side b. reflection of the trapezoidal optimum section about the water surface will form a regular hexagon of side b.

For a N-side channel, the optimum hydraulic section should be in a form of half a 2N-side regular polygon.
b b b b

N 1 = *180 N

Triangular Section N = 2, hence = 90

45

Circular Section From the result of N-side channel, it can be concluded that the optimum section of a circular channel is a semi-circle.

It is the most optimum section for all the possible open-channel crosssection.
D

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Worked examples

1. An open channel is to be designed to carry 1m3/s at a slope of 0.0065. The channel material has an n value of 0.011. Find the optimum hydraulic cross-section for a semi-circular section.
D

Answer

The optimum circular section is a semi-circular section with diameter D which can discharge 1 m3/s. For a semi-circular section, A = *D2/8 P = *D/2 R = A/P = D/4 As n = 0.011, S = 0.0065 and Q = 1 m3/s. Q=
2 1 A * R 3 *S 2 n

i.e. 1 D D
8/3

* D2 D 3 * * 0.0065 = 8 * 0.011 4
8 * 0.011 3 = * 4 * 0.0065 2 = 0.951 m

The diameter of this optimum section is 951mm.

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

2. Find the optimum rectangular section from the last example.

2y

Answer

A P R

= 2*y2 = 4*y = A/P = y/2

By Manning equation, Q= 1
2 1 A * R 3 *S 2 n

2* y y * * 0.0065 0.011 2
2

2 3

y8/3 =
y

1* 0.011* 2 2 * 0.0065 = 0.434 m

2 3

The optimum rectangular section has dimension of width 0.868m and depth 0.434m.

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

3.

Find the optimum triangular section from the last example.

45

Answer

A P R

= y2 = 2 2*y = A/P = y
2 2

By Manning equation, 2 1 A Q = * R 3 *S 2 n 1 =
y y * * 0.0065 0.011 2 2
2 2 3

0.011* (2 2 ) 0.0065 y = 0.614 m The optimum triangular section is a right angle triangle with depth 0.614 m.
y8/3 =

2 3

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

8.3 Non-Uniform flow - Specific Energy in Open Channel & Critical Flow
energy line v1 /2g fluid surface y1 y2 channel bed horizontal datum z2
2

hf v22/2g E2

E1

z1

In open channel, the solution of many problems are greatly assisted by the concept of specific energy, i.e. v2 E = +y (8.3) 2g In terms of flow rate, Q, 1 Q 2 E = ( ) +y 2g A

(8.4)

The minimum energy will be given as dE =0 dy Rectangular Channel

(8.5)

8.3.1

Let

Q = v*y (8.6) b q - the discharge per unit width of a rectangular channel q = E = q2 2gy 2

+y

(8.7)

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

By assuming q is constant dE q2 =1=0 (8.8) 3 dy gy y = yc q 2 13 =( ) (8.9) g - critical depth at which the energy is minimum.

or

yc

The corresponding energy, E is Emin = 3 yc 2 q . y (8.10)

From (8.6),

Substitute into (8.8), v c2 =0 1gy c

or

v c2 =1 gy c vc = gy c

(8.11) (8.12)

Since Froude number, Fr is defined as Fr =

v gy ave

(8.13)

Hence, the minimum energy is occurred when Fr2 = 1

(8.14)

For a given discharge, Q, if the flow is such that E is a min., the flow is critical flow. critical flow - flow with Emin critical depth, yc - the depth of the critical flow critical velocity - vc = gy c
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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

y1

v1 /2g A subcritical or slow C

y1 yc

vc /2g

y2
y2

45

supercritical B or fast
2

v2 /2g

If the flow with E > Emin, there are two possible depths (y1, y2). (y1, y2) are called alternate depths. C divides the curve AB into AC and CB regions. AC - subcritical flow region CB - supercritical flow region Subcritical y > yc v < vc Mild S < Sc Fr < 1.0 v2 yc < 2g 2 Critical y = yc v = vc Critical S = Sc Fr = 1.0 v2 yc = 2g 2 Supercritical y < yc v > vc Steep S > Sc Fr > 1.0 v2 yc > 2g 2

Depth of flow Velocity of flow Slope Froude number Other

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

8.3.2

Non - Rectangular Channel

If the channel width varies with y, the specific energy must be written Q2 in the form E = (8.15) +y 2gA 2 The minimum energy also occurs where dE = 0 at constant Q dy Since A = A(y), therefore (8.15) becomes
2Q 2 A 3 dA 12g dy

=0

or

dA gA 3 = 2 dy Q

(8.16)

Since

or

dA = B - the channel width at the free surface, dy gA 3 B = 2 Q BQ 2 13 A =( ) (8.17) g Q vc = A gA 1 =( ) 2 (8.18) B

For a given channel shape, A(y) & B(y), and a given Q, (8.17) & (8.18) have to be solved by trial and error to find the A and then vc. If a critical channel flow is also moving uniformly (at constant depth), it must correspond to a critical slope, Sc, with yn = yc. This condition can be analysed by Manning formula.

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Worked examples:

1. A triangular channel with an angel of 120 made by 2 equal slopes. For a flow rate of 3 m3/s, determine the critical depth and hence the maximum depth of the flow.
B

yc 30
o

Answer

For critical flow, v2 = g*yave Q2 = g*yave*A2 gA 3 A = (yave = ) B B For critical flow, B = 2*y*cot 30 & A = y2*cot 30 3g 5 Q2 = y 2 Hence y 2Q 2 15 =( ) 3g 2 * 32 15 =( ) m 3 * 9.81 = 0.906 m

The maximum depth is 0.906 m. The critical depth, yc = yave =

A ( B * y ) / 2 y 0906 = = = = 0.453m . B B 2 2

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

2. In the last example, the channel Manning roughness coefficient is 0.012 and the flow rate is 3 m3/s. What is the value of the channel slope if the flow is critical, subcritical or supercritical?
B

y 30
o

Answer

B A
P

= 2 3 *y 1 = *B*y 2 = 4*y

Using Manning equation, 2 1 A Q = * R 3 *S 2 n 1 1 1 B 2 = * ( * B * y) * ( ) 3 * S 2 8 n 2 2 nQ B 2 3 ( ) Sc1/2 = By 8 2 nQ 3 * y 23 = ( ) 2 4 2 3*y For critical flow, y = y 2 * 0.012 * 3 3 * 0.906 2 3 Sc1/2 = ( ) 4 2 3 * (0.906) 2 Sc = 0.0472 For flow is critical, S = 0.0472 subcritical, S < 0.0472 supercritical, S > 0.0472 - critical slope

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

8.4 Frictionless Flow over a Bump

supercritical approach flow v1
2 y2 v

y1

subcritical approach flow h

When fluid is flowing over a bump, the behaviour of the free surface is sharply different according to whether the approach flow is subcritical or supercritical. The height of the bump can change the character of the results. Applying Continuity and Bernoullis equations to sections 1 and 2, = v2*y2 v1*y1 2 v22 v1 + y1 = + y 2 + h 2g 2g

&

Eliminating v2 between these two gives a cubic polynomial equation for the water depth y2 over the bump,
v12 * y12 y2 E2*y2 + 2g
3 2

=0

(8.19)

v12 where E2 = + y1 - h (8.20) 2g This equation has one negative and two positive solutions if h is not too large.

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

The free surfaces behaviour depends upon whether condition 1 is in subcritical or supercritical flow.
y1 y2 yc water depth hmax 2 h supercritical bump Ec E2 E1 specific energy 1 subcritical bump

The specific energy E2 is exactly h less than the approach energy, E1, and point 2 will lie on the same leg of the curve as E1.

A subcritical approach, Fr1 < 1, will cause the water level to decrease at the bump. Supercritical approach flow, Fr1 > 1, causes a water level increase over the bump. If the bump height reaches hmax = E1 Ec, the flow at the crest will be exactly critical (Fr = 1). If the bump > hmax, there are no physical correct solution. That is, a bump to large will choke the channel and cause frictional effects, typically a hydraulic jump.

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Worked example:

Water flow in a wide channel approaches a 10 cm high bump at 1.5 m/s and a depth of 1 m. Estimate (a) the water depth y2 over the bump, and (b) the bump height which will cause the crest flow to be critical.
Answer

(a) For the approaching flow, v1 15 . = Fr = 9.81 * 1 gy1 = 0.479 subcritical For subcritical approach flow, if h is not too large, the water level over the bump will depress and a higher subcritical Fr at the crest. E1 Hence E2
v12 = + y1 2g = 1.115 m = E1 - h = 1.015 m

15 . 2 . m = + 10 2 * 9.81 = 1.115 0.1 m

Substitute E2 into (8.24), y23 1.015*y22 + 0.115 = 0 By trial and error, y2 = 0.859 m, 0.451 m and 0.296 m (inadmissible) The second (smaller) solution is the supercritical condition for E2 and is not possible for this subcritical bump. Hence Checking: y2 = 0.859 m v2 = 1.745 m/s (By continuity) (OK) Fr2 = 0.601 (> Fr1 and < 1)

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

(b)

By considering per m width of the channel, q = v*y = 1.5*1 m2/s For critical flow, E2 = Emin yc = 3 yc 2

E2

q 2 13 =( ) g 15 . 2 13 =( ) 9.81 = 0.612 m 3 = *0.612 2 = 0.918 m

hmax

= E1 - Emin = 1.115 0.918 m = 0.197 m

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

8.5 Hydraulic Jump in Rectangular Channel

A hydraulic jump is a sudden change from a supercritical flow to subcritical flow. Assumptions: the bed is horizontal. the velocity over each cross-section is uniform. the depth is uniform across the width. frictionless boundaries. surface tension effects are neglect.
1 critical depth level y2 y1 2

v2
eddy currents

Considering the control volume between 1 and 2, the forces are b y12 = gb* (8.21a) F31 = gy1* *y1 2 2 y22 Similarly F32 = gb* (8.21b) 2 By continuity equation, Q = b*y1*v1 = b*y2*v2 (8.22)

By the momentum equation, F1 = F2 = 0 hence F31 F32 = *Q*(v2 - v1) Sub. (8.21a, b) and (8.22) into (8.23), then gb 2 Q Q ( y1 y 2 2 ) = Q( ) 2 y 2 b y 1b
Q 2 y1 y 2 = ( ) b y1 y 2

(8.23)

(8.24)

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

In a hydraulic jump, y1 y2,

2Q 2 y1*y2*(y1+y2) = gb 2 2Q 2 2 2 y1 y2 + y1y2 = gb 2 2Q 2 y2 2 y2 i.e. ( ) +( ) 2 3 =0 y1 y1 gb y1 Solving (8.25),

(8.25)

1 8Q 2 y2 = [ 1 + 1 + 2 3 ] 2 y1 gb y1 This is the hydraulic jump equation.

(8.26)

Using Froude number, Fr1 then,

y2 y1
2

v12 Q2 = = gy1 gy13b2 1 = [ 1 + 1 + 8Fr12 ] 2

(8.27) (8.28a)

or

1 y1 = [ 1 + 1 + 8Fr2 2 ] 2 y2

(8.28b)

(y1,y2) are called conjugate depths. The energy loss in a jump is given by v22 v12 + y1 = + y2 + h f 2g 2g i.e. hf
v v2 =( 1 ) + ( y1 y 2 ) 2g
2 2

(8.29)

Sub. (8.22) into above, hf Q 2 y1 + y 2 = [ ( ) + 1 ](y1 y2) 2gb 2 y12 y 2 2 (8.29)

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Using (8.25), (8.29) becomes ( y 2 y1 ) 3 hf = 4 y1 y 2

(8.30)

This is the energy loss equation for the hydraulic jump (y2>y1, hf>0).

The power loss in a jump is P = ghf*Q This energy loss is useful for getting away with the unwanted energy of a flow. The energy loss is due to the frictional forces amount the eddy currents in the pump. It will increase the temperature of the fluid.

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Worked example:

Water flows in a wide channel at q = 10 m2/s and y1 = 1.25 m. If the flow undergoes a hydraulic jump, calculate (a) y2, (b) v2, (c) Fr2, (d) hf,, and (e) the percentage dissipation of the energy.
Answer

(a)

v1

Fr1

Since

y2 y1

or

y2

q y1 10 = m/s = 8 m/s 1.25 v1 = gy1 8 = 2.285 = 9.81 * 125 . 1 = [ 1 + 1 + 8Fr12 ] 2 1 = [ 1 + 1 + 8 * (2.285) 2 ] 2 = 2.77 = 2.77*1.25 m = 3.46 m

(b)

By Continuity equation, y v2 = v1*( 1 ) y2 125 . = 8* m/s 3.46 = 2.89 m/s

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

(c)

Fr2 =

v2 gy 2 2.89 = 9.81 * 3.46 = 0.496

( y 2 y1 ) 3 = 4 y1 y 2

(d)

hf

(3.46 125 . )3 = 4 * 3.46 * 125 . = 0.625 m (e) E1

v12 + y1 = 2g 82 + 1.25 m = 2 * 9.81 = 4.51 m hf * 100% E1 0.625 * 100% = 4.51 = 14 %

percentage loss

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

8.6 Gradually Varied Flow

It is not always possible to have uniform depth across the flow i.e. normal flow with normal depth. The depth of flow can be changed by the conditions along the channel. Examples of Gradually Varied Flow are:
backwater curve
water surface dy >0 dx

yn

dam

Downdrop curve
water surface yn1 dy dx <0

slope change yn2

In a uniform flow, the body weight effect in balanced out by the wall friction. In gradually varied flow, the weight and the friction effects are unable to make the flow uniform.

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

1 x v1/2g
2

2 s

THL

f dh 2 v2/2g

v1
y1

fluid surface y2 channel bed v2

z1

horizontal datum

z2

Basic assumptions are slowly changing bottom slope slowly changing water depth (no hydraulic jump) slowly changing cross section one dimensional velocity distribution pressure distribution approximately hydrostatic Denoting v1 z1 y1 p1 = v; = z, = y, = p, v2 z2 y2 p2 = v + dv = z + dz = y + dy =p

Apply Bernoullis equation between section 1 and 2, p ( v + dv) 2 p v2 + +y+z = + + ( y + dy) + ( z + dz) + dh f 2g 2g Neglecting higher order terms, v dhf + dy + dz + du g

=0

When lim dx 0, dh f dy dz v dv + + + =0 dx dx dx g dx

(8.30)

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

In (8.30), the four terms are dh f - rate of head loss along the channel dx = S (head loss gradient in Manning equation) dy - rate of change of water depth dx - water surface profiles gradient dz - rate of vertical change along channel dx = -sin v dv - rate of change of velocity head along the channel g dx By Continuity equation v*A = constant dv dA +v =0 i.e. A dx dx dv dA dy A +v =0 dx dy dx dy dv A + vB =0 dx dx dv vB dy =or A dx dx v dy =y dx Therefore v dv g dx v 2 dy =gy dx dy = -Fr2 dx

(8.31)

Hence (8.30) becomes dy dy - sin - Fr2 =0 s+ dx dx dy sin S or =[ ] dx 1 Fr 2 - general equation of gradually varied flow.

(8.32)

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

(8.32) is a 1st order non-linear differential equation. Numerical method is used to solve the equation. The equation is rewritten as dx 1 Fr 2 =[ ] dy sin S 2 y 2 1 Fr x2 x1 dx = y1 ( sin S)dy 2 y 2 1 Fr x2 = x1 + y ( )dy 1 sin S

(8.33)

The simplest solution is the direct mid-point solution of the integral. 1 Fr 2 i.e. x2 = x1 + ( ) y + y *(y2-y1) (8.34) sin S ( 1 2 2 )

(8.34) may be used to calculate the water profile in a step-by-step sequence from a known (x1, y1) value.

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Worked example:

Determine the upstream profile of a backwater curve given: Q = 10 m3/s, b = 3m, sin = 0.001, n = 0.022.
water surface

yn

5m dam

Answer

For normal flow, (S sin ) 2 1 A Q = * R 3 *S 2 n ( 3y n ) 3y n *( ) * 0.001 i.e. 10 = 0.022 3 + 2y n yn = 2.44 m The water profile is from 2.44 m to 5 m along the channel. From Manning equation, 2 1 1 v = * R 3 *S 2 n n2v2 S = 4 R 3 Hence x2 = x1 + (
1 Fr 2 0.001 n 2 v2 R 4/ 3 ) *(y2-y1)

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

section, I 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

yi (m) 5 4.75

dy (m) 0.25 0.25

yave (m) 4.875 4.625 4.375 4.125 3.875 3.625 3.375 3.125 2.875 2.595

v (m/s) 0.684 0.721 0.762 0.808 0.860 0.920 0.988 1.067 1.159 1.285

Fr 0.099 0.107 0.116 0.127 0.140 0.154 0.172 0.193 0.218 0.255

1-Fr*Fr 0.990 0.989 0.986 0.984 0.981 0.976 0.971 0.963 0.952 0.935

R (m) 1.147 1.133 1.117 1.100 1.081 1.061 1.038 1.014 0.986 0.951

So - Sf 0.000812 0.000787 0.000758 0.000722 0.000677 0.000622 0.000551 0.000459 0.000337 0.000146

dx (m) 305

x (m) 0 305

314 619 326 945 341 1285 362 1647 392 2040 440 2480 524 3004 707 3711 1992 5703

4.5 0.25 4.25 0.25 4 0.25 3.75 0.25 3.5 0.25 3.25 0.25 3 0.25 2.75 0.31 2.44

From the table, the water level is not affected by the dam at 5.7 km upstream.
5m 4m 3m normaldepth dam 1m 8km 7km 6km 5km 4km 3km 2km 1km 0 2m

From the graph, the water depth at any location can be obtained.

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Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

8.6.1

Classifications of Surface Profile of Gradually Varied Flow

It is customary to compare the actual channel slope, sin or So with the critical slope Sc for the same Q. There are five classes of channel slope giving rise to twelve distinct types of solution curves. So > Sc - Steep (S) So = Sc - Critical (C) So < Sc - Mild (M) So = 0 - Horizontal (H) So < 0 - Adverse (A) There are three number designators for the type of profile relates to the position of the actual water surface in relation to the position of the water for normal and critical flow in a channel. 1 the surface of stream lies above both normal and critical depth 2 the surface of stream lies between normal and critical depth 3 the surface of stream lies below both normal and critical depth

M1 M2 M3 yn Steep slope

S1 S2 S3

yn yc Mild slope

yc

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Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Combining the two designators, we have Slope notation Steep (S) Depth class yc > yn Froude number Fr < 1 Fr > 1 Fr > 1 Fr < 1 Fr > 1 Fr < 1 Fr < 1 Fr > 1 Fr < 1 Fr > 1 Fr < 1 Fr > 1 Actual depth y >yn; y>yc yc > y > yn y<yn; y<yc y>yn = yc y<yn = yc y>yn; y>yc yn > y > yc y<yn; y<yc y > yc y<yn; y<yc y > yc y < yc Profile S1 S2 S3 C1 C3 M1 M2 M3 H2 H3 A2 A3

Slope class sin > S sin = S sin < S sin = 0 sin < 0

Critical (C) Mild (M)

yc = yn yc < yn yn = yn = Im

Horizontal (H) Adverse (A)

For type S

For type C

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

For type M

For type H

For type A

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Class Exercise 8.1:

A 500 mm-diameter concrete pipe on a 1:500 slope is to carry water at a velocity of 0.18 m/s. Find the depth of the flow. (n=0.013)

500mm y

(y = 18 mm)

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Class Exercise 8.2:

What are the dimensions for an optimum rectangular brick channel (n = 0.015) designed to carry 5 m3/s of water in uniform flow with s = 0.001? What will be the percentage increase in flow rate if the channel is a semicircle but retained the same sectional area? (increase = 8.4%)

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Class Exercise 8.3:

A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6.0 m and side slopes of 1:1. The depth of flow is 1.5 m at a discharge of 15 m3/s. Determine the specific energy and alternate depth. (E = 1.59 m, y = 0.497 m)

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Class Exercise 8.4:

A triangular channel has an apex angle of 60 and carries a flow with a velocity of 2.0 m/s and depth of 1.25 m. (a) (b) (c) (d) Is the flow subcritical or supercritical? What is the critical depth? What is the specific energy? What is the alternate depth possible for this specific energy? (yc = 1.148 m, E = 1.454 m, y = 1.06 m)

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Fluid Mechanics

Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Class Exercise 8.5:

A rectangular channel is 4.0 m wide and carries a discharge of 20 m3/s at a depth of 2.0 m. At a certain section it is proposed to build a hump. Calculate the water surface elevations at upstream of the hump and over the hump if the hump height is 0.33 m. (Assume no loss of energy at the hump.)
water surface y1 Q hump y2

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Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Class Exercise 8.6:

In a hydraulic jump occurring in a horizontal, rectangular channel it is desired to have an energy head loss equal to 6 times the supercritical flow depth. Calculate the Froude number of the flow necessary to have this jump. (Fr1 = 4.822 )

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Chapter 8 Open Channel Flow

Tutorial Open Channel Flow

1.

Calculate the normal depth in a concrete trapezoidal channel with side slope of 1 to 3, a bed slope of 0.00033, a bottom width of 4.0 m and a water discharge of 39 m3/s. Manning coefficient is 0.013.

1 3

y 3 4m

2.

Determine the critical depth of the trapezoidal channel for a discharge of 15 m3/s. The width of the channel bottom, b = 6 m, and the side slope is 45.

3.

Consider a flow in a wide channel over a bump with an approaching velocity, v1 at the upstream is 1 m/s and the depth, y1 is 1 m. If the maximum bump height is 15 cm, determine (a) the Froude number over the top of the bump, and (b) the depression in the water surface. (y2 > 0.5 m)

4.

Water flows in a trapezoidal channel at a rate of 8.5 m3/s. The channel has a bottom width of 3 m and side slope of 1:1. If a hydraulic jump is forced to occur where the upstream depth is 0.3 m, what will be the downstream depth and velocity? What are the values of Fr1 and Fr2? A wide canal has a bed slope of 1 in 1000 and conveys water at a normal depth of 1.2 m. A weir is to be constructed at one point to increase the depth of flow to 2.4 m. How far upstream of the weir will the depth be 1.35 m? (Take n in the Manning equation as 0.013)

5.

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