Specific Energy

Specific energy is the measurement of energy relative to the bottom of the

channel. It is defined as the energy per unit weight relative to the bottom of the
channel.
2
v
E= y +
2g

Figure 8.1.1 Specific Energy Diagram

1. Find the specific energy of a rectangular channel that has at depth 3m and a
width of 4m having a flow of 18.97 m3/s.
Given:
3
Q=18.97 m / s
2
A=3 x 4=12 m
Q 18.97
v= = =1.58m/ s
A 12
 Solution :
v2
E= y +
2g
2
1.58
E=3+
2(9.81)

E=3.13 m

2. A trapezoidal channel has a bottom widt of 5m and a side slope of 2 horizontal to

1 vertical. If the depth of flow is 1.2 m and the flow is 20.40 m 3/sec. Compite the
specific energy.

Figure 8.1.2
Given:
3
Q=20.4 m /s
1 2
A=5 (1.2 ) + ( 2.4 )( 1.2 ) x 2=8.88 m
2
Q 20.4
v= = =2.297 m/s
A 8.88

Solution:
v2
E= y +
2g
(2.297)2
E=1.2+
2(9.81)
E=1.47 m
 3. Water at 20 °C flows uniformly with depth 𝑦 = 0.40 m in a rectangular channel
with mean velocity 4.0 m/s. (a) Calculate the specific energy of the flow in
meters, and (b) characterize flow regime as sub critical, critical, or supercritical.
Given:
𝑦 = 0.40 m
v= 4.0 m/s
Solution:
(a) specific energy
V2
E= y +
2g
0.4 2
E=0.4+
2 ×9.81
E=1.215 m

(b) Using Fraud number,

V
FN=
√ gy
4
FN=
√9.81 ×0.4
F N =2.01

Since 2.01>1, the flow is supercritical.

4. A 3-m wide channel carries a total discharge of 12 m 3 s–1. Calculate: (a) the critical
depth; (b) the minimum specific energy; (c) the alternate depths when 𝐸 = 4 m.
Given:
Q= 12 m3 s–1
𝐸=4m
Solution:
(a) Discharge per unit width
Q 12
q= = =4 m2 /s
b 3
Then for a rectangular channel,

( ) ( )
1/3 1 /3
q2 42
hc= = =1.177 m
b 9.81
h c =1.18 m
 (b) For a rectangular channel,
3 3
Ec = hc = (1.177)=1.766 m
2 2
Ec =1.77 m

(c) As 𝐸 > 𝐸𝑐, there are two possible depths for a given specific energy.
2
V Q q
E ≡h+ where V = = ( for a rectangular channel)
2g A h
q2
E ≡h+ 2
2 gh

Substituting values in meter-second units:

0.8155
4 ≡h+ 2
h

For the subcritical (slow, deep) solution, the first term, associated with potential
energy, dominates, so rearrange as:
0.8155
h=4− 2
h

Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 4) gives ℎ = 3.948 m.

For the supercritical (fast, shallow) solution, the second term, associated with
kinetic energy, dominates, so rearrange as:

h=
√ 0.8155
4−h

Iteration (from, e.g., ℎ = 0) gives ℎ = 0.4814 m.

5. A rectangular open channel has a constant width of 5m and a depth of 2m. The
channel is filled with water, and the velocity of the water at the surface is 3 m/s.
Determine the specific energy of the water in the channel.

Given:

w= 5m

h= 2m

v= 3m/s
Solution:

Specific energy (E) is defined as the sum of the

potential energy and the kinetic energy per unit weight of the
fluid.

Potential energy: PE=z∗g

1 2
Kinetic energy: KE= ∗v
2

where z = depth of the water in the channel = 2m, g = acceleration due to gravity
= 9.81 m/s2, v = velocity of water at the surface = 3 m/s

Therefore,

m
PE=2 m∗9.81
s2

J
PE=19.62
kg

2
1 m
KE= ∗(3 2 )
2 s

J
KE=4.5
kg

Specific energy,

E=PE+ KE

J J
E=19.62 + 4.5
kg kg

J
E=24.12
kg

J
Hence, the specific energy of the water in the channel is 24.12 .
kg
6. The bottom width of a trapezoidal channel is 6m with side slopes of 2 horizontal to 1
vertical. If the depth of flow is 1.2m and the flow is 19.50 m 3/sec, compute the
specific energy.

1
2

Given:

Depth= 1.2m

Q= 19.50 m3/sec

Solution:

Q
v=
A

19.50 m3 /sec
v=
1
6(1.2)+ (2.4)(1.2)(2)
2

v=1.93 m/s

v2
H= + d
2g

2
(1.93)
H= +1.2
2(9.81)

H=1.39 m
7. A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 8m with side slopes of 2 horizontal to 1
vertical. If the depth of flow is 1.4m and the flow is 20.25 m3/sec, compute the
specific energy.

1 1.4m
2

8m

Given:

w= 8m

depth= 1.4m

Q= 20.25 m3/sec

Solution:

Q
v=
A

3
20.25 m /sec
v=
1
8(1. 4)+ (2. 8)(1. 4)(2)
2

v=1.34 m/s

v2
H= +d
2g

2
(1. 34)
H= +1. 4
2(9.81)

H=1. 4 9 m
 Hydraulic energy is “neither” created nor destroyed; only converted to another
form.

A fun fact about specific energy in open channels is that it is often used in the
design of channels and canals to ensure that the flow of water is stable and does not
erode the channel. Specifically, it is defined as the sum of the velocity head and the
elevation head and is used to determine the minimum channel slope needed to prevent
the flow from becoming unstable and erosive. Additionally, specific energy can also be
used to determine the location of a flow's critical depth, which is the point at which the
flow becomes unstable and begins to erode the channel.

The specific energy of a fluid in an open channel is a measure of the combination

of its potential and kinetic energy per unit weight. It is typically used in the context of
analyzing the flow characteristics of a fluid in a channel, such as a river or a stream.
The specific energy of a fluid is affected by several factors, including the slope of the
channel, the velocity of the fluid, and the depth of the fluid. Additionally, the specific
energy of a fluid can change as the fluid flows through a channel, depending on the
geometry of the channel and the properties of the fluid.
 The French engineer Antoine Chezy created equations, known as the Chezy
formula, in 1769. The Chezy Coefficient, often known as the number C, ranges from
around 30 m1/2/s for tiny rough channels to 90 ml/2/s for big smooth channels.

Chezy Formula

v=C √ RS

Q= AC √ RS

Many hydraulic researchers found correlations between C and the slope, shape,
and roughness of various open channels. Among them were Powell in 1950,
Manning in 1889, Bazin in 1897, and Ganguillet and Kutter in 1869.

Kutter and Ganguillet Formula

1 0.00155
+23+
n S
C=
n 0.00155
1+ (23+ )
√R S

Manning Formula

1 1 /6
C= R
n

1.486 1 /6
v= R
n

1 2/ 3 1 /2
Q= A R S
n

Bazin Formula

87
C=
m
1+
√R
1. An earth canal carries water at a depth of 1.8m. The canal is 6m wide on the
bottom, and has sides sloped 1.5 horizontal to 1 vertical/ S=0.0002. Using the
value of n of 0.025, compute the discharge by Manning formula and with this
discharge

Figure 8.2.1
Given:
Depth= 1.8m
W= 6m
S=0.0002
n= 0.025
Solution: Using the Manning’s Formula
1 2 /3 1/ 2
v= R S
n
10.4 +5
A= ( 1.8 ) =13.86 m2
2

P=5+ 2 ( 3.245 ) =11.49 m

A 13.86
R= = =1.206 m
P 11.49

1
v= (1.206)2 /3 (0.0002)1/ 2
0.025
1 2 /3 1/ 2
v= (1.206) (0.0002)
0.025
v=0.641 m/s
2. Using the figure 8.2.1, determine the value of m

Given:

Depth= 1.8m

W= 6m

S=0.0002

n= 0.025

Solution:

1 1
1 1
C= R 6 = ( 1.206 ) 6
n 0.025
C=41.27

Using Bazin Formula:

87
C=
m
1+
√R
87
41.27=
m
1+
√1.206
m=1.217

3. If a channel with boulders has a slope of 0.0030, is 100 ft wide, has an average
depth of 4.3 ft, and is known to have a friction factor of 0.130, what is the
discharge in the channel and what is the numerical value of Manning’s n for this
channel?
Given:
w= 100ft
depth= 4.3ft
friction factor= 0.130
Solution:
(a) Velocity

V= [√ ( 8 ) ( 32.2 ft /s2 )
0.130 ][√ ( 4.3 ft ) ( 0.0030 ) ]

V =5.06 ft /s

(b) Discharge
 Q= Av

Q=(100 × 4.3)(5.06)
3
Q=2176 ft /s

(c) Manning’s n
1.49 2/ 3 1 /2
n= AR S
Q

n= ( 2176
1.49
)(100× 4.3)( 4.3) 2 /3
(0.003)
1 /2

n=0.0426

4. A trapezoidal open channel has a bottom width of 4m, a top width of 6m, and a
depth of 2m. The slope of the channel is 0.5%. Determine the discharge in the
channel using the Mannings formula.

Given:

Width bottom= 4m

width top= 6m

depth= 2m

Solution:

The Mannings equation is used to calculate the discharge in an open

channel. It is given as:

(3) ( ) 2

()
1
1
Q= ∗A∗R ∗S 2
n

Given, Bottom width (B) = 4m, Top width (T) = 6m, Depth (D) = 2m, Slope (S) =
0.5% Manning's roughness coefficient (n) = 0.012

Cross-sectional area of the channel,

(B+ T ) (4 +6)
A= = =8 m2
2∗D 2∗2

Hydraulic radius,

A 8
R= = =2 m
(B+ 2 (
D ( T −B )
T )
) (4 +2 (
2 ( 6−4 )
6
) )
 Slope of the channel,

S=0.5 %=0.005

( 3)
2

( )
1
1 ( )
Substituting the values in the Mannings formula, Q= ∗8∗2 ∗0.005 2
0.012

m3
Q=0.6∗0.63∗0.071=0.22
s

m3
Hence, the discharge in the channel is 0.22 using the Mannings formula.
s

5. An earth canal carries water at a depth of 1.8m. The canal is 8m wide on the
bottom and has side sloped 1.5 horizontal to 1 vertical. S =0.0002. Using the
value of n of 0.025, compute the discharge by Manning formula, and with this
discharge, Determine the value of n in kutter formula

Given:

Depth=1.8m

W= 8m

Solution:

2 1
1
v= R 3 S 2
n

1 3.4+ 8 2
A= (1.8)=19.26 m
2

P=8+2(3.245)=14.49 m

19.26
R=
14.49
=1.329

2 1
1
v= (1.329) 3 (0.0002) 2
0.025
v=0.68 m/s

Q= Av

Q=(19.26)(0.68)

Q=13.17 m3 / s

6. From the above situation, find the value of m using the Bazin Formula.
Given:

Depth=1.8m

W= 8m

Solution:

87
C=
m
1+
√R
1
1
C= R 6
n

1
1
C= (1.3329) 6
0.025

C=41.942

87
41.942=
m
1+
√ 1.329
m=1.24

Typically, the open channels that are man-made and artificial don't have a
rectangular cross section. The round and trapezoidal shapes of open channels
are the most typical.
 Uniform flow in open channels refers to the condition where the velocity of the
flow is constant along the cross-section of the channel at any given point along the
channel. The discharge, or the volume of water flowing past a given point per unit time,
is also constant. In other words, the flow rate is the same at all points along the channel
cross-section.

Uniform flow occurs in open channels that are wide and deep relative to the width
of the channel. This creates a balance between the gravity force, which tends to pull
water downwards, and the frictional force, which tends to slow the water down. The
channel bed should also be free of obstacles that would cause changes in the flow
velocity. A smooth and flat bed, which reduces friction between the water and the
channel bed, is ideal for maintaining uniform flow.

Figure 8.3.1 Uniform Flow Diagram

The most common example of uniform flow in an open channel is the flow in a
wide and deep river. The velocity and discharge of the flow remain constant as the
water flows downstream. This flow regime is ideal for navigation and irrigation as the
flow rate is predictable.

Uniform flow can be described by the following equation:

Q= A∗V

where Q is the discharge ¿) , A is the cross-sectional area of the channel (m¿¿ 2)¿ , and
V is the average velocity of the flow ¿).
 This equation is based on the assumption that the velocity of the flow is constant
along the cross-section of the channel at any given point along the channel. The
discharge, or the volume of water flowing past a given point per unit time, is also
constant. In other words, the flow rate is the same at all points along the channel cross-
section.

Uniform flow can also be described by the continuity equation, which states that
the discharge Q is equal to the product of the cross-sectional area A and the mean
velocity V, and must remain constant along the flow path.

The continuity equation:

A1 V 1= A2 V 2= A3 V 3=…= An V n

where A1 , A 2 , A3 , … , A n is the cross-sectional area at different points along the flow

path, V 1 ,V 2 , V 3 , … ,V n is the velocity at different points along the flow path.

Uniform flow is an important concept in open channel flow because it allows for
accurate predictions of the flow rate and discharge. Engineers and hydrologists use this
information to design and analyze open channels for various purposes such as
irrigation, flood control, and navigation.

Uniform flow can also be affected by the roughness of the channel bed and
banks, and the properties of the fluid. The roughness of the channel bed and banks can
be natural, such as boulders and gravel, or artificial, such as vegetation and structures.
Natural roughness is usually found in channels that are not maintained, while artificial
roughness is found in channels that are man-made or have been altered. The
roughness of the channel bed and banks affects the shear stress by increasing the
amount of friction between the fluid and the channel, which in turn increases the shear
stress.

The properties of the fluid also play an important role in uniform flow. The density
and viscosity of the fluid affect the shear stress by influencing the resistance to flow. A
fluid with a higher density and viscosity will have a higher shear stress than a fluid with
a lower density and viscosity.

In summary, uniform flow in open channels is a flow regime where the velocity
and discharge of the flow are constant along the cross-section of the channel at any
given point along the channel. This flow regime is ideal for navigation and irrigation as
the flow rate is predictable. Engineers and hydrologists use the concept of uniform flow
to design and analyze open channels for various purposes such as irrigation, flood
control, and

navigation. Factors that affect the uniform flow include the roughness of the channel
bed and banks, and the properties of the fluid.

1. A rectangular channel has a width of 2 m and a depth of 1 m. The channel is

filled with water and the slope of the energy grade line is 0.001. The Manning
roughness coefficient for the channel is 0.03.

What is the discharge of water in the channel?

Solution:

To find the discharge of water in the channel, we need to

first find the velocity of the water. This can be done using the

()
2 1
1
Manning equation: V = ∗R 3∗S 2
n

First we need to find the hydraulic radius (R), which is

defined as the cross-sectional area of the channel divided by the wetted perimeter.

A (1∗2)
R= =
P (2+ 2)

R=1

Now we can substitute the values into the Manning equation:

( )
2 1
1
V= ¿ 1 3∗0.001 2
0.03

m
V =0.05
s

The discharge can be found by multiplying the velocity by the cross-sectional

area of the channel. Q= A∗V =0.049∗2
 3
m
Q=0.10
s
3
m
So the discharge of water in the channel is 0.10 .
s

2. A rectangular channel 1.5 m wide with a bed slope of 0.0001 carries water to a
depth of 1.2m. The channel has Manning’s N=0.025. Calculate the rate of
uniform flow in the channel
Solution:
1 2/ 3 1 /2
Q= A R S
n

A=1.5 x 1.2=1.8 m2

P=1.5+ 2 x 1.2=3.9 m

A 1.8
R= = =0.462 m
P 3.9

1 2 /3 1/2
Q=1.8 R(0.462) S (0.0001)
0.025
3
Q=0.43 m / s

3. Uniform flow occurs in a 12-m-wide rectangular channel having a bed slope of

0.0021 and n=0.019 at a depth of 1m. If a partial closure of the gate near the exit
raises the level at that by 0.50m, how far upstream, is the point where the depth
of flow is 1.25 m?

Figure 8.3.2
Given:

W= 12m

n=0.019

depth= 1m

Solution:

Solve for Q: (during uniform flow, d = 1m)

1 2/ 3 1 /2
Q= A R S
n

( ) ( 0.0021 )
2
1 12 x 1 1/ 2
Q= (12 x 1 ) 3
0.019 12+2 x 1
3
Q=26.11m / s

At section 1:

A1 = 12(1.25)

A1 =15 m2

A 15
R 1= = =1.03
P 12+2 x 1.25

Q 26.11
v1 = = =1.741 m/s
A 15

v1
=0.154 m
2g

n2 v 21 2
( 0.019 ) ( 1.741 )
2
S1= 4
= 4
=0.0010519
3 3
R 1 1.03

At section 2:

A1 = 12(1.5)

A1 =18 m2

A 18
R2= = =1.20
P 12+2 x 1.5

Q 26.11
v 2= = =1.45 m/ s
A 18

v2
=0.107 m
2g
 2 2 2 2
n v2 ( 0.019 ) ( 1.45 )
S2= 4
= 4
=0.0005952
3 3
R 2 1.2

S1 + S2 0.0010519+0.0005952
S= =
2 2

S=0.0008236

L=
2g(
v 22 v 21
+ d 2 −( +d 1)
2g )
S 0−S

( 0.107+1.5 )−(0.154+1.25)
L=
0.0021−0.0008236

L=159.04 m

4. Water is flowing uniformly in a finished-concrete channel of trapezoidal cross

section with a bottom width of 0.8 m, trapezoid angle of 50°, and a bottom angle
of 0.4°. If the flow depth is measured to be 0.52 m, determine the flow rate of
water through the channel.

Given:
Width bottom= 0.8m
Angle= 50°
Depth= 0.52m
Solution:

(
Area= b+
y
tan θ
y )
(
A= 0.8+
0.52
tan 50°
(0.52) )
2
A=0.643 m
 2y
Wetted Perimeter=b+
sin θ
2 × 0.52
P=0.8+
sin 50°
P=2.158 m

To find the velocity,

A 0.643
R= = =0.298
P 2.158
n=0.013
1 2 /3 1/ 2
v= R S
n

( )
2/ 3
1 0.643
v= ¿¿
0.013 2.158
v=2.867 m/s

Finally, to find the flow rate through the channel,

Q= Av
Q=(0.643)(2.867)
3
Q=1.84 m /s

5. Water flows in a circular channel which are made of unfinished concrete with the
diameter of 500 mm and the bottom slope of 0.005 m/m. Find the velocity and
flow rate if the channel is half full.
Given:
D= 500mm
Bottom slope= 0.005m

Solution:
2
πr
Area=
2
A=(3.14)¿ ¿
2
A=0.09813 m

2 πr
Wetted Perimeter=
2
P=πr
P=(3.14)(250 /1000)
P=0.785 m

To find the discharge,

A 0.09813
R= = =0.125
P 0.785
n=0.017 for unfinished concrete

1 2 /3 1/ 2
v= R S
n

( )
2/ 3
1 0.09813 1/ 2
v= (0.005)
0.017 0.785
v=1.04 m/s

Q= Av
Q= ( 0.09813 )( 1.04 )
Q=0.102m3 / s

6. Water flows uniformly in a wide rectangular channel. For given flow depth and
velocity, it is to be determined whether the flow is laminar or turbulent, and
whether it is sub-critical or super-critical.
Given:

v= 1.5m/s

y= 0.16m

Solution:

ρVy
ℜ=
μ

3
(998 kg /m )(1.5 m/s)(0.16 m)
ℜ= −3
1.002 x 10 kg /ms

ℜ=2.390 x 105

2.390x105 is greater than the critical value of 500 and therefore, the flow is
turbulent.

V
Fr=
√ gy
1.5 m/s
Fr=
√(9.81 m/s 2)(0.16 m)
Fr=1.20

1.20 is greater than 1 and therefore, the flow is supercritical.

7. Rain water flows on a concrete surface. For given values of flow depth and
velocity, it is to be determined whether the flow is subcritical or supercritical.
Given:

v= 1.3m/s

y= 0.02m

Solution:

V
Fr=
√ gy

1.3 m/ s
Fr=
√(9.81 m/s 2)(0.02 m)
Fr=2.93

2.93 is greater than 1 and therefore, the flow is supercritical.

Uniform flow in open channels is that the velocity of flow in a channel is not
constant throughout the channel, but instead varies based on the depth of flow. This is
known as the "velocity distribution" and it is a parabolic shape.

If the flow within the system is blocked or runs into an opening, the pressure
immediately drops.

Did you know that a uniform flow is said to occur when size and shape of the
cross section in a particular length remains constant.
 Shear stress in open channels is the force per unit area acting on the channel
bed or banks that is parallel to the flow direction. It is caused by the friction between the
flowing fluid and the channel bed or banks. The shear stress is an important factor in
determining the stability of the channel and the potential for erosion.

Figure 8.4.1 Shear Stress Diagram

In open channels, the shear stress is influenced by several factors such as the
velocity of the flow, the roughness of the channel bed and banks, and the properties of
the fluid. The velocity of the flow is directly proportional to the shear stress, so as the
velocity increases, the shear stress also increases. The roughness of the channel bed
and banks affects the shear stress by increasing the amount of friction between the fluid
and the channel. The properties of the fluid, such as viscosity and density, also affect
the shear stress.

The shear stress can be calculated using the following equation:

2
Cd∗ρ∗u
τ=
2

where τ is the shear stress, Cd is the drag coefficient, a dimensionless number that
accounts for the roughness of the channel bed and banks and the properties of the fluid,
ρ is the density of the fluid, u is the velocity of the flow.

The drag coefficient (Cd ) depends on the roughness of the channel bed and
banks and the properties of the fluid, and can be determined experimentally or through
the use of empirical formulas. The most common formula used to calculate the drag
coefficient is the Manning equation, which is based on the roughness of the channel
bed and banks.

Manning equation:

2 1
1
V =( )¿ R 3 ¿ S 2
n
 Where V is the mean velocity of the flow (m/s), n is the Manning roughness
coefficient, a dimensionless number that accounts for the roughness of the channel bed
and banks, R is the hydraulic radius (m), S is the slope of the water surface (m/m).

In open channel flow, the shear stress is important for several reasons. It affects
the velocity and discharge of the flow, which are important for navigation and irrigation.
It also affects the stability of the channel and the potential for erosion. Engineers and
hydrologists use shear stress to design and analyze open channels to ensure the safety
and stability of the channel.

Erosion is another important aspect of shear stress in open channels. Erosion

occurs when the shear stress exceeds the strength of the channel bed or banks,
causing the material to erode and be transported downstream. Erosion can lead to the
widening and deepening of the channel, which can cause changes in the flow pattern
and the stability of the channel. Engineers and hydrologists use shear stress to design
and analyze open channels to prevent erosion and ensure the stability of the channel.

Shear stress can also be affected by the flow regime in the open channel. For
example, in uniform flow, the velocity and discharge are constant along the cross-
section of the channel at any given point along the channel. The discharge, or the
volume of water flowing past a given point per unit time, is also constant. This flow
regime is ideal for navigation and irrigation as the flow rate is predictable.

In conclusion, shear stress is an important aspect of open channel flow that

affects the velocity and discharge of the flow, the stability of the channel, and the
potential for erosion. Engineers and hydrologists use shear stress to design and
analyze open channels to ensure the safety and stability of the channel. Factors that
affect the shear stress include the velocity of the flow, the roughness of the channel bed
and banks, and the properties of the fluid. Understanding the shear stress in open
channels is essential for the design, analysis, and maintenance of open channels for
various purposes such as irrigation, flood control, and navigation.
1. A trapezoidal channel has a base width of 3 m, a top width of 2 m, a depth of 1.5 m,
and is filled with water. The slope of the energy grade line is 0.002 and the Manning
roughness coefficient is 0.02. The channel is flowing with a velocity of 0.04 m/s.

What is the shear stress at the bottom of the channel?

Solution:

The shear stress at the bottom of the channel

can be determined by using the equation:

2
(γ∗v )
τ=
(2∗R)

First, we need to calculate the hydraulic radius (R):

A
R= =
( 2)
1
(b + b ) h
1 2

( b +b +2 ( ))
P h
1 2
n

Where: b 1= bottom width = 3m, b 2= top width = 2m, h = depth = 1.5m, n =

Manning roughness coefficient = 0.02

A
Substituting the values into the equation: R= =
( 2)
1
( 3+ 2 ) 1.5

( 3+2+2 (
0.02 )
P 1.5
)

R=2.25

2
(1000∗0.04 )
Now we can substitute the values into the shear stress equation: τ =
(2∗2.25)

N
τ =6.67
m2

N
So the shear stress at the bottom of the channel is 6.67 .
m2
 Note: please use the density of the fluid in the problem, in this case is water
(1000 kg/m³)

2. Water flows uniformly in a rectangular, concrete, open channel that is 10m wide at a
depth of 3m and hydraulic radius of 1.875m. The channel slope is 0.0025. Using
n=0.013, find the boundary shear stress.
Given:
W= 10m
Depth= 3m
r= 1.875m
n=0.013
Solution:

τ =γRS

τ =9810 ( 1.875 ) (0.0025)

τ =45.98 Pa

3. Determine the shear stress of a 7m wide at a depth of 4.5 m rectangular concrete. It

has a channel slope of 0.0025.
Given:
w= 7m
depth= 4.5m
Solution:

τ =γRS

A 7 ( 4.5 )
R= = =1.969 m
P 7+ 4.5(2)

τ =9810 ( 1.969 ) (0.0025)

τ =48.29 Pa

4. A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6 m and side slopes of 2 horizontal to 1

vertical. If the depth of flow is 1.2 m and the flow is 20.40 m 3 /sec,
(a) Compute the specific energy.
(b) Compute the slope of the channel if n = 0.014.
(c) Compute the average shearing stress at the boundary.
Given:
Bottom width= 6m
Depth= 1.2m
Q= 20.40 m3 /sec
n = 0.014
Solution:
3
Q=20.4 m /s
1 2
A=6 ( 1.2 )+ ( 2.4 ) (1.2 ) ×2=10.08 m
2

[ ]
υ=
Q
A
20.4
υ= =2.0238 m/s
10.08
2
( a ) Specific energy , H= υ +d
2g
2.02382
¿ +1.2
2 ( 9.81 )
Specific energy , H=1.409 m

( b ) Slope:
1
υ= R 2/3 S1 /2
n
A
R=
P
10.08
¿
6+2 ( 2.683 )
R=0.8868 m
1
2.0238= ( 0.8868 )2 /3 S 1/ 2
0.014
S=0.00094 → Slope

( c ) Shearing stress :
Ss =γRS
¿ 9.81 ( 0.8868 ) ( 0.00094 )
¿ 0.00818 kPa
 Ss =8.18 Pa

5. Water flows uniformly in a rectangular, concrete, open channel that is 10 m wide at a

depth of 3 m. The channel slope is 0.0025. Using n = 0.013, find the velocity, flow rate,
and the boundary shear stress.
Given:
w= 10m
depth= 3m
n= 0.013
Solution:
1 2/3 1 /2
υ= R S
n
2
A=10 (3 )=30 m
2
P=10+ 3 ( 2 ) =16 m
R=A / P
R=30/16=1.875 m
(a) Velocity
1
υ= ( 1.875 )2 /3 ( 0.0025 )1/ 2
0.013
υ=5.848 m/s

(b) Flow Rate

[ Q= Aυ ]
Q=30 ( 5.848 )
Q=175.45 m3 /s

(c) Boundary Shear Stress

[τ=γRS ]
τ =9810 ( 1.875 ) ( 0.0025 )
τ =45.98 Pa

6. A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6 m and side slopes of 2 horizontal to

3
m
1 vertical. If the depth of flow is 1.2 m and the flow is 20.40 , compute the average
sec
shearing stress at the boundary.
Given:

Bottom width= 6m

Depth= 1.2m

m3
Q= 20.40
sec

Solution:

A
R=
P

10.08
¿
6+2 ( 2.683 )

R=0.8868 m

2 1
1
2.0238= ( 0.8868) 3 S 2
0.014

S=0.0094 → Slope

Ss =γRS

¿ 9.81 ( 0.8868 ) ( 0.00094 )

¿ 0.00818 kPa

Ss =8.18 Pa

7. Water flows uniformly in a rectangular, concrete, open channel that is 10 m wide at a

depth of 3 m. The channel slope is 0.0025. Using n = 0.0013, find the velocity, flow rate,
and the boundary shear stress.
Given:
W= 10m
Depth= 3m
n= 0.0013

Solution:

2
A=10 (3 )=30 m

2
P=10+ 3 ( 2 ) =16 m

A
R=
P

30
R= =1.875 m
16

τ =γRS

τ =9810 ( 1.875 ) ( 0.0025 )

τ =45.98 Pa

Shear stress in open channels is that the shear stress is directly proportional to
the slope of the water surface and the weight of water above the point where the shear
stress is being measured. This means that the greater the slope of the water surface,
and the greater the weight of water, the greater the shear stress will be.

Shear stress in open channels is a measure of the frictional force exerted by the
fluid on the channel bed and banks. One fun fact about shear stress in open channels is
that it is directly proportional to the velocity of the fluid and the wetted perimeter of the
channel, and inversely proportional to the depth of the channel. This relationship is
known as the Chezy equation.
 When the slope of the water surface and the slope of the channel bottom are the
same and the water depth is constant, the depth of flow in a channel or culvert is said to
be at its normal depth. When the friction drag along the culvert is equal to the
gravitational pull of the water and there is no flow acceleration, the depth is normal.
Water flows normally at its natural depth in culverts when it is not influenced by the
intake and outlet tail water. For culverts installed at horizontal or steep slopes, the
normal depth is not known.

Since the flow is uniform, the depth and discharge are related through Manning’s
equation with Sf = So.

The normal depth is a decent indication of the actual depth of flow of the channel
segment. This is computed through the use of iterative approach which satisfies the
Manning’s equation:

2 1
φ
Q= A Rh3 S 2o
n

2 1
1.49
Q= A Rh3 S o2
n
1. Calculate the normal depth for a channel that has a slope of 0.1%, n=0.03 and flow
rate of 250cfs. The channel has the following geometry:

1
3 dn =?

Given:

n=0.03

Q= 250cfs

Solution:

A=[b+ zd ]d

P=b+2 d √1+ z
2

2 1
1.49
Q= A Rh3 S o2
n

5
3 1
1.49 [(5+3 d n ) d n]
250= { }(0.001) 2
0.03 2

[(5+ 2d n √ 1+ 3 )]
2 3

d n=4.58
2. A rectangular concrete channel, 18m wide is to carry water at the rate of 25m 3/sec. If
the channel has a slope of 0.00025, what is the normal depth of flow. Use roughness
coefficient n=0.013.

b=18m

Given:

W= 18m

Q= 25m3/sec

n=0.013

Solution:

2 1
1
Q= A R 3 S 2
n

A=15 d

A
R=
P

15 d
R=
(15+2 d)

2 1
1 15 d
25=(15 d )( )[ ]3 (0.00025)2
0.013 (15+2 d)

d=1.29m
3. A triangular V-notch steel channel, with vertex angle of 60֯. The water flows at a
velocity of 1.2 m/s. Find the normal depth of flow if the channel is laid on a slope of
0.0017. Use C

Figure 8.5.1
Given:
v= 1.2m/s
n=0.013
Solution:

1 2 /3 1/ 2
v= R S
n

1
A= ¿
2

2
A=d tan 60 ֯

P=2 d sec 60 ֯

2
A d tan 60 ֯
R= =
P 2 d sec 60 ֯

R=0.433 d

1 2/ 3 1/ 2
1.2= (0.433 d ) (0.0017)
0.014

d=0.601m
4. A trapezoidal flume with side slope of 1:1 carries 225 ffs of water at a mean velocity
of 3 ft/s. The canal is laid on a slope of -0.0002 with n = 0.015. Determine the normal
depth of the canal in feet.

Given:
v= 3ft/s
n = 0.015
Solution:
Q= Av
Q= A (3)
2 2
A=75 ft =6.97 m
2
A=bd+ d → Eq.(1)

1 2/3 1 /2
υ= R S
n
υ=3 ft /s=0.915 m/s
1 2/ 3 1 /2
0.915= R (0.0002)
0.015
R=0.956 m
A 6.97
R= = =0.956
P b+ 2 √ 2 d
b=7.29−2.828 d → Eq.( 2)

Substitute b in Eq .(2) to Eq .(1):

2
6.97=(7.29−2.828 d)d +d
2
6.97=7.29 d−1.828 d
2
0=1.828 d −7.29 d +6.97
d=1.59m
d=5.22 feet
5. An open channel has a rectangular cross-section with a width of 3 meters and a
depth of 2 meters. The channel is flowing with a velocity of 1.5 m/s and a discharge
of 12 m3/s. Determine if the channel is in a state of normal depth or not.
Given:
w= 3m
depth= 2m
v= 1.5m/s
Q= 12 m3/s
Solution:
The normal depth of an open channel can be
calculated using the formula:
1
Discharge ( 3 ) () 2

Normal Depth=( ) ∗(Velocity 3 )

Width
Substituting the given values into the formula:
m3 ( 13 )
12
s ( 23 )
Normal Depth=( ) ∗(1.5 )
3m

( 13 ) m
Normal Depth=(4 m )∗(1.22 )
s

Normal Depth=1.22 m

To determine if the channel is in a state of normal depth, we need to compare the

calculated normal depth to the actual depth of the channel. if Normal depth = actual
depth, then the channel is in a state of normal depth.

In this case, the actual depth of the channel is 2 meters, and the calculated
normal depth is 1.22 meters. So, the channel is not in a state of normal depth.
 A fun fact about normal depth in open channels is that it is closely related to the
concept of specific energy. Specific energy is a measure of the energy per unit weight of
fluid and is used to determine the minimum specific energy at a specific point in an open
channel. This point is known as the normal depth and is the depth at which the specific
energy is at a minimum. The normal depth is often used as a design point in the
construction of open channels, as it represents the most energy-efficient and stable flow
condition.

The origins of hydraulics can be traced back as far as the 6000 BC, where
waterpower was used by ancient Mesopotamians and Egyptians for irrigation.

A "normal depth" is a measurement of the depth of water in a river or stream,

taken at a point where the water is flowing smoothly and steadily. The normal depth is
often used as a reference point for measuring changes in water level caused by floods
or other events.
 Open-channel systems are often intended to carry a liquid at a predetermined
pace under the effect of gravity to a lower elevation at the lowest feasible cost. Given
that no energy is required, the cost of an open-channel system is essentially comprised
of the initial construction cost, which is proportionate to the system's physical size. As a
result, for a given channel length, the perimeter of the channel represents the system
cost, and it should be kept to a minimum in order to decrease the system size and
consequently, the expense.

Figure 8.6.1. Several types of channel cross-sections.

From another viewpoint, the Manning formula gives the flow velocity for a specific
channel geometry with a certain bottom slope and surface lining (and hence the
roughness coefficient n). These are sections, also known as the most economical
sections, which for a given slope S, channel cross-sectional area A , and roughness n ,
the rate of discharge is a maximum. From Manning formula,
1 2/ 3 1 /2
Q= A R S
n
As a result, it can be seen that with A , n , and S constant, Q is maximum when
the hydraulic radius R is maximum, and since R=A / P, then R is maximum if n is
minimum. Thus, we conclude the following:
 The best hydraulic cross section for an open channel is the one with the
maximum hydraulic radius or, equivalently, the one with the minimum wetted
perimeter for a specified cross-sectional area.

As a motivational example, let us suppose that you are required to design a

rectangular canal to have a cross-sectional area of 8 sq. m. The possible dimensions
(width x depth) are as follows:
b = 8m, d = 1m; perimeter = 10 m
b = 2m, d = 4m; perimeter = 10 m
b = 1m, d = 8m; perimeter = 17 m
b = 4m, d = 2m; perimeter = 8 m
Of these dimensions, it can be seen that the size 4m x 2m has the least perimeter;
hence it is the most efficient.

PROPORTIONS FOR MOST EFFICIENT SECTIONS

To obtain the proportions for most efficient cross sections, minimize the perimeter with
the cross-sectional area constant.

Rectangular Channels

Figure 8.6.2. Rectangular channel cross-section.

Assume a liquid flow in a rectangular open channel with width b and flow depth d. At a
flow section, the cross-sectional area and the wetted perimeter are given by
Area , A=bd and Perimeter , P=b+2 d
From these equations, we derive
b= A/d
A
P= +2 d
d
Now, we apply the principle that the hydraulic cross section with the least amount of
wetted perimeter for a given cross sectional area is the optimum one for an open
channel. So, if we maintain A constant and take the derivative of P with respect to d ,
then we get
dP −A ( 1 )
= +2=0
dd d2
A
2
=2
d
2
A=2 d
2
bd=2 d
b=2 d

To find the hydraulic radius R , we use the equations

A d2
R= =
P b+ 2d
d2
R=
2 d +2 d
R=d /2

From these, it is important to learn that to reduce flow resistance or to increase flow rate
for a given cross-sectional area, a rectangular open channel should be built so that the
liquid height is half the channel width. This also reduces the perimeter and, as a result,
the construction costs.

Trapezoidal Channels

Figure 8.6.3. Trapezoidal channel cross-section.

In reality, many man-made water channels are trapezoidal in shape rather than round or
rectangular. Consider the flow of liquid in an open channel with a trapezoidal cross
section with a bottom width b, a flow depth d, and a trapezoidal angle measured from
the horizontal. The wetted perimeter and the cross-sectional area at a flow section are
Perimeter , P=b+2 y=b+2 d sec θ → Eq.(1)

Area , A=bd+
[ 1
2 ]
d tanθ ( d ) x 2

2
A=bd+ d tan θ
bd= A−d 2 tan θ
A
b= −d tan θ → Eq .(2)
d
In Eq .(1),
A
P= −d tanθ+ 2 d secθ → Eq. (3)
d

By partial differentiation,
∂P −A
= 2 −tan θ+2 sec θ=0
∂d d
A
=2 sec θ−tan θ
d2
A=¿
In Eq .(3),
P=¿¿
P=2 ¿

For the hydraulic radius R ,

A
R= =¿¿
P
R=d /2

Referring to the figure given above,

x=b+ 2 y
x=b+ 2 d tanθ → Eq .(5)
but
A
b= −d tan θ=¿¿ ¿ ¿
d
b=2 d secθ−d tanθ−d tan θ
 b=2 d secθ−2 d tan θ
In Eq .(5),
x=2 d sec θ−2 d tan θ+2 d tan θ
x=2 d sec θ= y
x=2 y

Therefore, the most efficient trapezoidal section (including the rectangle) has its top
width ( x ) equal to the sum of the sides (2 y ), which is a proportion for a half-hexagon.

From Eq .(2),
∂P 2
=0−d sec θ+2 d tan θ+2 d sec θ tan θ=0
∂θ
sec θ=2 tan θ
1 sinθ
=2
cos θ cos θ
1
sin θ=
2
θ=30°
This demonstrates that the half-regular hexagon is the most efficient trapezoidal section
(all sides are equal). This is not surprising given that a hexagon closely resembles a
circle and that a half-hexagon has the smallest perimeter per unit cross-sectional area
of any trapezoidal channel.

Triangular Channels

Figure 8.6.4. Triangular channel cross-section.

Consider the flow of liquid in an open channel with a triangle cross section, a flow depth
d, and a horizontal angle θ . The wetted perimeter and the cross-sectional area at a flow
section are
Perimeter , P=2 d sec(θ /2)
1
Area, A= × 2 d tan(θ/2)× d
2
 2
A=d tan(θ /2)
A
tan (θ/2)= 2
d

sec (θ/ 2)¿

√ A 2+ d 4
2
d
then;
P=2 d sec(θ/2)

P=2 d √ A2 + d 4 ¿ 2 √ A 2 +d 4 .
d2 d

dP 4 d3 −¿ √ A 2+ d 4
=2 d =0 ¿
dd 2 √ A 2+ d 4 d2
4
2d
=√ A +d
2 4

√ A +d
2 4

4 2 4
2 d =A +d
2 4
A =d
A=d 2

From the equation earlier,

A
tan (θ/2)= 2
d
2
d
tan(θ/ 2)= =1
d2
θ /2=45 °
θ=90 °
Therefore, the most efficient triangular cross section is the 90° V-notch.
1. In the given concrete channel, the flow rate of the water is 25 m 3/s. Find the
required vertical drop of the channel bottom per kilometer of length. Use n=0.013

Figure 8.6.1
Given:
Q= 25 m3/s
n=0.013
Solution:
1 2/ 3 1 /2
Q= A R S
n
1
A=2.5 ( 4 )− ( 2 )( 2 )
2
2
A=8 m

P=2.5+ 2+ √ 22 +22 +0.5

P=7.828 m

A 8
R= =
P 7.828

R=1.02m
 1
25=(8) (1.02)2/ 3 S1 /2
0.013
S=0.00160738
S=1.607 m per kilometer lenght

2. A circular concrete sewer with 0.8 radius and flowing half-full is laid on a slope of
4m per 5 km. Determine the discharge.
Given:
r= 0.8
slope= 4m per 5km
Solution:
For concrete lining, n=0.013
1 2/ 3 1 /2
Q= A R S
n
For semi-circular section, R= r/2

( )( )
2 1
1 2 1 0.8 4
Q= π ( 0.8 ) x 3 2
2 0.013 2 5000

3
Q=1.187 m / s

3. . A rectangular canal, 6. 5 m wide and 1.4 m deep lined with smooth stone (n =
0.013) has a hydraulic slope of 0.001. What savings in earth excavation and lining
per meter length of canal could have been affected by using the best proportion of
rectangular canal section but adhering to the same discharge and slope?
Given:
W= 6.5m
Depth= 1.4m
n= 0.013
Solution:
For the original canal:

1 2/ 3 1 /2
Q= A R S
n
 ( )
2/ 3
1 6.5× 1.4
Q= ( 6.5× 1.4 ) ( 0.001 )1 /2
0.013 6.5+2 ×1.4
Q=21.81m3 / s (design capacity )

Using the most efficient rectangular section with Q=21.81m3 / s∧S=0.001

R=d / 2
A=2 d2
1
Q=( 2 d )
2
( d /2 )2 /3 ( 0.001 )1/2 =21.81
0.013
8 /3
d =7.116
d=2.087 m
b=2 d=2 ( 2.018 )=4.174 m

Savings per meter length:

Excavation=Volume original−Volume most efficient
¿ ( 6.5 ) ( 1.4 ) ( 1 )−( 4.174)(2.087)(1)
3
Excavation=0.389 m per m length of canal

Lining=Lining original−Lining most efficient

¿ [ 6.5+2 ( 1.4 ) ] ( 1 )−[4.174+2 ( 2.087 ) ](1)
2
Lining=0.952m per meter length of canal
2. Show that for a circular section, the point of maximum discharge is when the depth d
is 93.8% of the diameter.

Given:
Depth= 93.8% of diameter
Solution:
1 2/ 3 1 /2
Q= A R S =KAR 2 /3
n
A=1/2r 2 [ ( 360−θ )r +sin θ]
P=r (360−θ)r
1/2r 2 [( 360−θ )r +sin θ]
R=A / P=
r (360−θ)
(360−θ ) +sin θ
R=1/2 r
360−θ

2/3
Q=KA R

{ }[ ]
2 /3
1 2 2 ( 360−θ ) +sin θ
Q=K r [ ( 360−θ ) +sin θ ] ( 1/2 ) r
2 360−θ
5 /3
[ ( 2 π −θ ) +sin θ ]
( )( ) ( 2 π −θ)
2 /3
1 2 1 2
Q=K r r
2 2 2 /3

Let C=K ( r )( r )
2/ 3
1 1 2 2
2 2
5 /3

Q=C
[ ( 2 π −θ ) +sin θ ]
2 /3
( 2 π−θ )
5 2/ 3

dQ
( 2 π −θ )2/ 3
3
[ ( 2 π−θ )+ sinθ ] (−1+ cos θ)
=C
dθ [ ( 2 π −θ )2 /3 ]
2
 5 /3 2
[ ( 2 π −θ ) +sin θ ) 3
( 2 π −θ )−1 /3 (−1 )
−C 2
=0
[ ( 2 π −θ )2 /3 ]
5 ( 2 π −θ ) ( 2 π−θ +sin θ )2/ 3 ( cos θ−1 ) +2 ( 2 π −θ+sin θ )5 /3 =0
( 2 π −θ+sin θ )2 /3 [ 5 ( 2 π−θ )( cos θ−1 ) +2 ( 2 π −θ+sin θ ) ] =0
5 ( 2 π cos θ−2 π −θ cos θ+θ )+ 4 π−2θ+2 sin θ=0
10 π cos θ−10 π−5 θ cos θ+ 5θ+ 4 π−28+2 sinθ=0
10 π cos θ−6 π −5θ cos θ+3 θ+2 sinθ=0

Solving for θ by trial∧error :

θ=57.6 °
Then :
d= D/ 2+ ( D /2 ) cos (θ/2)
d= D/ 2[1+cos (57.6 ° /2 ) ]
d=0.938 D

4. An open channel has a rectangular cross-section with a width of 3 meters and

variable depth. The channel is flowing with a velocity of 1.5 m/s and a discharge
of 12 m3/s. Determine the most efficient section of the channel in terms of ratio of
discharge to wetted perimeter.

Given:

w= 3m

v= 1.5m/s

Q= 12 m3/s

Solution:

The ratio of discharge to wetted perimeter is a measure

of the efficiency of an open channel section. The most efficient
section of a channel has the highest ratio of discharge to
wetted perimeter.

To find the most efficient section of the channel, we

need to calculate the ratio of discharge to wetted perimeter for different depths of the
channel.

The wetted perimeter of a rectangular open channel can be calculated using the
formula:
 Wetted perimeter=2( Depth+ Width)

The ratio of discharge to wetted perimeter can be calculated using the formula:

Discharge
Ratio=
Wetted perimeter

Let's assume the depth of the channel varies from 1 meter to 2 meter at
increments of 0.1 meter.

 For a depth of 1.0 meters:

Wetted perimeter=2 ( 1.0+3 ) =8

12
Ratio= =1.5
8

 For a depth of 1.1 meters:

Wetted perimeter=2 ( 1.1+3 )=8.2

12
Ratio= =1.46
8.2

 For a depth of 1.2 meters:

Wetted perimeter=2 ( 1.2+3 )=8.4

12
Ratio= =1.43
8.4

 For a depth of 1.3 meters:

Wetted perimeter=2 ( 1.3+3 ) =8.6

12
Ratio= =1.4
8.6

 For a depth of 1.4 meters:

Wetted perimeter=2 ( 1.4+3 )=8.8

12
Ratio= =1.36
8.8

 For a depth of 1.5 meters:

Wetted perimeter=2 ( 1.5+3 ) =9

 12
Ratio= =1.33
9

 For a depth of 1.6 meters:

Wetted perimeter=2 ( 1.6+3 ) =9.2

12
Ratio= =1.3
9.2

 For a depth of 1.7 meters:

Wetted perimeter=2 ( 1.7+3 )=9.4

12
Ratio= =1.28
9.4

 For a depth of 1.8 meters:

Wetted perimeter=2 ( 1.8+3 ) =9.6

12
Ratio= =1.25
9.6

 For a depth of 1.9 meters:

Wetted perimeter=2 ( 1.9+3 ) =9.8

12
Ratio= =1.22
9.8

 For a depth of 2.0 meters:

Wetted perimeter=2 ( 2.0+3 ) =10

12
Ratio= =1.2
10

From the above calculations, it can be seen that the ratio of discharge to wetted
perimeter is highest at a depth of 1.0 meters. Therefore, the most efficient section of the
channel is at a depth of 1.0 meters.
 A circle is the shape having the smallest
perimeter per unit area. As a result, the best
cross section for an open channel is a
semicircular one based on least flow resistance.

However, it is normally less expensive to build an open channel with straight

sides (such as trapezoidal or rectangular cross sections) rather than a semicircular one,
and the general shape of the channel can be determined in advance. As a result,
analyzing each geometric shape separately for the optimal cross section makes sense.
 The flow velocity varies from one location to another in a channel section. This is
owing to shear stress at the channel's bottom and sides, as well as the presence of a
free surface. Figure 8.7.1 below depicts the typical velocity distributions in various
channel cross sections.

Figure 8.7.1. Velocity distribution in different channel sections.

Because of friction at the boundary, the observed velocity in an open channel will
always vary across the channel portion. Due to the presence of the free surface, this
velocity distribution is not frequently axisymmetric (as it is in pipe flow). The maximum
velocity should be found at the free surface where the shear force is zero, but this is not
the case. The greatest velocity is frequently found immediately beneath the surface.

The presence of secondary currents that circulate from the channel margins
towards the channel center may explain the depression of the point of maximum
velocity below the free surface. Extensive experiments on velocity distributions have
established the presence of such secondary currents, and recent theoretical research
on three-dimensional turbulence have shed light on the mechanisms that enable them
to occur.
Energy Coefficient α
As previously established, the flow velocity in a channel section typically changes
from one point to another. As a result, the mean velocity head in a channel segment,
2 2
(V /2 g)m , differs from the velocity head, V m / (2 g), derived by utilizing the mean flow
velocity, V m, where the subscript m refers to the mean values. This difference can be
accounted for by introducing an energy coefficient, which is also known as the
velocity head or Coriolis coefficient.

Figure 8.7.2. Typical river cross section.

Figure 8.7.2 depicts a typical cross section of a natural river, which includes the
main river channel and the flood plain on either side of the main channel. Flow velocity
in the floodplain is typically much lower than in the main segment. Furthermore, the
variance in flow velocity is minor in each subdivision. As a result, the flow velocity in
each subsection can be assumed to be constant throughout. In this scenario, the
formula below is applied.

α=
∫ 3
u dA V 31 A 1+V 32 A2 +V 33 A 3
=
3 3
V A V ( A ¿ ¿ 1+ A2 + A3 ) ¿
where
Q V 1 A 1+ V 2 A2 +V 3 A 3
V= =
A A 1 + A 2 + A3

For a wider case in which total area A can be partitioned into N such subareas,
each with uniform velocity, an equation similarly patterned to the previous one may be
stated as follows:
N
α =∑ (V i A i ¿)∙ ¿¿ ¿
3

i=1

Momentum Coefficient β
To account for nonuniform velocity distribution, a momentum transfer coefficient
over a channel segment, similar to the energy coefficient, may be introduced. This
coefficient, also known as the Boussinesq coefficient, is represented by the symbol β.
The following expression can be used to express this.

β=
∫ V 2 dA
V m∫ dA
2

The energy and momentum coefficients (α and β) for a channel can only be calculated if
the velocity distribution has been measured. In contrast, pipe flow has theoretical
velocity distributions for both laminar and turbulent flow, allowing for direct integration of
the defining equations.

For turbulent flow in normal channels, α rarely reaches 1.15 and even less frequently
exceeds 1.05. As a result, these coefficients are typically disregarded in the
computations since its value is not precisely known and it is nearly equal to unity.
However, in irregular channels where the flow can divide into multiple zones, α may
surpass 2 and should thus be considered in flow estimations.

Table 8.7.1. Values of α and β for typical sections.

Factors Affecting Velocity Distribution in Open Channels

Velocity distribution in open channels is mainly depends upon the following factors.

1. Shape of the Channel Section

Open channels can arise naturally or artificially. While artificial channels are
supplied with certain intended shapes like rectangular, circular, trapezoidal,
triangular, etc., natural open channels are provided with no specific shape and
contain uneven parts.

2. Roughness of Channel

The roughness of a channel is the degree of frictional resistance provided by the

channel bed material against the flow of water. Flow velocity in natural channels
is influenced by the presence of big angular rocks as bed material, vegetation,
impediments, and so on. The roughness of a channel consisting of smooth clay
 or silt is very minimal, and water flows quicker. Smooth finishing is essential in
the case of artificial channels in order to maintain the requisite flow velocity.

3. Alignment of Channel

The velocity of flow in a channel is also affected by channel alignment. There will
be no change in velocity with regard to alignment if the channel is straight.
Maximum velocity in straight channels occurs about 0.05 to 0.15 m depth from
the free water surface. The velocity will fluctuate around bends if the path is
sinuous or meandering. The velocity increases on the convex side of the curve
due to the centrifugal effect of the flow.

4. Slope of Channel Bed

The velocity of flow in open channels is also affected by the slope of the channel
bed or the gradient of the channel. Velocity rises at higher slopes while
decreasing at regular grades.

1. An open-channel flow with depth h has a velocity profile V(z) as shown in the figure
below. The channel has width b normal the page.

dz

Solution:

1
z
V (z )=V max ( ) 3
h

Determine the average velocity V in terms of Vmax.

dA=v dz

moment of area=[v (z)dz ](z )

∫ v ( z ) dz( z )
0
z= h

∫ v( z) dz
0

h
z 13
∫ max h ) (z) dz
v (
0
z= h 1
z
∫ v max ( h )3 dz
0

h
v max
z=( 1
)∫ ¿ ¿ ¿
3 0
h

7 4
4 −
z= h 3 3
7

4
z= h
7

Vavg occurs at 4/7 h from base.

z 13
v avg=V max ( )
h
1
4 3
h
7
v avg=V max ( )
h

v avg=0.83 v max

2. A rectangular open channel with a width of 4m and a depth of 2m is carrying a steady

flow of water with a discharge of 120 m3/s. Determine the velocity distribution in the
channel.

Given:
w= 4m

Depth= 2m

Q= 120 m3/s

Solution:

First, calculate the mean velocity of the flow using the discharge formula:

Q=V ∗A

In this case,

2
A=4 m∗2 m=8 m

So,

Q 120 m3
V= = 2
=15 m/ s
A 8m

Next, use the Chezy's equation to determine the velocity distribution. Chezy's equation
is:

( 12 ) 1
( )
2
V =C∗R ∗S

We know the mean velocity (V) and the slope of the channel (S) is zero, so we can
rearrange the equation to solve for the Chezy coefficient (C),

V
C= 1
( )
R 2

Now that we have C, we can use it to determine the velocity distribution at any point in
the channel.

D
R=
2

So for this problem,

2
R= =1 m
2

And the velocity distribution will be:

( 12 )
m (2 )
1

V =C∗R =15 ∗1 =15 m/s

s

Therefore, the velocity distribution in the channel is 15 m/s .

3. . The top width and the depth of flow in a triangular channel were measured as 4 m
and 1 m, respectively. The measured velocities on the center line at the water surface,
0.2m and 0.8 m below the surface are 0.7 m/s, 0.6m/s and 0.4m/s, respectively. Using
two-point method of velocity measurement, the discharge (in m3 /s ) in the channel is
___.

SOLUTION
As per the two-point method of velocity measurement,
V 0.2 +V 0.8
V mean=
2
0.6+ 0.4
V mean=
2
V mean=0.5 m/ s

To find the discharge,

Q= Av
Q=(1/2× 4 × 1)( 0.5)
3
Q=1 m /s

The velocity in open channel flow varies with depth. It

rises from zero at the channel's invert to a maximum value
that is very close to the water's surface. The flow resistance
at the bottom and sides of the channel causes the velocity
difference.
ALTERNATE STAGES OF FLOW

v2
At a given cross section the total specific energy is defined as H= + d , where
2g
d is depth. When solving for v, v=√ 2 g( H −d ) and for discharge, Q= A √2 g (H−d).

Froude Number

It is referred as the ratio of the inertia force to gravity force, and it is given by the
expression:

v
FN=
√ gL

While for the rectangular channel, L= depth of flow d.

v
FN=
√ gd

Critical Depth

The depth at which the minimum specific gravity occurs is called the Critical
Depth (d ¿¿ c )¿ .

On rectangular section:

2
dc= H
3
 For rectangular channel:

d c=
√
3 q2
g

Critical Slope

This is the slope required to have a uniform flow at critical depth, the equation for
critical slope (S¿¿ c )¿ for a wide rectangular channel is:

2
gn
Sc = 1
3
dc

Critical Depth on Any Section

2 3
Q A
=
g B

Where A and/or B, If variable, must be expressed in terms of d.

Critical Velocity

It is the speed and direction at which the flow of a liquid through a tube change
from smooth to turbulent. It can be solved using the formula below.

V C=
√ g Ac
Bc
Subcritical flow

Depths of flow greater than critical depths, resulting from relatively flat slopes.
Froude number is less than one, this type of flow is common in flat streams.

Supercritical flow

Depths of flow less than critical depths resulting from relatively steep slopes, the
velocity of flow is greater than critical velocity. Froude number is greater than one.

1. A flow of 8.0 m3 /sec is passing at a depth of 1.25 through a rectangular channel of

width 3 m. What is the specific energy of the flow? What is the value of the alternate
depth to the existing depth?

Given:

Q = 8.0 m3 /sec

H = 1.25 m

w=3m

Solution:

Q 8.0 m
V 1= = =2.13
A1 1.25 ( 3 ) s

V 12 2.13 2
= =0.23 m
2 g 19.62
2
V1
E 1= y 1 + =1.25+0.23=1.48 m
2g

For alternate depth,

 2
8.0
y2 +
2(9.81) ¿ ¿

Therefore ,

y 2=0.67 m

2. Identify whether the depth of the flow will increase, decrease or remain the same as
it proceeds downstream from a certain point which has a depth of 5 ft. Consider that
the flow is at 800 ft 3/s in a 7 ft wide rectangular channel with a bottom of uniform
slope. The Manning equation is determined to yield 9 ft as the normal depth of flow
for this certain flow rate.

Given:

q = 800 ft3/s

Solution:

d c=
√
3 q2
g

√
3 2
ft
800
s
3 ( )
10
dc=
ft
32.2 2
s

d c =5.84 m

Since the value of dc = 5.84 m is between the values of 5 ft and 9 ft.

Thus, the depth of the flow will increase.

3. A rectangular channel with a base width of 4 m carries 6.2 m 3/s of flow. If n = 0.011,
determine the critical depth, critical velocity, and critical slope.

Given:

Base, b = 4 m

Flow, Q = 6.2 m3/s

N = 0.011
 Solution:
2 1

√
2 A 3 2
q3 Q= R S
dc= n
g
2 1
A 3 2
Q Q= R Sc
q= n
b
Q
3 AC =
m VC
6.2
s
q=
4m m3
6.2
s
AC =
m
3
m
1.55 2.49
s s
q=
m
2
AC =2.49 m

√
2
( 1.55 )
3
dc=
9.81
PC =4 m+2 d C

d c =0.63m(critical depth) PC =4 m+2(0.63 m)

PC =5.26 m
V c= √ g d c

( )
2 1
m3 2.49 m2 2.49 m2 3
6.2 = S c2
V c = √ 9.81(0.63) s 0.011 5.26 m

m Sc =0.0023(critical slope)
V c =2.49 ( critical velocity)
s

4. The flow rate in a large rectangular channel dug from clean is 5.1 m 3/s per meter
width. Determine the minimum specific energy.

Given:

Flow rate, q = 5.1 m3/s

Solution:
 d c=
√
3 q2
g

√
2
3 ( 5.1 )
d c=
9.81

d c =1.38 m

2
V
E= +d
2g

2
Vc
Emin = +d c
2g

V c= √ g d c

V c = √( 9.81 ) (1.38)

m
V c =3.68
s

Emin =
( m 2
s
3.68 )
+1.38 m
m
2(9.81 2 )
s

Emin =2.07 m

5. A channel having a rectangular section and base width 5m carries a flow of 8.6m 3/s.
Find the critical depth, the critical velocity and the critical slope if n=0.024.

Given:
 w = 5m
Q = 8.6m3/s

Solution:

d c=
q2
g √ 3

Q
q=
b

8.6 m3
s
q=
5m
1.72
s
q=
m

√
2
3 (1.72)
dc=
9.81
d c =0.67 m

V c = √3 g d c
V c = √3 (9.81)(0.67)

V c =1.87 m/ s

2 1 2 1
A 3 2 A 3 2
Q= R S = R Sc
n n
Q
Ac =
Vc

m3
8.6
s
Ac =
m
1.87
s
2
Ac =4.60 m

Pc =5 m+2 d c
Pc =5 m+2 ( 0.67 m )
Pc =6.34 m
 [ ]
2 1
m 3 4.60m2 4.60m 2 3
8.6 = Sc2
s 0.024 6.34 m

Sc =0.0031

TRIVIA!
 An english engineer, William Froude whose expertise is about quantifying
resistance of floating objects is generally was the one who generally
created the idea of Froude Number.
 Always remeber that Froude Number (Fr) is greater than 1.0, flow is
supercritical; if it is under 1.0, flow is subcritical.
 Critical depth is an important value in hydraulic analysis because it is a
control in reaches of non-uniform flow whenever the flow changes from
subcritical to supercritical.
 Natural streams seldom flow uniformly due to variations in the depth, width, and
slope of the channel. Flow that varies in depth and velocity along the channel is called
non-uniform. Depending on the length of reach L taken, the Manning Equation for
uniform flow may be applied to non-uniform flow with varying degrees of precision. For
instance, the Manning Equation is one of the formulas for open channel flow that is
most frequently employed. As an alternative to the Chezy Equation, it was first
proposed in 1889 by Irish engineer Robert Manning. The channel velocity, flow area,
and channel slope are all factors in the empirical Manning equation, which deals with
uniform flow in open channels. In order to ensure that the variation in depth is nearly the
same within each reach, a long stream should be split into multiple reaches of various
lengths.

Thus, in basic terms, a non-uniform flow refers to a flow in which the parameters
and features change  and vary depending on the location along the flow path. A
steady flow through a pipe with bends or a variable-diameter pipe is a prime illustration
of an irregular
flow.
 Figure 8.9.1

As Illustrated in Figure 8.9.1

v 21 v 22
+d +S L= +d 2 + S L
2g 1 o 2g

So L−S L=
v 22
2g 2 (
+d −
v 21
2g 1
+d )( )

( )( )
2 2
v2 v1
+ d2 − +d
2g 2g 1
L= Equation8.9 .1
S o−S

H 2−H 1
L= Equation8.9 .2
So −S

S1 + S2
S=
2

Where: H = Specific Energy

2
v
H= +d
2g

L=¿ Length of reach

So =¿ Slope of channel bed

S1∧S2 =¿ Slope of energy grade line at section 1 and 2, respectively, computed

using Manning’s formula
Equation8.9 .3
2 2
n v 1
S1 = 4/ 3
R 1
Equation 8.9 .4

n2 v 22
S2=
R24 /3
 Non-uniform flows are also found in non-rectangular sections, thus, yielding to
the following equations:

Q2 h1 A 1−h2 A2
= Equation 8.9 .5
g 1 1
−
A 2 A1

( )( )
2 2
v1 v2 Equation8.9 .6
HL= + d1 − +d
2g 2g 2

Furthermore, considering trapezoidal sections, the following formulas are to be

noted:

Equation8.9 .7
h= ( )(
d
3
2 b+ B
b+ B )
Equation 8.9 .8
 A= ()d
2
( b+ B )

1. A hydraulic jump occurs in a trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 1:1 and base of
4 m. If the upstream depth before the jump is 1.5 m and the downstream depth is 3.0
m.
a) Determine the discharge
b) Determine the head loss after the jump
Given:
Slopes = 1:1
Base, b = 4 m
d1 = 1.0 m
d2 = 2.0 m

Solution:

Considering A1 (upstream)

( d3 )( 2b+b+BB )=( 13 )( 2(4+6

h1 =
4)+ 6
)=0.47 m
A 1= ( d2 ) ( b+ B )=( 12 )( 4+6 )=5 m 2

Considering A2 (downstream)
 h2 = ( d3 )( 2b+b+BB )=( 23 )( 2(4+4)+88 )=0.89 m
A 2= ( d2 ) ( b+ B )=( 22 )( 4+ 8)=12 m 2

a. Determine the discharge, Q

Q2 h1 A 1−h2 A2
=
g 1 1
−
A 2 A1

Q
2
0.47 (5 )−0.89 ( 12 )
=
9.81 1 1
−
12 5

m3
Q=26.47
s

b. Determine the head loss after the jump, HL

HL= ( v 21
2g )(
+ d1 −
v 22
2g 2
+d )
m3
Qup=Q d =26.27
s

Q= A 1 V 1= A 2 V 2

26.47 m
V 1= =5.29
5 s

26.47 m
V 2= =2.21
12 s

HL= ( 5.292
2(9.81)
+1 − )(
2.212
2(9.81)
+2 )
HL=0.18 m
2. Determine the slope of the channel bed of a 36 ft wide rectangular channel carrying
750 ft3/s of water. At point A the depth is at 3.5 ft and at point B the depth is at 7 ft,
consider a 500 ft downstream and the slope of the channel is approximately
0.00567.
Given:
Q = 750 ft3/s
L = 500 ft
S = 0.00567
d1 = 3.5 ft
d2 = 7 ft
Solution:

Calculating the value of the area of the channel:

A1= (36 ft ) ( 3.5 ft )

2
A1=126 f t

A2= ( 36 ft ) ( 7 ft )

2
A2=252 f t

Calculating the value of velocity:

Q
v=
A

f t3
750
s
v1 = 2
126 f t

ft
v1 =5.952380952
s

f t3
750
s
v 2= 2
252 f t

ft
v 2=2.976190476
s

Calculating value of the slope of channel bed:

L=
(
v 22
2g 2
+d − )(v 21
2g 1
+d )
S o−S
 ( (
)(
) +7 ft − ( ) +3.5 ft
)
2 2
ft ft
2.976190476 5.952380952
s s

(
2 32.2
ft
s
2 ) (
2 32.2
ft
s
2 )
500 ft =
S o−0.00567

So =0.01184

So =11.84 x 10−3

3. If a trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 5m and a side slope of 1:1, while the
depth of flow is 2m at a discharge of 20m 3 /s solve the specific energy.
Given:

B=5 m

3
Q=20 m / s

Solution:

v2
H= +d
2g

Q
v=
A

A=( B+ mY ) Y

A=( 5+2 ) (2 )=14 m 2

20
v=
14

v=1.428 m/s

For specific energy,

2
v
H= +d
2g

( 1.428 )2
H= +2
2 ( 9.81 )

H=2.104 m
 4. A rectangular concrete channel 4.5 m wide is carrying water. At an upstream point,
the depth of water is 1.5m and at a downstream point 300 m away, the depth of flow
is 1.17 m. If the channel bed slope is 0.0010, find the approximate flow rate. Use n
= 0.013.
Given:
Width = 4.5 m
Depth upstream = 1.5 m
Depth downstream = 1.17 m
Slope = 0.0010

Solution:

L=
2g (
v 22 2
+d −
v12
)(
2g 1
+d )
s 0−s

v 22 v 12
+d − −d 1=S0 L−SL
2g 2 2g

v 22 v 12
− + SL=d 1−d 2 S0 L(eq .1)
2g 2g

At section 1

2
A1=4.5 ( 1.5 )=6.75 m

A1
R1=
P1

6.75
R1=
¿¿

Q
v1 =
A1

A1
v1 =
6.75

v1 =0.148 Q
 2
v1 2
=0.00112Q
2g

(0.013)2 (0.148 Q)2

S1= 4 /3
0.9

At section 2

A2=4.5 ( 1.17 )=5.265 m2

A2
R2=
P2

5.265
R2=
¿¿

R2=0.77 m

Q
v 2=
A2

A2
v 2=
5.265

v 2=0.19 Q

v 22 2
=0.0018Q
2g
2 2
(0.013) (0.19 Q) 2
S2 = 4 /3
=0.00000864 Q
0.77

S1 + S2
S=
2

S1 + S2 0.00000426Q 2+ 0.00000864 Q2
S= =
2 2

S=0.00000645Q2

¿ eq .1 ;

v 22 v 12
− + SL=d 1−d 2 S0 L
2g 2g

0.0018 Q −0.00112 Q + ( 0.00000645 Q ) ( 300 ) =1.5−1.17+ 0.001(300)

2 2 2
 2
0.002615 Q =0.63

m3
Q=15.52
s

5. Uniform flow occurs at a depth of 2.8 m in a 3.4 m-wide rectangular channel. The
channel bed slope is 0.0024 and n=0.020. Neglecting head loss, what height of
bump, extending over the entire channel width, is required to create a critical depth
at the bump. Also determine the behavior of the stream as it passes through the
bump.
Given:
Depth = 2.8 m
Width = 3.4
Slope = 0.0024
N = 0.020

Solution:
Determine the velocity and discharge using Manning's formula:
2 1
1
v= R 3 S o 2
n

[ ]
2 1
1 3.4 (2.8 ) 3
v= ( 0.0024 ) 2
0.020 3.4+2 ( 2.8 )
m
v=2.54
s
Q= Av=3.4 (2.8 )( 2.54 )
m3
Q=24.18
s
Determine the stage of flow:
v
F=
√ gd
 2.54 m/ s
F=

√ 9.81 m
s
2
(2.8 m)

F=0.48<1.0 , ∴upperstage

Q 24.18
q= =
b 3.4
m3
q=7.11 per meter width
s

√
2
3 q
d c=
g

√
2
3 ( 7.11 ) d =1.73 m
dc= c
9.81
V C= √ g d c
V C = √9.81 ( 1.73 )
m
V C =4.12
s
Neglecting head losses:
v2 v2
+d= c + d c +h
2g 2g
( 2.54 )2 ( 4.12 )2
+2.4= +1.73+h
2 ( 9.81 ) 2 ( 9.81 )
h=0.13 m

6. Uniform flow occurs in a 10 m-wide rectangular channel having a bed slope of

0.0021 and n=0.019 at a depth of 1 m. If a partial closure of the gate near the exit
raises the level at that by 0.5m, how far upstream is the point where the depth of
flow is 1.25m?
Given:
Width = 10 m
Slope = 0.0021
n = 0.019
Depth = 1 m
Solution:

Q=Q1 =Q2

( )
2 1
1m ( 10 m) 1 m ( 10 m ) 3
Q= ( 0.0021 ) 2
0.019 10 m+2 ( 2 m )
 3
m
Q=21.36
s
Compute for the velocities at sections 1 and 2
Q= Av
3
m
21.36 =( 1.25 m ) (10 m ) V 1=( 1.5 m )( 10 m ) V 2
s

m
V 1=1.71
s
m
V 2=1.42
s

E2−E 1
L=
S o−S

( )( )
2 2
v2 v1
+ d2 − +d
2g 2g 1
L=
S o−S

v 21 ( 1.71 )
2
E 1 = + d 1= + 1.25
2g 2 ( 9.81 )
E1=1.40 m

v 22 ( 1.42 )
2
E2= + d 2= +1.50
2g 2 ( 9.81 )
E2=1.60m

S1−S 2
S=
2
2 2 2 2
n v1 ( 0.019 ) (1.71 )
S1= =

[ ]
4 4
R 3 1.25 ( 10 ) 3
1
10+ 2 ( 1.25 )
S1=0.0011

n2 v 22 2
( 0.019 ) (1.42 )
2
S2= =

[ ]
4 4
3 1.50 ( 10 ) 3
R 2
10+ 2 ( 1.50 )
S2=0.0006
 1.60−1.40
L=
0.0021− (0.0011+ 0.0006
2 )
L=160 m
Answer Key

DID YOU KNOW?

One fun fact about non-uniform flow is that it can create vortices, or swirling
patterns in the flow. These vortices can have a variety of shapes and sizes, and can
have a significant impact on the overall behavior of the fluid flow. For example, in a
river, vortices can cause eddies to form in the water, which can create areas of calm
and turbulence. In an aircraft wing, vortices can affect the lift and drag of the wing.
 The term "hydraulic jump" refers to an abrupt increase in the depth of quickly
flowing water. Flow goes from supercritical to subcritical at the leap, resulting in a loss
of kinetic energy.

A hydraulic jump is the only way for the depth of flow in a uniform channel to go
from less than critical to higher than critical.

Hydraulic Jump

Consider how the mass m in the Figure goes from section 1 to section 2 in a

short period of time. The water loses momentum when it changes positions. The

imbalanced force (F2 – F1) must be equal to the momentum change rate, F.

Momentum, F t=mv1-mv2
 v1 −v 2 W
F=m , where m=
t g

W v 1−v 2
F=
g t
γ x Vol v 1−v 2
F=
g t
Vol
but =Q , then;
t
Qγ
F= (v −v )
g 1 2

Applying equilibrium conditions:

[Σ F H =0]
F 2−F1=F
Qγ
F 2−F1= (v −v )
g 1 2

F1 and F2 represent the total hydrostatic pressure acting on regions 1 and 2,

respectively.

Q
Replacing theses quantities with F=γ h A∧v= :
A

Qγ Q Q
γ h2 A 2−γ h1 A 1= ( − )
g A1 A2
2
Q 1 1
A 2 h2 − A 1 h1 = ( − )
g A 1 A2
For rectangular sections:
Q=qb
A=bd
d
h=
2
b 1=b2=b

bd 2 ( ) ( )
d2
2
−bd 1
d 1 ( qb )2 1
2
= −
1
(
g b d 1 bd 2 )
b ( 2
=)
d22 −d 21 q 2 b2 1 1 1
−
g b d1 d2 ( )
( d ¿ ¿ 2−d 1) q2
(d ¿ ¿ 2+d 1 ) = ( d 2−d 1 ¿ ¿ ¿ d 1 d2 ) ¿ ¿
2 g

q
2
( d ¿ ¿ 1+ d2 )
=d 1 d 2 ¿
g 2
Q
Where q=unit flow= ∨Q=qb
b
This equation can be rearranged to give an explicit expression for the depth before and
after the jump as

( √ )
d2 2
8q
d 1= −1+ 1+ 3 )
2 g d2

d1
( √ )
2
8q
d 2= −1+ 1+ 3
2 g d1

The head lost in the jump in rectangular section is:

3
( d 2−d 1 )
HL=
4 d1 d 2

1. Water in a horizontal channel accelerates smoothly over a bump and then

undergoes a hydraulic jump, as in the figure. If y 1=1 m and Уз=40 cm, estimate v1 , v3 ,
and y 4 . Neglect friction.
 Given:
y 1=1 m
Уз=40 cm
Solution:
2 2
v1 v3
E1=E 3 y 1 + = y3+
2g 2g
2 2
v1 v3
1+ =0.40+
2(9.81) 2(9.81)

y 1 v 1= y 3 v 3
y3 v3 ( v ¿¿ 3)
v1 = =0.20 =0.2000 v 3 ¿
y1 1

2
( 0.4000 v 3 ) v 23
1+ =0.40+
2(9.81) 2(9.81)
m
v3 =3.74
s
v1 =( 0.4000 ) (3.74 )
m
v1 =1.50
s

1
2 y4 v
=−1 [ 1+ 8 N f 3 ] Nf =
2 2
y3 √ gy
3.74
(N f )3 = =1.89
√( 9.81)( 0.40)
1
2 y4
=−1 [ 1+8 ( 1.89 ) ]
2 2

(0.40)
y 4 =89 cm

2. A hydraulic jump is found in a rectangular channel as seen below. What is the depth
after the hydraulic jump (ft)?
 Given:
V = 12 ft/s
d1 = 1.5ft
Solution:

√
2
−1 d
d 2= d1 + 2 v 1 2 + 1
2 4

√
2 2
−1 (12 ) (1.5) (1.5)
d 2= (1.5)+ 2 +
2 32.2 4

−1.5
d 2= +¿
2
d 2=2.99 ft .

3. Water is released into a horizontal, rectangular channel via a sluice gate at a rate of
8 m/s and a depth of 1.2 m. Calculate (a) the depth of the water flow after the jump
and (b) the total head loss as a result of the jump.
Given:
V1 = 8 m/s
Depth, y1 = 1.2 m
Solution:
(a) Depth of flow after the jump,
y2:
Discharge per unit width, q = V1 x y1
q = 8 m/s (1.2 m) = 9.6 m2/s

y 2=
− y1
2
+
√y 21 2 q2
+
4 g y1

√
2 2
−1.2 1.2 2 ( 9.6 )
y 2= + +
2 4 (9.81)(1.2)
y 2=3.40 m

(b) Total head loss, EL:

 3
( y2 − y1 ) ( 3.40 m−1.2 m )3
E L= =
4 y1 y2 4 ( 1.2 m ) (3.40 m)
E L =0.65 m

4. A rectangular horizontal channel 6m wide, discharges 1.2 m3 /sof water into a 6 m

wide apron, with a mean velocity of 6 m/s. What is the height of the jump?
Given:
Discharge = 1.2 m3 /s
Velocity = 6 m/s
Width = 6 m
Solution:
Q
q=
b
1.2
q=
6
2
q=0.2 m /s

h c =¿
h c =¿
h c =¿0.16m
q 0.2
v1 c = = =1.25 m/s ; supercritical flow
h c 0.16

Depth of water on the upstream side of the jump,

Q 1.2
h1 = = =0.033 m
v 1 × b 6× 6

√
2 2
−h h 2h v
h2 = 1 + 1 + 1 1
2 4 g

√
2
−0.033 (0.033)
h2 = + +2(0.033) ¿ ¿ ¿
2 4
h2 =0.476 m
∆ h jump =h2−h1=0.476−0.033
∆ h jump =0.443 m

5. Determine the volume flow rate in the rectangular channel if a water flows over a
concrete spillway towards a channel that is 12 m wide through a hydraulic jump. The
depths are recorded before and after the hydraulic jumps which are 2.25 m and 3.15
m respectively.
 Given:
d1 = 2.25 m
d2 = 3.15 m
l = 12 m

Solution:
q2 d 1 d2 ( d1 +d 2 )
=
g 2
q2 (2.25 m)(3.15 m)(2.25 m+3.15 m)
=
m 2
9.81 2
s
3
m
s
q=10. 70
m

( )
3
m
s
Q= 10. 70 ( 12m )
m

m3
Q=128.40
s

6. Determine the downstream depth and head loss in the hydraulic jump in a 6 m
rectangular channel that has a flow rate of 8.6 m 3/s and a starting depth of 0.8 m.
Given:
d1 = 0.8 m
q = 8.6 m3/s
Solution:

d1
( √ )
2
8q
d 2= −1+ 1+ 3
2 g d1

( √ ( )
)
3 2
8.6 m
8
0.8 m s
d 2= −1+ 1+
( 9.81 ms ) ( 0.8 m )
2 3
2

d 2=3.096111135 m
d 2=3.10 m

3
( d 2−d 1)
H L=
4 d1 d2

(3.096111135 m−0.8 m )3
H L=
4 ( 3.096111135m ) (0.8 m)
H L=0.53m
Answer Key

In real-life situations, there are streamlines or open channel fluid flows that have
curvatures or bends. The velocity flow on an open channel varies from one point to
another due to the shear stress at the bottom and sides of the channel and another
factor is the presence of the free surface. In order to determine the velocity distribution
present in such flow of fluid, considering the depth of the channel with respect to the
free surface is needed.

2
v
Centrifugal Acceleration=
r
2
v
Centrifugal Force =Py ∆ A
r

By dividing the centrifugal force by the area of the column of a fluid, and converting the
determined pressure to pressure head, then such expression could be formulated:

2
v A
y=
gr

Then, the angle of the bank or bending of the channel could be determined by using the
formula:
 2
v
tan θ=
gr

1. For a certain channel, water is flowing around the curve at a speed that do not rely
on friction between the bottom and sides of the channel bed. Assuming that the
radius of curvature of the point of the channel is around 65 m, and the speed the
water is flowing is 45 km/hr. Determine the angle of the side of the channel should
be bunked or bent.

Given:

v = 45 km/hr

r = 65 m

Solution:

Converting velocity of km/hr to m/s:

km 1000 m 1 hr
45 x x
hr 1km 3600 s

¿ 12.5 m/s

Solving the angle of the river side should be bunked:

 2
v
tanθ=
gr

θ=tan
−1
( ) v2
gr

(( ( )
)
2
m
12.5
−1 s
θ=tan
9.81
m
s2)(65 m)

θ=13.77 °

2. A pipe having a diameter of 250 mm conveys 0.20 m 3/s of water, moreover it has a
right angle bend in a horizontal plane. If the pressure inlet and outlet of the bend are
24.5 N/cm2 and 23.2 N/cm2, determine the resultant force exerted on the bend.

Given:

Diameter, ⌀ = 250 mm = 0.25 m

Q = 0.20 m3/s

P1 = 24.5 N/cm2 = 24.5 x104 N/m2

P2 = 23.2 N/cm2 = 23.2 x104 N/m2

θ=90 °

Solution:

π 2 π 2 2
A= D = 0.25 =0.04909 m
4 4

Q 0.20
V ¿ V 1=V 2 = = =4.07 m/s
A 0.04909

(P ¿ ¿ 1 A 1) x −(P ¿ ¿ 2 A 2 )x −Fx=ρQ [ (V 2 )x −(V 1) x ] ¿ ¿

( 24.5 x 10 4 x 0.04909 ) −0−Fx=1000(0.20) [ 0−4.07 ]

 Fx=12841.05 N

(P ¿ ¿ 1 A 1) y −( P ¿ ¿ 2 A 2) y −Fy=ρQ [ ( V 2) y −(V 1 ) y ] ¿ ¿

0−( 23.2 x 10 x 0.04909 )−Fy=1000(0.20) [ 4.07−0 ]

4

Fx=−12202.88 N

To get the resultant Force:

F R =√ F 2x + F 2y

F R =√ 12841.05 + (−12202.88 )
2 2

F R =17714.48 N

3. The diameter of a pipe bend is 0.3m at inlet and 0.15m at outlet and the flow is
turned through 120 ̊ in the vertical plane the axis at inlet is horizontal and the center
of the outlet section is 1.5 below the center of inlet section. The total volume of fluid
contained in the bend is 0.085 m3. Neglecting the friction, calculate the magnitude
and the direction of the force exerted on the bend by the water flowing through it at
225L/s when the inlet pressure is 137.34kN/m3 .

Given:

d 1=0.3m , d 2=0.15 m

z=1.5 m , v=0.085 m3
3
Q=.225 m /s

P1=137.34 kN /m3=137340 N /m2

Solution:

W =mg ,m= p v , W =p vg

W =1000× 0.085 ×9.81

W =833.35

Solving for A1∧ A 2 ,

π
A1= ¿
4

π
A2= ¿
4

Solving for v1 ∧v 2 ,

Q= A 1 v 1=A 2 v 2

.225=0.0707 ×v 1

v1 =3.1824 m/s

.225=0.0176 ×v 2

v 2=12.784 m/s

Applying the Bernoulli’s equation,

 2 2
V 1 P1 v 2 P2
+ + z 1= + + z2
2g γ 2g γ

¿¿

2
P2=75403.5 N /m

Net force in x via impulse momentum principle,

P1 A 1+ P 2 A2 cos 60−F x =SQ(−v 2 cos 60−v 1)

137340 ×0.0707+75403 × 0.0176 cos 60−F x =1000× 0.225(−12.784 cos 60−3.1824)

F x =12527.72 N

Net force in y via IMP,

P2 A 2 sin 60−W + F y =SQ (−v 2 sin 60−0)

75403.5 ×0.0176 sin 60−833.85+ F y =1000 ×0.225(−12.784 sin 60)

F y =−2806.48 N

F R =√ F x2 + F y 2=√ (12527.72)2 +(−2806.48)2

F R =12838.22 N

−1 Fy
θ=tan ( )
Fx

−2806.48
θ=tan −1( )
12527.72

θ=122.62°

4. In a 45° bend a rectangular air duct of 1m 2 cross-sectional area is gradually reduced

to 0.5m2 area. Find the magnitude and direction of the force required to hold the duct
in position if the velocity of flow at the 1m 2 section is 10 m/s, and pressure is 2.943
N/cm2. Take density of air as 1.16 kg/m3.
Given:
Bend=45 °
2 2
A1=1 m A2=0.5 m
m
V 1=10 V 2=?
s
N N
P1=2.943 2
=2.443 x 104 2
cm m
kg
ρ=1.16 3
m
Solution:
Q= A 1 v 1=A 2 v 2
Q=1 x 10 Q=10
Q= A 2 v 2 10=0.5 x v 2
V 2=20

Apply Bernoulli’s
p 1 v 21 p2 v22
+ +z = + +z
ρg 2 g 1 ρg 2 g 2
z 2=22

2.943 x 104 10 2 p2 202

+ + z 1= +
1.16(9.81) 2(9.81) 1.16 (9.81) 2(9.81)
N
p2=29 256
m2

Impulse Momentum Principle for x-direction

P1 A 1−P2 A 2 cos 45−Fx=ρQ ( v 2 cos 45−v 1)

2.943 x 10 ( 1 ) −29256 ( 0.5 cos ( 45 )) −Fx=1.16(10)(20 cos ( 45 )−10)

4

−Fx=1.16 ( 10 ) ( 20 cos ( 45 ) −10 )−2.943 x 10 4 ( 1 )+ 29256 ( 0.5 cos ( 45 ) )

 Fx=19 038.39 N

Impulse Momentum for y-direction

−P2 A 2 sin ( 45 )−Fy=ρQ ( v 2 sin ⁡(45)−0 )

−29 256 ( 0.5 sin ( 45 )) −Fy=1.16 ( 10 ) (20 sin ( 45 ) )

Fy=−10 507.61 N

F R =√ F x + F y
2 2

F R =√ ( 19 038.39 ) + (−10 507.61 )

2 2

F R =21745.58 N

ϴ=tan −1
[ ]
Fy
Fx

ϴ=tan
−1
[ ]
10507.61
19038.39
ϴ=28.90 °

5. 250 liters/s of water is flowing in a pipe having a diameter of 300 mm. If the pipe is
bent by 135° (that is change from initial to final direction is 135°). find the magnitude
and direction of the resultant force on the bend. The pressure of water flowing is
39.24 N/cm2.

Given:
3
L −3 m
Q=250 =250 x 10
s s
d=d 1=d 2=300 mm
d=0.3 m
Bend=135°
N
P=P1 =P2=39.24
c m2
N
P=39.24 X 104 2
m

Solution:
 π
A=A 1= A2 = ( 0.3 )2=0.07069 m2
4
Q= A 1 v 1=A 2 v 2
Q= Av
−3
250 x 10 =0.07069 V
m
V =3.5365
s
Impulse Momentum Principle for x-direction
P1 A 1+ P 2 A2 cos 45−Fx=ρQ (−v 2 cos 45−v 1 )

39.24 x 10 ( 0.07069 ) +39.24 x 10 ( 0.07069 cos ( 45 ) ) −Fx=1000(250 x 10 )(−3.5365 cos ( 45 )−3.5365)

4 4 −3

Fx=48 862.31 N
Impulse Momentum for y-direction
−P2 A 2 sin ( 45 )−Fy=ρQ ( v 2 sin ⁡(45)−0 )

−39.24 x 10 4 ( 0.07069 sin ( 45 ) ) −Fy=1000 ( 250 x 10−3 ) (3.5365 sin ( 45 ))

Fy=−20239.43 N

F R =√ F x + F y
2 2

F R =√ ( 48 862.31 ) + (−20239.43 )
2 2

F R =52888.18 N

ϴ=tan −1 [ ]
Fy
Fx

ϴ=tan
−1
[ ]
20239.43
48 862.31
ϴ=22.50 °
 CROSSWORD PUZZLE

ACROSS

1. (True or False) Centrifugal force is the quotient of the squared velocity of a body
to the given radius
v2 A
4. (True or False) This equation: y= is obtained by dividing the centrifugal
gr
acceleration by the area of the column of a fluid and converting its pressure-to-
pressure head.
5. Determine the velocity of fluid if a channel is bent at an angle of 15 degrees and
the radius of curvature is identified to be around 64 m. Round off the answer to a
whole number.

DOWN

2
v
1. The equation: Py ∆ A is called centrifugal _______.
r
2. Trigonometric function used to determine the angle of bent of an open channel.
3. What is the angle of bending of a channel, whose radius of curvature is 52 m and
a fluid flow through it with a velocity of 10 m/s? Round off the answer to a whole
number.