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Lab 3tensile Eng
Lab 3tensile Eng
L a b o ra t o ry 3
Tensile Testing
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Objectives
Students are required to understand the principle of a uniaxial tensile testing and
gain their practices on operating the tensile testing machine to achieve the required
tensile properties.
Students are able to explain load-extension and stress-strain relationships and
represent them in graphical forms.
To evaluate the values of ultimate tensile strength, yield strength, % elongation,
fracture strain and Young's Modulus of the selected metals when subjected to
uniaxial tensile loading.
Students can explain deformation and fracture characteristics of different materials
such as aluminium, steels or brass when subjected to uniaxial tensile loading.
1. Literature Review
1.1 Uniaxial tensile testing
Uniaxial tensile test is known as a basic and universal engineering test to achieve material
parameters such as ultimate strength, yield strength, % elongation, % area of reduction and Young's
modulus. These important parameters obtained from the standard tensile testing are useful for the
selection of engineering materials for any applications required.
The tensile testing is carried out by applying longitudinal or axial load at a specific extension
rate to a standard tensile specimen with known dimensions (gauge length and cross sectional area
perpendicular to the load direction) till failure. The applied tensile load and extension are recorded
during the test for the calculation of stress and strain. A range of universal standards provided by
Professional societies such as American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM), British standard,
JIS standard and DIN standard provides testing are selected based on preferential uses. Each standard
may contain a variety of test standards suitable for different materials, dimensions and fabrication
history. For instance, ASTM E8: is a standard test method for tension testing of metallic materials
and ASTM B557 is standard test methods of tension testing wronght and cast aluminium and
magnesium alloy products
A standard specimen is prepared in a round or a square section along the gauge length as
shown in figures 1 a) and b) respectively, depending on the standard used. Both ends of the
specimens should have sufficient length and a surface condition such that they are firmly gripped
during testing. The initial gauge length Lo is standardized (in several countries) and varies with the
diameter (Do) or the cross-sectional area (Ao) of the specimen as listed in table 1. This is because if
the gauge length is too long, the % elongation might be underestimated in this case. Any heat
treatments should be applied on to the specimen prior to machining to produce the final specimen
readily for testing. This has been done to prevent surface oxide scales that might act as stress
concentration which might subsequently affect the final tensile properties due to premature failure.
There might be some exceptions, for examples, surface hardening or surface coating on the materials.
These processes should be employed after specimen machining in order to obtain the tensile
properties results which include the actual specimen surface conditions.
Type specimen
Sheet ( Lo /
Rod ( Lo /
Great Britain
Germany
4.5
5.65
11.3
4.0
5.0
10.0
Ao )
Do )
Figure 2: Schematics showing a) a screw driven machine and b) a hydraulic testing machine[3].
1.2 Stress and strain relationship
When a specimen is subjected to an external tensile loading, the metal will undergo elastic
and plastic deformation. Initially, the metal will elastically deform giving a linear relationship of load
and extension. These two parameters are then used for the calculation of the engineering stress and
engineering strain to give a relationship as illustrated in figure 3 using equations 1 and 2 as follows
=
P
Ao
L f Lo
Lo
@(1)
L
Lo
@(2)
@(3)
Young's modulus is of importance where deflection of materials is critical for the required
engineering applications. This is for examples: deflection in structural beams is considered to be
crucial for the design in engineering components or structures such as bridges, building, ships, etc.
The applications of tennis racket and golf club also require specific values of spring constants or
Young's modulus values.
y =
Py
@(4)
Ao
The yield point can be observed directly from the load-extension curve of the BCC metals
such as iron and steel or in polycrystalline titanium and molybdenum, and especially low carbon
steels, see figure 3 a). The yield point elongation phenomenon shows the upper yield point followed
by a sudden reduction in the stress or load till reaching the lower yield point. At the yield point
elongation, the specimen continues to extend without a significant change in the stress level. Load
increment is then followed with increasing strain. This yield point phenomenon is associated with a
small amount of interstitial or substitutional atoms. This is for example in the case of low-carbon
steels, which have small atoms of carbon and nitrogen present as impurities. When the dislocations
are pinned by these solute atoms, the stress is raised in order to overcome the breakaway stress
required for the pulling of dislocation line from the solute atoms. This dislocation pinning is related
to the upper yield point as indicated in figure 4 a). If the dislocation line is free from the solute
atoms, the stress required to move the dislocations then suddenly drops, which is associated with the
lower yield point. Furthermore, it was found that the degree of the yield point effect is affected by the
amounts of the solute atoms and is also influenced by the interaction energy between the solute atoms
and the dislocations.
Aluminium on the other hand having a FCC crystal structure does not show the definite yield
point in comparison to those of the BCC structure materials, but shows a smooth engineering stressstrain curve. The yield strength therefore has to be calculated from the load at 0.2% strain divided by
the original cross-sectional area as follows
0.2% y =
P0.2%
Ao
...(5)
Note: the yield strength values can also be obtained at 0.5 and 1.0% strain.
The determination of the yield strength at 0.2% offset or 0.2% strain can be carried out by
drawing a straight line parallel to the slope of the stress-strain curve in the linear section, having an
intersection on the x-axis at a strain equal to 0.002 as illustrated in figure 3 b). An interception
between the 0.2% offset line and the stress-strain curve represents the yield strength at 0.2% offset or
0.2% strain. However offset at different values can also be made depending on specific uses: for
instance; at 0.1 or 0.5% offset. The yield strength of soft materials exhibiting no linear portion to
their stress-strain curve such as soft copper or gray cast iron can be defined as the stress at the
corresponding total strain, for example, = 0005.
The yield strength, which indicates the onset of plastic deformation, is considered to be vital
for engineering structural or component designs where safety factors are normally used as shown in
equation 6. For instance, if the allowable working strength w = 500 MPa to be employed with a
safety factor of 1.8, the material with a yield strength of 900 MPa should be selected. It should be
noted that the yield strength value can also be replaced by the ultimate tensile strength, TS , for
engineering designs.
Safety factors are based on several considerations; the accuracy of the applied loads used in
the structural or components, estimation of deterioration, and the consequences of failed structures
(loss of life, financial, economical loss, etc.) Generally, buildings require a safety factor of 2, which
is rather low since the load calculation has been well understood. Automobiles has safety factor of 2
while pressure vessels utilize safety factors of 3-4.
w =
y
Safety Factor
TS
Safety Factor
@(6)
Figure 4: a) Comparative stress-strain relationships of low carbon steel and aluminium alloy and b)
the determination of the yield strength at 0.2% offset.
1.2.3 Ultimate Tensile Strength, TS
Beyond yielding, continuous loading leads to an increase in the stress required to
permanently deform the specimen as shown in the engineering stress-strain curve. At this stage, the
specimen is strain hardened or work hardened. The degree of strain hardening depends on the nature
of the deformed materials, crystal structure and chemical composition, which affects the dislocation
motion. FCC structure materials having a high number of operating slip systems can easily slip and
create a high density of dislocations. Tangling of these dislocations requires higher stress to
uniformly and plastically deform the specimen, therefore resulting in strain hardening.
If the load is continuously applied, the stress-strain curve will reach the maximum point,
which is the ultimate tensile strength (UTS, TS). At this point, the specimen can withstand the
highest stress before necking takes place. This can be observed by a local reduction in the crosssectional area of the specimen generally observed in the centre of the gauge length as illustrated in
figure 5.
TS =
Pmax
Ao
@(6)
fracture =
Pfracture
Ao
@(7)
% Elongation =
% RA =
where Af
Ao A f
Ao
L
100
Lo
100 =
A
100
A0
@(8)
@(9)
The fracture strain of the specimen can be obtained by drawing a straight line starting at the
fracture point of the stress-strain curve parallel to the slope in the linear relation. The interception of
the parallel line at the x axis indicates the fracture strain of the specimen being tested.
1.2.7 Work hardening exponent, n
Furthermore, material behavior beyond the elastic region where stress-strain relationship is
no loner linear (uniform plastic deformation) can be shown as a power law expression as follows
= K n
Where
@(10)
The strain-hardening exponent values, n, of most metals range between 0.1-0.5, which can be
estimated from a slope of a log true stress-log true strain plot up to the maximum load as shown in
figure 5. Equation 10 can then be written as follows
log = n log + log K
@(11)
Y = mX + C
@(12)
10
While n is the slope (m) and the K value indicates the value of the true stress at the true strain
equal to unity as illustrated in figure 6. High value of the strain-hardening exponent indicates an
ability of a metal to be readily plastically deformed under applied stresses. This is also corresponding
with a large area under the stress-strain curve up to the maximum load. This power law expression
has been modified variably according to materials of interest especially for steels and stainless steels.
Figure 6: Slope of log true stress- log true strain curve up to the ultimate tensile strength indicating
the work hardening exponent (n value) [3]
1.2.8 Modulus of Resilence, UR
Apart from tensile parameters mentioned previously, analysis of the area under the stressstrain curve can give informative material behavior and properties. By considering the area under the
stress-strain curve in the elastic region (triangular area) as illustrated in figure 7, this area represents
the stored elastic energy or resilence. The latter is the ability of the materials to store elastic energy
which is measured as a modulus of resilence, UR, as follows
2
1
U R = o o = o
2
2E
@(13)
11
o +u
2
@(14)
Fig 7: Area under the stress-strain curve of high carbon spring steel and structural steel [2].
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shear plane of approximately 45o to the tensile axis is formed along the peripheral of the specimen.
This shear plane then joins with the former crack to generate the cup and cone fracture as
demonstrated in figure 8. The rough or fibrous fracture surfaces appear in grey by naked eyes. Under
SEM, copious amounts of microvoids are observed as depicted in figure 9. This type of fracture
surface signifies high energy absorption during the fracture process due to large amount of plastic
deformation taking place, also indicating good tensile ductility. Metals such as aluminium and copper
normally exhibit ductile fracture behavior due to a high number of slip systems available for plastic
deformation.
For brittle metals or metals that failed at relatively low temperatures, the fracture surfaces
usually appear bright and consist of flat areas of brittle facets when examined under SEM as
illustrated in figure 10. In some cases, clusters of these brittle facets are visible when the grain size of
the metal is sufficiently large. The energy absorption is quite small in this case which indicates
relatively low tensile ductility due to limited amount of plastic deformation prior to failure.
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Figure 9: Ductile fracture surface (Ductile metals) Figure 10: Brittle fracture surface (Brittle metals)
In summary, tensile properties should be considered as important design parameters for the
selection of engineering materials for their desired application. Engineers have played a significant
role in that they should be able to analyze and understand material behavior and properties through
these mechanical testing parameters. Table 2 lists tensile properties of various engineering materials.
Table 2
Tensile properties of metals [2]
14
15
4. Results
Details
Aluminium
Steel
Brass
Diameter (mm)
Width (mm)
Thickness (mm)
Cross-sectional area (mm2)
Gauge length (mm)
Young's modulus (GPa)
Load at yield point (N)
Yield strength (MPa)
Maximum load (N)
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa)
% Elongation
% Area of reduction
Fracture strain
Work hardening exponent (n)
Fracture mode
Fracture surfaces
(Sketch)
16
17
18
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5. Discussion
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6. Conclusions
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7. Questions
7.1 What is work hardening exponent (n)? How is this value related to the ability of metal to be
mechanically formed?
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7.2 If the tensile specimen is not cylindrical rod shaped but a flat rectangular plate, how do you
expect necking to occur in this type of specimen?
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7.3 Both yield strength and ultimate tensile strength exhibit the ability of a material to withstand
a certain level of load. Which parameter do you prefer to use as a design parameter for a
proper selection of materials for structural applications? Explain
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8. References
8.1 Hashemi, S. Foundations of materials science and engineering, 2006, 4th edition, McGrawHill, ISBN 007-125690-3.
8.2 Dieter, G.E., Mechanical metallurgy, 1988, SI metric edition, McGraw-Hill, ISBN 0-07100406-8.
8.3 Norman E. Dowling, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Prentice-Hall International, 1993.
8.4 W.D. Callister, Fundamental of materials science and engineering/an interactive e. text,
2001, John Willey & Sons, Inc., New York, ISBN 0-471-39551-x
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