Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Experiment I: Ohm's Law and Not Ohm's Law
Experiment I: Ohm's Law and Not Ohm's Law
II. References
Halliday, Resnick and Krane, Physics, Vol. 2, 4th Ed., Chapters 32, 33
Purcell, Electricity and Magnetism, Chapter 4
Taylor, An Introduction to Error Analysis, Second Edition
II. Equipment
Digital multimeters
Resistor board with 4, 5 10, and 20 ohm resistors
6-volt battery
knife switch
10 V Power Supply
diode board with switching diodes, LED and 40 ohm resistor
III. Introduction
This section contains background material on current, voltage and resistance that you
should already know from your prior physics classes, including high-school physics, Physics
174, and Physics 272. A few days before your lab class starts, at the latest, take a quick look over
this introduction. If you find you are already familiar with the material, then skip to the next
section and go over the experiment. You probably will need to read the section on diodes, since
this is usually not covered in beginning physics classes. If you are not familiar with the other
material in the introduction, then you have missed or forgotten some very important and basic
physics and you need to give this introduction a thorough and careful reading. You also should
dig out your Physics 272 text, or one of the references above, and read over chapters on dc
circuits.
Voltage
When an electric charge moves between two points that have an electric potential
difference between them, work is done on the charge by the source that is creating the potential.
4
The amount of work that is done is equal to the decrease in the potential energy of the charge.
The difference in potential energy is equal to the product of the difference in the electrical
potential between the points and the magnitude of the electric charge. In the SI system of units,
the unit of electrical potential difference is the volt (written as V). For this reason, almost
everyone who work with circuits say "voltage difference" instead of "electrical potential
difference". Voltages are measured using a voltmeter. Voltage differences are always measured
between two points, with one lead of the voltmeter connected to one point and the second lead
connected to another point. On the other hand, diagrams of circuits almost always show the
voltage at individual locations in the circuit. If the voltage is given at one point, then this means
that the second point was at "ground" potential or "zero volts" and this ground point is labeled
on a circuit schematic using a special symbol (see Figure 1.2).
Current
The rate at which charge passes through a surface is called the electrical current.
Current is measured in Ampres, commonly called amps, with units written as A. One amp of
current is defined as one Coulomb of charge passing through a cross-sectional area per second.
Since an electron has a charge of -1.609x10-19 C, This is equivalent to about 61018 electrons
passing per second. Current is measured using an ammeter which is placed in a circuit so that
the current flows into the positive terminal of the ammeter and out the negative terminal. Since
the current flows through the ammeter, and we do not want the ammeter to disrupt the current
that is ordinarily flowing through a circuit, an ammeter has a low resistance. Never connect an
ammeter directly across a battery (or other voltage source), since this will result in a large current
flowing through the ammeter, possibly damaging it or the battery. Note that in contrast a
voltmeter has a high resistance.
Resistance and Ohm's Law
When current is driven through an ordinary electrically conducting material, such as a
metal or semiconductor at room temperature, it encounters resistance. You can think of
resistance as a sort of frictional drag. In a sample made of a good conductor, the current is
directly proportional to the potential difference, i.e.
I
1
V
R
conduct current. The small density of carriers in semiconductors makes them more resistive than
metals, and much more conducting than insulators. It also gives them many other unusual
properties, some of which we will see in this lab.
Batteries and EMF
There are a variety of ways to generate a voltage difference. Batteries produce an
electrical potential difference through chemical reactions. If the plus (+) and minus (-) leads of a
battery are connected across a resistor, a current will flow out of the positive terminal of the
battery (which has a more positive potential than the negative terminal), through the resistor and
into the negative terminal. In other words, the positive current flows from the positive to the
negative terminal of the battery. Inside the battery, chemical reactions drive a current flow from
the more negative region to the more positive region. As a result, a battery can be thought of as a
charge pump that is trying to push positive charge out of the + terminal and suck positive charge
into the - terminal.
In physics and EE textbooks, one also encounters the terms electromotive force or EMF.
The term EMF comes from the idea that a force needs to be exerted on charges to move them
through a wire (to overcome the resistance of the piece of wire to the flow of the current). The
battery can be thought of as the source of this force. However, the EMF of a battery is just the
voltage difference generated across the terminals of the battery and is measured in volts. So EMF
is not actually a force, despite its name. In Physics 276, we will not make distinctions between
the EMF, the voltage difference, and the electrical potential difference, but use these terms
interchangeably.
Part of this experiment is to measure the EMF and internal resistance of a battery.
When a current flows inside a battery it is also encounters resistance and the battery is said to
have an internal resistance. Batteries with low internal resistance, such as the 12 V lead-acid
batteries commonly found in cars, can deliver a lot of current. They need to be treated with
caution; shorting together the terminals of a battery (or other voltage source) with a low internal
resistance could lead to melted wires, a fire, or the battery exploding. On the other hand, batteries
with high internal resistance cannot deliver much current and show significant loss of voltage
when current is supplied.
Electrical Symbols
Components used in electrical experiments have standard symbols. Those required in
this experiment are shown in Fig. (1.2). You should understand what each symbol represents and
use them when drawing schematics of your own circuits.
electrical
ground
(V=0)
Figure 1.3 Simple circuit with a battery and two resistors showing direction of positive current
flow I.
Electrical Circuits
An electrical circuit is formed by using wires to connect together resistors, batteries,
switches, or other electrical components into one or more connected closed loops. Where three or
more wires meet, the current will split between the different paths. However each new path for
current flow that is created at these junctions must rejoin another channel at some other point, so
that all loops close. All loops that are created must be closed so that current can flow.
Kirchhoff's Rules
There are two very useful rules for analyzing electrical circuits and finding the currents
and voltages at different points in a circuit.
Rule 1: In going round a closed loop the total change in voltage must be zero.
Rule 2: The current flowing into any junction where wires meet is equal to the current
flowing out of the junction.
For example, applying the first rule to Fig.1.3 and assuming that the conductors joining
the components have zero resistance, we find the potential differences between the lettered
points in the circuit are given by:
V A VB V AB 0 VBC IR
VCD 0 V DE Ir
VEF 0 VFG
Current in = I
Current out = I1 + I2
At Q:
Current in = I1 and I2
Current out = I
Figure I-3
(a)
(b)
O'
Figure I-4: (a) Connecting resistors R1 and R2 in series produces a resistance R R1 R2 . (b)
R1 R2
Connecting resistors R1 and R2 in series produces a resistance R
.
R1 R2
Series and Parallel Resistors
In Physics 174, you measured the resistance of two resistors when they were connected in
series (see Fig. 1.4 a) and in parallel (see Fig. 1.4 b). For the series connection, one finds
RR
R R1 R2 , i.e. the resistance adds. For the parallel connection, one finds R 1 2 .
R1 R2
These elementary results can be derived by applying Kirchoff's rules. For example,
consider the series connected resistors. Since current is conserved, the current I in R1 must be the
same as the current I in R2. Hence the voltage drop across R1 is V1 IR1 and the voltage drop
across R2 is V2 IR2 . Thus we can write V1 V2 I ( R1 R2 ) . This is equivalent to writing
8
to one resistor whose value is equal to their sum. This argument can be generalized to n resistors
in series, and one finds R i Ri .
Next, consider the parallel connected resistors. The potential difference V between O and
O must be the same whether we go along OABO or OCDO . Also conservation of current
requires that I I 1 I 2 , where:
I 1 V R1
is the current through R2. Substituting these expressions for I1 and I2 into our equation for I gives:
1
1
I V
R1 R2
(b)
anode
b
cathode
a
I
(c)
Figure 1.1: (a) Electrical symbol for a diode. (b) When Vb > Vg+Va, current flows through the
diode, from b (the p-type region or anode) to a (the n-type region or cathode). Here Vg is the
threshold voltage that needs to be reached before significant forward conduction occurs. When
Vb < Vg+Va the flow of current is blocked. In particular, when Vb<Va, the device is said to be
"reverse biased" and only a very small leakage current will flow. (c) Sketch of the physical
layout of an 1N914 switching diode. The dark black band is on the cathode.
Table 1.1 Some electrical characteristics of the IN914 switching diode.
Peak Reverse Voltage
75 V
75 mA
500 mA
250 mW
-65 to 175C
100 V
25 nA
1 V at 10 mA
Capacitance
4 pF
0.6 V
VII. Experiment
A. Internal Resistance and EMF of a Battery
10
The purpose of this part is to measure the EMF and internal resistance of a battery.
A.1 Before taking data, put a 20 load across the battery and monitor the battery voltage for 30
seconds with a digital voltmeter. If the voltage remains constant to within about 5 mV, proceed,
but if it decreases by more than this, the battery should be replaced with a new one if they are
available.
A.2 Connect up the circuit shown in Fig. I.5. Leave the switch open for now. Here A is a digital
ammeter and V a digital voltmeter. The variable resistance R can be achieved by choosing
various combinations of resistances on the resistor board. S is a knife-switch that is normally
open and should only be closed when you are taking a measurement. This helps avoid
exhausting the battery. The internal resistance of the battery is denoted as r and you should not
add it to the circuit, since it is already there inside the battery itself.
A.3 You should know that the ammeter A introduces a small series resistance R ammeter into the
circuit and the insertion of the voltmeter V introduces a large resistance R voltmeter in parallel to R.
Consult the appendix to this lab manual (or the instruction manual for the meter) to determine the
"internal impedance" of the meter when it is acting either as a voltmeter or as an ammeter.
Notice that the internal impedance for the ammeter depends on whether you are using the 10 A
plug or the 300 mA plug on the multimeter. Record the values for R ammeter and Rvoltmeter in your lab
notebook.
A.4 Have your instructor check your circuit before closing the switch.
A.5. Measure V and I for about 6 to 10 values of R. You should record this data in a table in your
lab notebook. As you are making these measurements, periodically measure the battery EMF
with the switch open using the voltmeter to be sure that it remains constant. If it isnt, consult
with your instructor. When you are finished, open up the switch.
S
Figure I.5 Circuit schematic for part A showing battery's internal resistance r and EMF .
A.6. Now record the random uncertainty associated with each voltage and current
measurement. If the meter reading is steady (it should be in this case), then the random
uncertainty will just be determined by the limited number of digits displayed on the multimeter.
You can use the 2/3 rule for digital scales, consult the appendix on the Fluke 75 meter, or check
11
the Fluke 75 operating manual. The random uncertainties will be used for making a linear fit in
the next section.
A.7. Finally, record the systematic error or accuracy of each current and voltage measurements.
Since we don't have a current or voltage standard in the lab for you to calibrate your meters, you
will need to consult the appendix on the Fluke 75 meter, or check the Fluke 75 operating manual
for the accuracy of each of your measurements. Make sure that your instructor takes a look at
your numbers. The systematic uncertainties will be accounted for in your error analysis in the
following section, after you have extracted the fit parameters.
and
I (R r)
v 2 bv 2 r bI 2
rsys r v 2 I 2
Here the and r are your best fit values that you found above, v is the accuracy in the
12
calibration of the voltage scale, I is the accuracy in the calibration of the current scale, bv is
the accuracy in the zero of the voltage scale (the voltage "offset"), and bI is the accuracy in the
in the zero of the current scale (the current "offset"). The Table below lists values from the Fluke
75 Operators Manual or the appendix. Note that v and I are dimensionless numbers
(typically v = 0.003 and I = 0.015) and we have assumed that you have used the same scale
for all of your measurements.
Table of unceratinty and accuracy for the Fluke 75 current and voltage scales
function
V dc
dc
range
3.200 V
32.00 V
320.0 V
1000 V
32.00 mA
320.0 mA
10.00 A
instrumental
uncertainty
0.0003 V
0.003 V
0.03 V
0.3 V
0.003 mA
0.03 mA
0.003 A
accuracy
scale
offset
b
(0.4% of reading) + (0.001 V)
(0.3% of reading) + (0.01 V)
(0.3% of reading) + (0.1 V)
(0.4% of reading) + (1 V)
(1.5% of reading) + (0.02 mA)
(1.5% of reading) + (0.2 mA)
(1.5% of reading) + (0.02 A)
B5. In your lab report, you should give the uncertainties and r, and also the systematic errors
and r, and determine which is more important for and r. You can also compute the total
uncertainty in for example, by adding in quadrature the unceratinty and the systematic error in
.
13
IN914
RL = 40
voltage
source
Vo
Figure I.6 Circuit schematic for measuring the IV characteristic of a diode. Use a power supply
instead of a battery for the voltage source Vo. The voltmeter used for measuring the voltage drop
across the diode is not shown in this schematic.
C.5. Calculate the effective resistance of the diode as a function of the voltage across it. Make
sure in you lab report that you describe your results.
C.6. BEFORE LEAVING THE LAB, TURN IN A COPY OF YOUR SPREADSHEET TO
BLACKBOARD.
For Hotshots Only
H.1. If you have time, repeat steps 1-4 above for a different type of diode on your diode board.
In particular, if you did not choose an LED in part C, do so now. How are the IV curves different
for the two diodes? Make sure you do not exceed the maximum allowed voltage (5V for a blue
diode, 3 V for red or yellow diodes).
H.2. Still got time left? Ask your instructor for a light bulb. Wire it up and measure its IV curve.
How is it similar to a diode and how is it different from a diode?
14
part B and what you found as a result of that analysis. Be sure to compare your deduced EMF
with your direct measurements of the battery output voltage.
4. Your report must include a discussion of the random uncertainties in your measurements of
current and voltage, and how much these affect your values for r and .
5. Your report should include a discussion of the systematic uncertainties in your measurements
of current and voltage, and how much these affect your values for r and .
6. You should also have a section that includes the resistances of the meters in your analysis by
including their effects in the circuit equations. Don't forget to look in the appendix to get these
parameters. Determine whether an appreciable error has been made in the determination of
either or r by neglecting the resistances of the meters.
15
A ac
dc
3.200 V
32.00 V
320.0 V
750 V
320.0
3.200 k
32.00 k
320.0 k
3.200 M
32.00 M
32.00 mA
320.0 mA
10.00 A
0.001 V
0.01 V
0.1 V
1V
0.1
0.001 k
0.01 k
0.1 k
0.001 M
0.01 M
0.01 mA
0.1 mA
0.01 A
32.00 mA
320.0 mA
10.00 A
0.01 mA
0.1 mA
0.01 A
0.0003 V
0.003 V
0.03 V
0.3 V
0.03
0.0003 k
0.003 k
0.03 k
0.0003 M
0.003 M
0.003 mA
0.03 mA
0.003 A
0.003 mA
0.03 mA
0.003 A
input
impedance
R>10 M
C50 pF
R>10 M
C50 pF
R>10 M
C50 pF
not
applicable
6
6
0.05
6
6
0.05
17