Spherical

Microwave
Confinement

for the preliminary exam

November 15, 2007

Bill Robinson

History

February 1995: Scientific American article

on sonoluminescence and fusion got me
started looking for exotic energy sources
1996-99; investigated various cold fusion
ideas, usually shock waves through hydride
aerosols; gave up for lots of reasons
July 2000; started investigating idea of
helical antennas in a sphereand thought
of coming to NCSU for physics
2003; started interest in Ball Lightning (BL)
2004; began grad school in hopes of
building a reactor
2

More History

2004-2006; went through large number of

possible designs with this geometry
(including Inertial Electrostatic Confinement
[IEC]); ended up with magnetic SMC theory,
BL on the side, formal papers
August 2006; started construction in 102-A
Research II with Dr. Aspnes as advisor
Spring 2007; obvious that magnets are
beyond my capacity in cost, manpower,
time; found flaws in theory; concentrating
on BL and SMC with no magnets
September 2007; first plasma
October 13 2007; back to SMC as IEC idea
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SMC Reactor Design

20 helical antennas for 2.45 GHz

circularly polarized RF, 1
wavelength long, 4 turns;
aluminum sphere is groundplane at
4th zero of
j1 = sin kr/(kr)2
cos kr/kr (TE)
20 magnetrons (1kW each) fire from
cap bank (6kV to 4kV), ~1/10 sec
Each hemisphere mounted on
independent framework on casters
2 windows 2 diameter
Polar pipes (1 ) for access, gas
in/out, probes, sparker, fiberoptic
Can accommodate either
hemispherical magnets or neutron
shields 1 inches off of surface,
totally enclosing the sphere

A Tour of the Lab I

A Tour of the Lab II

Back of control
panel and upper
capacitor bank
Baffles keep the
trons from going
KERPOW

From 5 magnetrons to coax

Distributing power to the trons

Video Stills

Early shot; 3 torr, sparker loaded with flour and graphite; 30 fps; sparke
should be delayed to have maximum during microwave discharge (is no

1) Sparker explodes aerosol

2) Magnetrons start breakdown

3) One of 3 frames, hot plasma 4) Winding down, helix cores last to coo
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Abstract for Ball Lightning

Research

By experimenting with a variety of targets, gases, and

pressures, the objective is to create an analog to natural
ball lightning (BL), discover optimal conditions more
favorable than atmospheric, and investigate the anomaly
The spherical aluminum chamber confines the gas and
aerosol at a wide range of pressures
A strong pulse of circularly polarized microwaves from all
directions hits vaporized organic material
As natural BL emits microwaves, the BL should resonate in
the chamber and move to the center
Any microwaves emitted can be gathered by the antennas
and the power rectified to DC with high efficiency
A wide range of measurements and analysis would be
possible for the first time, instead of just field reports,
leading to theory of BL and reactor design
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Abstract for SMC-IEC Research

Using the same geometry as for BL,

with addition of bias rings at the
antenna bases, waves of electrons flow
into the center and cause a virtual
cathode at the center, to which ions
flow
As long as electrons are turned back
before collision with the antennas, the
result is gridless IEC with the potential
for neutron production and possibly
fusion power
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Ball Lightning

We KNOW it does exist, unlike other exotic

schemes. Ideal power source when harnessed
Extreme BL (EBL) has unmatched energy
density (109 J/m3), beyond any chemistry from
energy/molecule; no neutrons or gammas
EBL emits high levels of microwaves which are
easily rectified (90+% efficiency) to DC
Hardly likely that Nature gives optimum
conditions, but does give possible conditions
Can be made with common materials. Fuel
likely to be abundant; best fuel unknown
Key is to take field observations at face value
when possible without modification to fit
preconceptions
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Mysteries of BL: confinement

Typical lifetime is 10 sec (range 1 to 150 sec typically)

instead of microseconds to cool, recombine
Neutral buoyancy; tends to hover over ground and can
move upwind instead of rising
Cant have separation of charges sustained in conductor,
thus no E
B requires current which would need superconducting
loop; plasmas have finite resistance. Density is too high
for B confinement due to high collision rate >>
gyrofrequency (density is atmospheric).
Neutrals may be confined since no cooling from
convection, and pop on collapse evidence for internal
pressure >> partial pressure of ionized fraction. No
known mechanism for that. Would be ~15 atm!
If neutrals not confined, then plasmoid should cool and
collapse in < 1 ms; would help explain BL moving
upwind (but leaves most of the mystery)
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More Mysteries of BL

Power output of BL not associated with cooling or

reduction in size
Energy flows out continuously from visible light
(recombination), RF (static recorded), sometimes
heat
Energy out on explosion can include microwaves;
unknown origin. Evidence from cooked meat, hot
water
Total energy can be >> initial input especially when
not generated by linear lightning, and energy is
generated during lifetime of BL; evidence of
anomalous sustaining reaction
Most powerful recorded BL formed underwater off
coast of Japan
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Using the reactor for BL

Magnetron cap bank charged mostly by an oven

Sparker (2kV) throws hot organic material into center
Microwaves hit and react with hot aerosol and fill gas for 50 to
130 ms as capacitor bank goes from 6000 to 4000 V, ~1000 J
energy
Current equipment only goes down to 3 torr and cannot
withstand positive internal pressure required to explore full
range of conditions
After upgrade with flange, new antenna feedthroughs, and turbo
pump, can do much lower pressures and over atmospheric
May use baffles, especially for higher pressures; requires seed
plasma to absorb microwaves, otherwise can damage
magnetrons; no problem now at 3 torr with baffles. Mysterious
malfunction at 1 atm
Recently added Teflon shields at base of antennas to avoid
breakdown, damage
If successful there is potential for explosive dissolution
For low pressures can use biasing rings at antenna bases (-6 kV
to start with, described in next section)
13

How to make BL; a Best Guess

Take field evidence seriously; smell, aerosol,

microwave damage, environment where formed
Smell indicates rotten egg (hydrogen sulfide) and
ozone. O3 ubiquitous with sparks so may not be
useful indicator
Solids required for aerosol formation; only solids in
air are biological (birds, bats, bugs), so tests will use
organic fuel for sparker
Closest atmospheric lab plasmas to BL are
microwave discharges; must measure plasmoid
duration after microwave power input stops
If BL puts out microwaves, makes sense to put in a
potentially resonant chamber where it will tend
towards the center
Should get it started with pulse of extreme
conditions
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How This Is New for BL

Synthesis

Since microwaves come out of BL, makes sense

to try making BL with a pulse of microwaves
Can expect BL to resonate in a spherical metal
shell and tend to float in center; not tried before
Circularly polarized RF keeps constant magnitude
fields; not tried before
Helical antennas in both rotations will receive all
radiation efficiently regardless of direction
Chamber controls gas pressure and species,
protects from explosions and BL microwaves
Sparker allows controlled introduction of aerosol

15

BL Diagnostics

Easy one is most important; does it last after power

cuts off? Must have accurate measure of when
microwave input stops
Currently have video at 30 fps; would like higher
speeds, shielded from EMF
Will set up computer for data acquisition
By using coax relay can divert antenna for outgoing
power after magnetrons stop, rectify and measure DC
voltage to find microwave output. More ideal setup
would have hybrid couplers but too expensive now
Can insert emissive probe along polar axis to find
plasma potential regardless of electron drift [1]
Spectrometer probably via fiberoptic; need to borrow
one! (From NE?)
Need good leak testing to improve vacuum
Gas analysis before and after pulse to detect reactants
and products; gear available in lab
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HOWEVER!

Making BL in this reactor is a long shot

Next; an explanation of a way of using this same
geometry with minor changes at low pressures for
Electron Accelerated Inertial Electrostatic
Confinement (EXL IEC) without grids for
conventional fusion reactions (D-D, D-T, proton-B 11)
Unlike BL, the physics is known; critical point is to
reverse electrons by near-field RF and inwardflowing electron waves before they reach the
antennas, instead of requiring transit through grids
If this is correct, the existing hardware could
produce large numbers of neutrons. The concept
might be developed for power generation in larger
and more efficient reactors
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Inertial Electrostatic
Confinement

(Ref. 2)

18

IEC single potential well

[3]

Fig. 2: Single potential well structure. The minimum normalized

potential, Ymin, coincides with the core potential, Ycore = Y(r = 0).
The fractional well depth, FWD is defined as FWD = 1-Ymin.
19

IEC double potential well

[3]

Fig. 3: Double potential well structure. The double well depth (DWD)
is Ypeak Ymin. Here, Ypeak coincides with Ycore.
20

Existing IEC

Large increase of plasma density in potential wells, fosters

high rate of reaction there; BUT net reaction rate ~ 1/pressure
IEC with grids cannot (yet) go above Q~10-5
Big advantages: no B fields, easy high T, simple geometry,
some fusion does occur at center and in mantle (zone between
grids)
High T makes advanced fuels tempting but elusive so far
IEC operates at too low density for power reactor (need ~10 21
m-3 in sizable volume) [5]
IEC is the cheapest way to fusion by a very large factor;
reactors are mostly vacuum, thus low mass.
Existing grid reactor can be a practical, portable, simple
neutron source (like the STAR reactor), but not efficient enough
yet for sub-critical fission or large-scale transmutation.
Maximum so far; 2x1010 neutrons/sec by Hirsch in the 60s [6]
and Nebel in late 90s
Other attempts for either gridless IEC (Bussard) or to protect
grids magnetically from collision have failed
21

Some recent experiments

Richard Nebels Los Alamos

Triple-gridded POPS IEC
1010 n/s, $500 k, 25 kW [4]

Hitachi IEC, Japan, 7 x 107 n/s

22

Unavoidable Loss Problems in grid IEC

Collisions with grids; Pgridloss/Pfusion > 3000; particle paths

MUST cross grids to be confined [5]
Ion upscatter and energetic tail loss time ~10 -3 fusion
rate
Ion neutral capture and escape from potential well
Fusion reaction products escape, do not heat plasma
(direct energy conversion probably wont work) [8]
Ion collisions increase angular momentum and throw
ions out of dense center region (may not be so bad,
double wells can work)
No way to keep plasma non-thermal; collision x-section
>> fusion x-section by factor of at least 10 5
Bremsstrahlung same or worse as other reactors,
makes advanced non-neutronic fuels probably
impractical (fuel touted as ideal for IEC)
Both ion and electron loss times << fusion time
23

Critical IEC Scaling Problem:

1/n

As density drops, longer mean free path,

more acceleration between grids, higher
energy, increased <v>, fewer ion-neutral
collisions, tighter focus at center, more
head-on collisions. [9]
Thus fusion reactions scale as 1/n instead
of n2. IEC reactors operate at very high
vacuum << fusion reactor range (1021)
Might not be true of SMC since mfp of
runaway electrons are long due to velocity;
acceleration from microwaves not grids;
less focus anyway
24

Critical IEC scaling problem; Power ~

1/a

a = radius of spherical active zone, q = total

charge, a = potential at r = a, ne and ni are average
densities in the active zone, P = power from fusion
For grid IEC, q = |ne ni| ~ ni
a~ q/a ~ ni a3/a2 = ni a2
Since a is within a small range, ni ~ 1/a2
P ~ ni 2 *Volume, so P ~ 1/a
Probably NOT true for SMC since source of ions,
electrons, and charge balance is not the same as
for grids; q is not ~ ni
Proof of this is the use of ion or electron beams to
alter the charge/density relationship in grid IEC to
increase P
Result is IEC devices are very small (a few inches)
and cannot scale up while SMC probably can
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Antennas as e- accelerators

Antennas are insulated with ceramic and do not short out to

plasma
Will apply -6 kV (or more) bias to base rings, 4 diameter, 1
from wall. Next reactor could put (+) bias on antennas
Microwaves cause breakdown starting in core, rapidly saturates
to critical density (opaque plasma)
Electron cascade bunches in waves and flows toward center;
same process turns back electrons from center (thermalized
after crossing reactor core)
Uncoordinated antenna phases now; may be better in phase for
inwards-moving spherical waves
Existing rig; ~5 x108 e/cycle at ~25 keV (~0.2 amp) assuming
delivering 5 kW to waves from microwaves (efficiency of 0.25)
Bias on base rings limited to no more than electron wave energy
~ virtual cathode potential; 10 kV for D-T reactor, 50 kV for D-D
Ions do not bunch in waves, follow e- inwards; qi(t)= <-qe(t-)>
Inner charge during microwave increase;
qtotal = qi - qe = - dqe/dt> (qe = # inner electrons)
For each 5 microseconds ion delay, can create 1 kV potential if
low electron loss
26

Periodically Oscillating Plasma Sphere

(POPS)

Uses RF modulation of grids and emitters to oscillate the potential well in

resonance with the orbital frequency of the ions to extend life of virtual cat

(a) Temporal evolution of plasma potential at the center of the

virtual cathode with and without rf modulation. (b) Delay in the virtual catho
destruction due to rf modulation as a function of modulation frequency.
(Reproduced from Ref. 4.) This is for just a few hundred volts and 10 -6 torr
27

POPS & SMC?

POPS in grid IEC cannot scale to a reactor since

Pfusion

3( ni / ne ) 2 o2 ( rmax / rmin ) 2

v
2
2 e rVC

fusion

With rvc = virtual cathode radius, o = potential well depth; note

change in radius and compression ratio

Resonant frequency:

At fusion reactor conditions, 10-30 MHz (D-D); milder plasmas down

to 1 MHz
Works by throwing a few ions out of potential well. Might use by RF
imposed on bias grid or injected beams of e- or ions
Grid IEC needs addition of electrons at center to reduce ion space
charge and allow compression, may also in SMC

POPS

2eo
2
rVC
mi

28

Magnetic SMC: a possible future

addition

Two hemispherical coils,

counter-rotating
Uses cylindrical cusp to make
electron cyclotron resonance
(ECR) on spheroidal B
isosurface at 875 gauss
Could help make plasma
transparent outside plasmoid
Would heat electrons at ECR
surface efficiently and
selectively
reactor is constructed to
accommodate the coils
Expensive and uses a lot of
power if not superconducting
Could funnel reaction
products out poles and
equator for direct energy
conversion

Arrows are B field; center circle is

plasmoid surface; outer circle is magnet
29
coil

Magnetic SMC
Amp turns

0.3

30000

0.2

25000

20000

0.1

15000
0

10000
-0.1

5000

coils
1

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

-0.2

20

-0.3

Coil windings in amp-turns for

test reactor, one hemisphere
(other hemisphere is negative
of this)

Tickmarks are meters; contours are

B field magnitudes; dark circle is 875
gauss (ECR); outer circle is magnet;
next circle in is pressure wall; dotted
circle is inner end of antennas
30

-0.4

-0.2

0.2

0.4

Current and Future Research

THEORY; Ion heating; magnetrons are a few MHz out of

phase, causes Landau damping [8]
Shock dynamics, if they apply, with antennas in phase or
random (current setup is random); compression, heating
Confinement mechanism for electrons in SMC-IEC (no BL
theory yet)
HARDWARE; Diagnostic tools are first priority; computer
DAQ, plasma probes, spectrometer, gas analysis, and
detectors for x-rays, gammas, neutrons, alphas
Upgrade of vacuum system for lower pressures and
secure use of H2S for BL, or D2 and boranes for SMC
Installation of bias rings at antenna bases, -6 kV for now
GOALS; BL creation then reactor design, or SMC to scale
up for D-D or D-T reactor, sub-critical fission, etc.
FUNDING! And a way to continue doing this after
graduationhere if possible; post-doc?
31

References
1) A. Siebenforcher, Rev. Sci. Instrum. 67(3), March 1996

2) Tom Ligon, Infinite Energy Issue 30, 2000

3) IEC thesis by Ryan Meyer, U. of Missouri-Columbia December 2007

4) J. Park, R.A. Nebel, S. Stange, Phys. Plasmas 12, 056315 (2005)

5) A general critique of intertial-electrostatic confinement fusion

systems, Todd Rider, Phys. Plasmas 2 (6), June 1995

6) R. L. Hirsch, J. Appl. Physics 38, 4522 (1967)

7) M. Rosenbluth, F. Hinton, Plasma Phys. Control. Fusion 36 (1994) 12551268

8) F. Chen, Plasma Physics and Controlled Fusion, 1984

9) Development
of a High Fluence Neutron Source for Nondestructive

Characterization of Nuclear Waste, M. Pickrell, LANL Technical Report

(1999)

M. Bourham, class notes

Many BL articles in Nature over the last 80 years

Personal interviews with BL witnesses and their relatives (including Dr.

Hallen)
www.billrobinsonmusic.com/Physics for pictures, papers, latest news

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