SAMPLING

Sampling concept and terminology

a) An element is that unit about which information is collected and that provides
the basis of analysis. Elements are people or certain type of people. Other
kinds of units can constitute the element for social research; families, social
clubs.
b) A population is the theoretically specified aggregation of study element.
Where as the vague term. Eg: all students of this university form population of
the study of university crisis.
c) A study population is that aggregation of elements from which the sample is
actually selected.
d) A sampling unit is that element or set of elements considered for selection in
some stage of sampling. E.g.: in a simple single stage sample the sampling
units as the same as the elements. For example; you might select a sample of
census blocks in a city then select a sample of house holds on the selected
blocks and finally select a sample of adults from the selected house. The
sampling unit for three stages of sampling are respectively census, blocks,
households and adult.
e) A sampling frame is the actual list of sampling units from which the sample or
some stage of the sample is selected. If a simple sample of students is selected
from a student roster is the sampling frame.
f) An observation unit or unit of data collection is an element or aggregation of
elements from which information is collected.
g) Variable is a set of mutually, exclusively attributes sex, age, employment,
status and so-forth. The element of a given population may be described in
terms of their individual attributes on a given variable. A variable by definition
must posses variation if all elements in the population have the same attribute
that attribute is constant in the population rather than part of variable.
h) A parameter is the summary description of given variable in a population. The
mean income of all families in a city and the age distribution of the citys
population are parameters.
i) A statistic is a summary description of a given variable in a sample. Thus the
mean income computed from a sample and age distribution of that sample are
statistics.
1.

SAMPLE:

Sample is a group of elements selected from a population in order to study that group
instead of studying the whole population. Or is a group representing a population. E.g.: if
you want to study the crisis of university from the population of first year student, use
some of them as sample.

Why do we do study a sample?

We study sample because economic savings in terms of money, time and resources e.g.:
it will not be possible to study all RUCST students; you have to choose few of them
according to the year, class, faculty or department. So you will study the sample.
We study sample and make analysis of the findings from the sample in order to know
something about the entire population in which the sample is picked. We expect that what
we find out about the sample will be true for the entire population because the
characteristics of each member of the population are likely to be represented in the
sample. In other words sample studies are indicates of what exist in the population. If the
sample findings correspond to the population then that sample is representative of
population. If the sample findings dont correspond then the sample is known as
unpresentative.

2.

SAMPLING THEORY:

Sampling theory is the study of relationships which exist between population and a
sample drawn from that population. In estimating unknown population parameters you
use sample statistic to estimate population parameters. When you have a sample you can
calculate sample statistics such as mean, median, mode, standardization, validity etc.
We select sample from the population and we use sampling frame which is the list of all
elements in the population. We study sample because they have advantages:
a) They save time, money, effort.
b) They are more convenient
c) They help to get the information needed instead of using the whole population.
3. PROBLEMS OF SAMPLING:
The findings from the sample may not be as valid as studying the whole population. To
do a sample survey the researcher must be involved in planning administration and
programming survey however they involve in sample studies because sample present
target population.
PRINCIPLE OF STUDYING SAMPLING

1.
2.
3.

Unity of the sample must be chosen in objective and systematic manner.

Sample units must be well defined to make it possible to identify them.
The process of selecting sampling must be based on sound criteria and must
avoid bias, distortion, and errors.
4. The sample units should be independent of each other uniform and other same
size and appear once in target population.

TYPES OF SAMPLING
There are two types of sampling:
A. Random sampling (probability sampling)
B. Non-random sampling (Non-probability sampling)

A-

RANDOM SAMPLING

Random sampling is done in a process in which every element in a determined population

is in equal chances of being selected into the sample. The selecting criteria are computed
so that the selected sample represents the whole population. Selection of such sample can
be expensive, time consuming, complicated and it needs a large population in order to
select your sample.
B-

NON-RANDOM SAMPLING

Non-random sampling is a procedure which doesnt give equal chance to every element
in the population to be selected into sample. The sample selected is non-representative of
the population. It is the researcher who decides what elements to include in the sample.

A- TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)

1)

Simple random sampling

Systematic sampling.
Stratified random sampling.
Cluster sampling.
Multistage sampling.
Area sampling.
Multiphase sampling.
Panel studies sampling.
Spatial sampling.

Simple random sampling:

This sampling technique gives equal chance to every element of the population to be
included in the sample. Selection can be done by means of lottery method or random
numbers or by means of computer method.
a) Lottery method: this involves identifying the sampling frame or list of all
elements In the target population and these elements are numbered or named in separate
pieces of paper then they are mixed then thoroughly in a box or bucket then piece of
paper is picked one by one fro the box. And the picked numbers or names are recorded.
The picked number can be put into the basket or can be drawn again and picking
continues until the required number matched.
b) Random numbers: this method is similar to lottery method. The difference is
instead of using piece of paper you use random number which are found in the booklet.
c) Computer method: this method is similar to the method of random numbers . the
difference is instead of a researcher picking using the table of random numbers the
researcher instructs the computer to pick those numbers.
2) systematic sampling:
In this method selection of the sample unit is dependent o the selection of the previous
one. From the target population the sample is selected in a systematic way by using
sampling fraction.
Abbreviations:
target population = N
sample size
=n
sampling fraction = k
Given:
N = 54.000 (population frame)

n = 6.000 (population sample elements)

Sample fraction = target population / Sample size

K= N/n

K=54.000/6.000 = 9

To select a sample you number from 1- 9. If the population is students it means 9

students will be represented by one student. (Picking of that student can be random or by
chance provided you choose any student within 9 students ) (suppose you pick student
no :5) then you need a sampling fram9e from 1-54.000 and you want a sample of 6.000.
picking will be
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21,22,,23,24,25,26
Your first picking in 5, second picking 5 +9=14, third picking 14+9= 23 continously until
you get 6,000 . sample out of 54.000 frame (target population)
3) stratified sampling:
In this method the researcher divide the population into strata e.g: male/female, age
groups, marital status etc. you can pick them by using either simple random or systematic
random sampling.
The researcher divides a target population into number of strata according to number of
the specific group of population to be included in the sample. The researcher prepares a
sampling frame for each data identified stratum from each strata and a sub- sample is
drawn using one of the methods of random sampling. The sub-sample can be proportional
or disproportional. For example; if the population is 1000 may be divided into three
stratum. I) Muslims: 400 ii) Christians: 500 iii) Hindus: 100 Proportionally you may
take 10% for each
Muslims: 40
Christians: 50
these are sub-samples
Hindus: 10_______
100 is sample
Sampling frame:
Muslims
Christians
Hindus

4)

1: 400
1: 500
1: 100

Cluster sampling:

In this sampling technique you select cluster or groups of elements such as classes,
schools and then each cluster you select a sub-sample using simple random sampling or
systematic random sampling. You use cluster sampling when you do not have sampling
frame for the whole population. You also use cluster sampling when the cluster criteria
are important for the study cluster are economical.

The problem of cluster sampling: sample is based because they are picked from
specialized clusters. The clusters may not be representative in the population. For
example; a study of the university students of RUCST. Two clusters chosen are SASS
and SIE. From each cluster you select a sample randomly. The two sub-samples are
combined to form a sample for the study. That is because it omits other faculties in
RUCST.

5)

Multi-stage sampling:

Multi stage sampling method involves drawing samples. To do this you prepare a
sampling of the target population and then draw a large sample using simple random
sampling or systematic random sampling and you get the primary sample. You continue
to draw another sample until you get the required sample.
Stage I
Stage II
Stage III

= 1.000 from 10.000

=
500 from 1.000
=
100 from 500

So you may pick until you get a small size. This can be done through interviews. You
may use simple random or systematic random sampling. Advantage of this procedure is
that; as you pick one sample form the previous sample, you make the sample more
specific and more relevant to the research questions. The sample becomes more
representative of the target population
6) Area

sampling:

This sampling method is like a multi-stage sampling applied in a geographical area. E.g.
the study of AIDS or HIV in the world.
I - Africa from Africa you choose
II - Tanzania form Tanzania you choose
III- Dar es salaam
The sample of the study is the last stage. Sample which is drawn in a series of samples
taken from geographical areas and each stage refers progressively. Area sampling is a
form of cluster sampling because procedures give high representation from as many
geographical areas as possible.
7) Multi-phase

sampling:

This is like multi-stage sampling in that primary selection is done and from that another
selection is done, e.g.: target population 10.000 students
Phase I = study 1000 students
Phase II = study 500 students
Phase III = study 100 students
6

You can use simple or systematic sampling each phase, conduct a study and complete
before you move to another phase. Advantage of this type of sampling is that; the
information found in earlier phase will help to select the relevant and representative
sample.
8) Panel

studies:

These are longitudinal studies in which the respondents of the original sample are studied
more than one occasion. E.g.: studying coffee farmers in Juaso district. You go to study
in every 5 years in the same population. Like:
1st study
2ndstudy
3rdstudy

10.000 farmers 1999

10.000 farmers 2004
10.000 farmers 2009

Problem of conducting longitudinal:

The problem which arises to this:
- Because your objective is to find out if there is continuity of over time the
problem is whether or not. You will be able to get all people in different times.
- The problem of mortality, migration and changing of residence.
- As they get used to the study they can give wrong information deliberately.
- The problem of motivation.
9) Spatial

sampling:

This method requires the target population to assemble as a crowd in a space. The
interviewer approaches to the crowd and chooses the respondents. E.g.: you go to the
crowd of Faculty of Arts. You move maybe systematically two steps. You choose a
respondents repeated or far steps after four steps you get respondent until you get a
sample size.

B- TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Non-probability sampling procedures dont produce samples which presents the target
population. Non-probability sampling is mostly used in qualitative research and in
research in which representativeness is not considered in a study. The most common
types of the non-probability sampling are;
1. Accidental sampling
2. Purposive sampling
3. Quota sampling
4. Snowball sampling

1) Accidental

sampling:

This is also known as incidental sampling, chunk sampling, and haphazard sampling. In
this sampling technique the researcher interviews all the respondents for that study who
comes in contact accidentally with during the research time.
2) Purposive

sampling:

In this sampling technique the researcher chooses respondents who in their opinion are
thought to be relevant to the subject under the study. To do this the researcher must
identify the respondent and arrange the time and place to meet them and interview. You
have to identify people who know the problem like; dean of students or head of
Department or chairperson etc. you have to negotiate with them in order to get the proper
time and place where to meet.
3) Quota

sampling:

This is a kind of stratified sampling. The differences is that instead of dividing the
population into strata and choose the respondent randomly, you set up quotas of
respondents to be chosen from specific population groups.
For example; primary schools pupils in joining SSS 1 have to be divided into quotas
like;
Dansoman
= 250
Odorkor
= 600
Lapaz
= 1.000
Achimota
= 400
You define your basis of choices according to gender, education, or marital status. You
set up quotas to each group. In setting the quota, will depend on the nature and the type of
the research. The choice is left to the interview. The researcher must decide how to set
the quota which can be proportional or disproportional.
4) Snowball sampling:
The researcher begins with a few respondents who are available. After interviewing they
ask the respondent to recommend other person who meets the criteria of the research and
who are willing to participate in the study. You continue until you reach the required
sample.
Advantages and disadvantages of case studies
Advantages

1 Case study data are drawn from peoples experiences and practices
and so are
seen to be strong in reality.
2 Case studies allow for generalizations from a specific instance to a
more
general issue.
3 Case studies allow the researcher to show the complexity of social
life. Good
case studies build on this to explore alternative meanings and
interpretations.
4 Case studies can provide a data source from which further analysis
can be
made. They can, therefore, be archived for further research work.
5 Because case studies build on actual practices and experiences, they
can be
linked to action and their insights contribute to changing practice.
Indeed, case
study may be a subset of a broader action research project.
6 Because the data contained in case studies are close to peoples
experiences,
they can be more persuasive and more accessible.
Source: Adapted from Cohen and Manion (1995: 123).
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of case studies are linked to their advantages. In
particular:
1. The very complexity of a case can make analysis difficult. This is
particularly so
because the holistic nature of case study means that the researcher is
often
very aware of the connections between various events, variables and
outcomes.
Accordingly, everything appears relevant. You need to show the
connections but not lose sight of the whole.
2. While the contextualization of aspects of the case strengthen this
form of research, it is difficult to know where context begins and
ends.
One other caution about adopting a case study approach to your research project has
already been mentioned in this book. It also applies to action research, as well as to other
research approaches. This concerns the tendency for some students, particularly those in
employment to base their research projects within their places of employment.
Experiments
9

Experiment is a situation in which the independent variable (also known as the exposure,
the intervention, the experimental or predictor variable) is carefully manipulated by the
investigator under known, tightly defined and controlled conditions, or by natural
occurrence. At its most basic, the experiment consists of an experimental group which is
exposed to the intervention under investigation and a control group which is not exposed.
The experimental and control groups should be equivalent, and investigated
systematically under conditions that are identical (apart from the exposure of the
experimental group), in order to minimize variation between them. (Bowling 1997: 191)
For many people undertaking small-scale research in the social sciences, the idea of
conducting experiments may seem rather strange. The experimental method is
particularly associated with the physical sciences, where materials and nonhuman life
forms are more amenable to experimentation. Indeed, experiments are at the heart of
what is known as the scientific method, with its practice of formulating and testing
hypotheses through carefully designed and controlled tests. The associated terminology,
repeated in the quotations above e.g. subjects, independent, dependent and extraneous
variables, and control appears very precise and suggestive. Experiments are, however,
widely used as a research approach in a number of the social sciences, particularly
psychology (which is often classified as a science
Advantages and disadvantages of experiments
Advantages
1 Because of the random assignment of people to intervention and
control
(i.e. randomization of extraneous variables) the risk of extraneous
variables
confounding the results is minimized.
2 Control over the introduction and variation of the predictor
variables clarifies
the direction of cause and effect.
3 If both pre- and post-testing is conducted this controls for timerelated threats
to validity.
4 The modern design of experiments permits greater flexibility,
efficiency and
powerful statistical manipulation.
5 The experiment is the only research design which can, in principle,
yield causal
relationships.
Disadvantages
1 It is difficult to design experiments so as to represent a specified
population.
2 It is often difficult to choose the control variables so as to exclude
all confounding variables.

10

3 With a large number of uncontrolled, extraneous variables it is

impossible to isolate the one variable that is hypothesized as the cause
of the other; hence the possibility always exists of alternative
explanations.
4 Contriving the desired natural setting in experiments is often not
possible.
5 The experiment is an unnatural social situation with a differentiation
of roles.
The participants role involves obedience to the experimenter (an
unusual role).
6 Experiments cannot capture the diversity of goals, objectives and
service inputs which may contribute to . . . outcomes in natural
settings. (Bowling 1997: 193).
Surveys
Survey research . . . is the method of collecting information by asking a set of pre
formulated questions in a predetermined sequence in a structured questionnaire to a
sample of individuals drawn so as to be representative of a defined population. (Hutton
1990: 8)
Survey research involves the collection of information from members of a group; e.g.;
students, teachers, or other persons associated with an issue in society and the analysis of
this information to illuminate important societal issues. Most surveys are based on
samples of a specified target population the group of persons in whom interest is
expressed. The researcher often wishes to generalize the results obtained from the
samples to the populations from which the samples were drawn (Rosier 1988: 107). As
these quotations indicate, surveys are usually associated as a research approach with the
idea of asking groups of people questions.

Advantages and disadvantages of surveys

Advantages
Questions are designed so that answers from individual interviews
can beadded together to produce results which apply to the whole
sample . . .
The research is based on interviews with a representative sample of
respondents. . .
The questions are designed to be unbiased . . .
Surveys lend themselves to future replication . . .
Large surveys can often be broken down.
Disadvantages
1 The data, in the form of tables, pie charts and statistics, become the
main focus
11

of the research report, with a loss of linkage to wider theories and

issues.
2 The data provide snapshots of points in time rather than a focus on
the underlying processes and changes.
3 The researcher is often not in a position to check first hand the
understandings of the respondents to the questions asked. Issues of
truthfulness and accuracy are thereby raised.
4 The survey relies on breadth rather than depth for its validity. This is
a crucial issue for small-scale researchers.

Ten reasons for reading for research

1 Because it will give you ideas.
2 Because you need to understand what other researchers have done in your
area.
3 To broaden your perspectives and set your work in context.
4 Because direct personal experience can never be enough.
5 To legitimate your arguments.
6 Because it may cause you to change your mind.
7 Because writers (and you will be one) need readers.
8 So that you can effectively criticize what others have done.
9 To learn more about research methods and their application in practice.
10 In order to spot areas which have not been researched.

RESEARCH VARIABLES
The key to designing any experiment is to look at what research
variables could affect the outcome. A researcher must then determine
which variable needs to be manipulated to generate quantifiable
results. There are many types of variable but the most important, for
the vast majority of research methods, are the independent and
dependent variables.
Very simply, a VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that varies (i.e.; something
that changes). It may change from group to group, person to person, or even within one
person over time. A variable changes according to different factors.

12

Some variables change easily, like the stock-exchange value, while other variables are
almost constant, like the name of someone. A variable can be a number, a name or
anything where the value can change.
An example of a variable is temperature. The temperature varies
according to other variables and factors. You can measure different
temperatures inside and outside. If it is a sunny day, chances are that
the temperature will be higher than if it's cloudy. Another thing that
can make the temperature change is whether something has been
done to manipulate the temperature, like lighting a fire in the chimney.
In research, you typically define variables according to what you're
measuring. The independent variable is the variable which the researcher
would like to measure (the cause), while the dependent variable is the
effect (or assumed effect), which is dependent on the independent
variable.
These variables are often stated in experimental research, in a hypothesis,
e.g. "what is the effect of personality on helping behavior?"

TYPES OF VARIABLES
DEPENDENT VARIABLES
The dependent variable is the measurable outcome of manipulation, the results of the
experimental design. Dependent variables show the effect of manipulating or introducing
the independent variables. For example, if you designed an experiment to determine how
quickly a cup of coffee cools, the manipulated independent variable is time and the
dependent measured variable is temperature. In other words, the variation in the
dependent variable depends on the variation in the independent variable.

INDEPENDENT VARIABLES
The independent variable is the core of the experiment and is isolated and manipulated by
the researcher. They are those that the researcher has control over. This "control" may
involve manipulating existing variables (e.g., modifying the temperature of a freezer) or
introducing new variables (e.g., adding a bottle of oil to water in the freezer) in the
research setting. Whatever the case may be, the researcher expects that the independent
variable(s) will have some effect on (or relationship with) the dependent variables.

13

DATA
Another very important component is the DATA. Data come in various types. They are a
representation of reality, and show the results of measuring properties or processes. Data
and the ways they are measured come in various types.

NOMINAL DATA
Nominal means "name bearing." The nominal scale places things into named categories.
These things are assigned to groups according to their common or shared elements. For
example women who are different in many ways could be assigned to the same category
based on their shared gender. Important: The different categories are not ordered in any
"more or less" sense. They are just different from each other.

ORDINAL DATA
The ordinal scale places things in order. Ordinal data show a particular item's position
relative to other items, such as "First, second, third, etc." The ordinal scale doesn't specify
the distance between each item. It just puts them in order. For example, in a playground
foot race where no one has a watch, the participants will not know their actual times.
They will only know who came in first, second, or third.

INTERVAL DATA
The interval scale uses equal-sized units of measurement (points, minutes, etc.) and,
therefore, shows the distances, or intervals, between subjects' performances. In the foot
race example, if the runners' classmates started counting aloud after the first runner
crossed the finish line, they might discover that the second place finisher was only two
counts behind the winner while the third-place finisher was ten counts behind. Interval
data show this difference in distances. Ordinal data would not. It is important to
remember that with interval (as opposed to ratio) data, the intervals start from an arbitrary
point, not absolute zero. Therefore, a student who scores a 60 on a grammar test could
not be said to know twice as much grammar as a student who scored 30. Also, the person
who scored a 0 on this test would not be said to know no grammar at all.

RATIO DATA

14

The ratio scale is like the interval scale. It employs equal intervals. However, the ratio
scale begins at a true zero point. That point represents an absolute lack of the quality
being measured. Because of this characteristic, additional mathematical functions are
possible with ratio data that are not possible with other types of data.
Note: Strictly speaking, the word data is actually a plural. The singular form (which is
rarely used) is datum. Therefore, it is correct to say, for instance, "The data show" or
"The data are" rather than "The data shows" or "The data is".

SUBJECTS
SUBJECTS are the sources of your data. For instance most research in language-related
fields uses people as subjects. Their characteristics, development, opinions, attitudes,
knowledge, performance, etc. are used to answer your research question. In order to
choose appropriate subjects you need to decide what your population of interest is.

POPULATIONS
In research, population has a specialized meaning. Theoretically, a population is the
group from which your subjects are drawn. Therefore, it is also the group that your
subjects represent. When discussing your research findings, you must be careful not to
generalize your conclusions beyond this group. For this reason, it important to identify
the key characteristics of your subjects, and the population they represent. Are they
children, teenagers, or adults? Are they men or women? What is their nationality? What
native language do they speak?

INSTRUMENTS & PROCEDURES

INSTRUMENTS are used to gauge some quality or ability of your subjects. The purpose
of the instrument is to elicit the data for your study.

Here are some possible instruments/procedures:

Interviews (unstructured or structured)

Questionnaires (mailed or in-person)
Observations

15

Diaries kept
Reviews of records or documents
Verbal self-reports by respondents

ANALYZING DATA

Once have your data, you must ANALYZE it. There are many different ways to analyze
data: some are simple and some are complex. Some involve grouping, while others
involve detailed statistical analysis. The most important thing you do is to choose a
method that is in harmony with the parameters you have set and with the kind of data you
have collected.

INTERPRETATION OF THE RESULTS

16

Research does require some interpretation and extrapolation of

results. In scientific research, there is always some kind of connection
between data (information gathered) and why the scientist thinks that
the data looks as it does. Often the researcher looks at the data
gathered, and then comes to a conclusion of why the data looks like it
does.

17