Engineering Acoustics

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ENGINEERING ACOUSTICS EE 363N

INDEX
(p,q,r) modes ....................28
2HP half-power beamwidth
.........................................16
A absorption......................27
a absorption coefficient ....21
absorption..........................27
average .........................27
measuring.....................27
absorption coefficient ..21, 28
measuring.....................21
acoustic analogies................8
acoustic impedance........3, 10
acoustic intensity ...............10
acoustic power...................10
spherical waves ............11
acoustic pressure..............5, 9
effective..........................5
adiabatic ........................7, 36
adiabatic bulk modulus........6
ambient density................2, 6
amp......................................3
amplitude.............................4
analogies..............................8
anechoic room ...................36
arbitrary direction plane
wave ..................................9
architectural absorption
coefficient........................28
area
sphere ...........................36
average absorption.............27
average energy density ......26
axial pressure.....................19
B bulk modulus..................6
band
frequency......................12
bandwidth..........................12
bass reflex..........................19
Bessel J function..........18, 34
binomial expansion............34
binomial theorem...............34
bulk modulus .......................6
C compliance......................8
c speed of sound .................3
calculus..............................34
capacitance ..........................8
center frequency ................12
characteristic impedance....10
circular source ...................15
cocktail party effect ...........30
coincidence effect..............22
complex conjugate.............33
complex numbers ..............33
compliance ..........................8
condensation................2, 6, 7
conjugate
complex........................33
contiguous bands ...............12
coulomb...............................3
Cp dispersion ....................22
Cramer's rule .....................23
critical gradient..................32
Tom Penick
cross product .....................35

curl ....................................36
D(r) directivity function ...16
D() directivity function..14,
15, 16
dB decibels .............2, 12, 13
dBA ...................................13
decibel .....................2, 12, 13
del......................................35
density .................................6
equilibrium.....................6
dependent variable.............36
diffuse field .......................28
diffuse field mass law........22
dipole.................................14
direct field ...................29, 30
directivity function 14, 15, 16
dispersion ..........................22
displacement
particle .........................10
divergence .........................35
dot product ........................35
double walls ......................23
E energy density...............26
E(t) room energy density..26
effective acoustic pressure...5
electrical analogies ..............8
electrical impedance ..........18
electrostatic transducer ......19
energy density ...................26
direct field ....................29
reverberant field ...........30
enthalpy.............................36
entropy ..............................36
equation of state ..............6, 7
equation overview ...............6
equilibrium density..............6
Euler's equation .................34
even function.......................5
expansion chamber......24, 25
Eyring-Norris ....................28
far field..............................16
farad ....................................3
fc center frequency............12
fl lower frequency.............12
flexural wavelength ...........22
flow effects........................25
focal plane .........................16
focused source...................16
Fourier series.......................5
Fourier's law for heat
conduction .......................11
frequency
center............................12
frequency band ..................12
frequency band intensity
level .................................13
fu upper frequency ............12
gas constant .........................7
general math ......................33
glossary .............................36
grad operator .....................35
tom@tomzap.com
gradient
thermoacoustic .............32
gradient ratio .....................32
graphing terminology ........36
H enthalpy........................36
h specific enthalpy............36
half-power beamwidth ......16
harmonic wave ..................36
heat flux ............................11
Helmholtz resonator ..........25
henry ...................................3
Hooke's Law........................4
horsepower ..........................3
humidity ............................28
hyperbolic functions..........34
I acoustic intensity10, 11, 12
If spectral frequency density
........................................13
IL intensity level...............12
impedance .....................3, 10
air 10
due to air ......................18
mechanical ...................17
plane wave ...................10
radiation .......................18
spherical wave .............11
incident power...................27
independent variable .........36
inductance ...........................8
inertance..............................8
instantaneous intensity ......10
instantaneous pressure.........5
intensity.......................10, 11
intensity (dB) ..............12, 13
intensity spectrum level.....13
intervals
musical.........................12
Iref reference intensity.......12
isentropic...........................36
ISL intensity spectrum level
........................................13
isothermal..........................36
isotropic.............................28
joule ....................................3
k wave number ...................2
k wave vector .....................9
kelvin ..................................3
L inertance..........................8
Laplacian...........................35
line source .........................14
linearizing an equation ......34
LM mean free path.............28
m architectural absorption
coefficient........................28
magnitude..........................33
mass
radiation .......................18
mass conservation ...........6, 7
material properties.............20
mean free path...................28
mechanical impedance ......17
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mechanical radiation
impedance ....................... 18
modal density.................... 28
modes................................ 28
modulus of elasticity ........... 9
momentum conservation . 6, 8
monopole .......................... 13
moving coil speaker .......... 17
mr radiation mass ............. 18
mufflers....................... 24, 25
musical intervals ............... 12
N fractional octave ........... 12
n number of reflections .... 28
N(f) modal density............ 28
nabla operator ................... 35
natural angular frequency.... 4
natural frequency ................ 4
newton................................. 3
Newton's Law ..................... 4
noise.................................. 36
noise reduction .................. 30
NR noise reduction .......... 30
number of reflections ........ 28
octave bands...................... 12
odd function ........................ 5
p acoustic pressure ......... 5, 6
Pa ........................................ 3
particle displacement... 10, 22
partition............................. 21
pascal .................................. 3
paxial axial pressure ........... 19
Pe effective acoustic
pressure ............................. 5
perfect adiabatic gas............ 7
phase ................................. 33
phase angle.......................... 4
phase speed ......................... 9
phasor notation.................. 33
piezoelectric transducer..... 19
pink noise.......................... 36
plane wave
impedance.................... 10
velocity .......................... 9
plane waves......................... 9
polar form ........................... 4
power .......................... 10, 11
SPL .............................. 29
power absorbed ................. 27
Pref reference pressure ...... 13
pressure ........................... 6, 9
progressive plane wave ....... 9
progressive spherical wave 11
propagation ......................... 9
propagation constant ........... 2
Q quality factor ................ 29
quality factor ..................... 29
r gas constant ..................... 7
R room constant ............... 29
radiation impedance .......... 18
radiation mass ................... 18
radiation reactance ............ 18
rayleigh number ................ 16
EngineeringAcoustics.pdf
12/20/00 Page 1 of 36
rayls .....................................3
rd reverberation radius ......29
reflection............................20
reflection coefficient..........20
resonance
modal............................28
reverberant field ................30
reverberation radius...........29
reverberation room ............36
reverberation time..............28
rms.................................5, 34
room acoustics...................26
room constant ....................29
room energy density ..........26
room modes .......................28
root mean square ...............34
s condensation ................2, 6
Sabin formula ....................28
sabins.................................27
series..................................34
sidebranch resonator..........26
simple harmonic motion ......4
sound ...................................3
sound decay .......................26
sound growth .....................26
sound power level..............29
sound pressure level (dB) ..13
source ..........................13, 14
space derivative .................35
space-time..........................33
speaker...............................17
specific acoustic impedance

.........................................10
specific enthalpy................36
specific gas constant............7
spectral frequency density .13
speed amplitude...................4
speed of sound.....................3
sphere ................................36
spherical wave...................11
impedance ....................11
velocity ........................11
spherical wave impedance.11
SPL sound power level.....29
SPL sound pressure level..13
spring constant ....................4
standing waves ..................10
Struve function ..................18
surface density...................21
T60 reverberation time.......28
TDS ...................................36
temperature..........................3
temperature effects ............25
tesla .....................................3
thermoacoustic cycle .........31
thermoacoustic engine.......31
thermoacoustic gradient ....32
thin rod ................................9
time constant .....................26
time delay spectrometry ....36
time-average ......................33
time-averaged power .........33
TL transmission loss ...21, 22
trace wavelength ...............22

transducer
electrostatic ..................19
piezoelectric.................19
transmission ......................20
transmission at oblique
incidence .........................22
transmission coefficient ....20
transmission loss ...............21
composite walls............22
diffuse field..................22
expansion chamber ......25
thin partition.................21
trigonometric identities .....34
u velocity..................6, 9, 11
U volume velocity..............8
vector differential equation35
velocity................................6
plane wave .....................9
spherical wave .............11
volt ......................................3
volume
sphere...........................36
volume velocity...................8
w bandwidth .....................12
Wabs power absorbed ........27
watt......................................3
wave
progressive...................11
spherical.......................11
wave equation .....................6
wave number .......................2
DECIBELS [dB]
k WAVE NUMBER [rad/m]
A log based unit of energy that makes it easier to

describe exponential losses, etc. The decibel means
10 bels, a unit named after Bell Laboratories.
L = 10 log
energy
reference energy
[dB]
One decibel is approximately the minimum discernable

amplitude difference that can be detected by the human ear
over the full range of amplitude.
WAVELENGTH [m]
Wavelength is the distance that a
wave advances during one cycle.
At high temperatures, the speed of
sound increases so changes. Tk is
temperature in Kelvin.
wave vector ......................... 9

wavelength .......................... 2
temperature effects....... 25
weber................................... 3
weighted sound levels ....... 13
white noise ........................ 36
Wincident incident power..... 27
Young's modulus................. 9
z acoustic impedance........ 10
z impedance................ 10, 11
z0 rayleigh number ........... 16
ZA elec. impedance due to air
........................................ 18
ZM elec. impedance due to
mech. forces .................... 18
Zm mechanical impedance 17
Zr radiation impedance..... 18
gradient ratio................. 32
acoustic power ....... 10, 11
ratio of specific heats....... 6
wavelength...................... 2
p flexural wavelength ..... 22
tr trace wavelength.......... 22
0 equilibrium density........ 6
s surface density ............. 21
time constant ................. 26
particle displacement.... 10,
22
del................................. 35
curl............................. 36
2 Laplacian.................... 35
divergence ................... 35
=
=
c 2
=
f
k
343 Tk
f
293
The wave number of propagation constant

is a component of a wave function
representing the wave density or wave
spacing relative to distance. Sometimes
represented by the letter . See also
WAVE VECTOR p9.
k=
2
=
s CONDENSATION [no units]

The ratio of the change in density to the ambient
density, i.e. the degree to which the medium has
condensed (or expanded) due to sound waves. For
example, s = 0 means no condensation or expansion
of the medium. s = - means the density is at one
half the ambient value. s = +1 means the density is at
twice the ambient value. Of course these examples
are unrealistic for most sounds; the condensation will
typically be close to zero.
s=
0
0
= instantaneous density [kg/m3]

0 = equilibrium (ambient) density [kg/m3]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 2 of 36
UNITS
c SPEED OF SOUND [m/s]

Sound travels faster in stiffer (i.e. higher B, less
compressible) materials. Sound travels faster at
higher temperatures.
A (amp) = C = W = J = N m = V F
s V V s V s
s
C (coulomb) = As = V F = J = N m = W s
V
V
V
Frequency/wavelength relation:
2
2
F (farad) = C = C = C = J = As
V
J
N m V 2
V
H (henry) = V s (note that HF = s 2 )
A
In a perfect gas:
c=
P0
= rTK
0
BT
0
where
C
J (joule) = N m = V C = W s = AV
s = F V 2 =
F
N (newton) = J = C V = W s = kg m
m
m
m
s2
Pa (pascal) = N = kg = J = W s
m 2 ms 2 m3 m3
T (tesla) = Wb = V s = H A
m2 m2
m2
V (volt) = W = J = J = W s = N m = C
A C As
C
C
F
In liquids:
B = BT
= ratio of specific heats (1.4 for a diatomic gas) [no units]

P0 = ambient (atmospheric) pressure ( p = P0 ). At sea
level, P0 101 kPa [Pa]
2
W (watt) = J = N m = C V = V A = F V = 1 HP
s
s
s
s
746
Wb (weber) = H A = V s = J
A
Acoustic impedance: [rayls or (Pas)/m]
Temperature: [C or K] 0C = 273.15K
c=
c = f =

r = specific gas constant [J/(kg K)]
TK = temperature in Kelvin [K]
B = P adiabatic bulk modulus [Pa]
0
0
BT = isothermal bulk modulus, easier to measure than the
adiabatic bulk modulus [Pa]
Two values are given for the speed of sound in solids, Bar
and Bulk. The Bar value provides for the ability of sound to
distort the dimensions of solids having a small-crosssectional area. Sound moves more slowly in Bar material.
The Bulk value is used below where applicable.
Speed of Sound in Selected Materials [m/s]
Air @ 20C
Aluminum
Brass
Concrete
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
343
6300
4700
3100
Copper
Glass (pyrex)
Ice
Steam @ 100C
5000
5600
3200
404.8
Steel
Water, fresh 20C
Water, sea 13C
Wood, oak
6100
1481
1500
4000
12/20/00 Page 3 of 36
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Restoring force on a spring
(Hooke's Law):
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION,

POLAR FORM
s
M
f s = sx
and Newton's Law:
F = ma
d 2x
d 2x s
yield: sx = m
and
+ x=0
dt 2
dt 2 m
s
2
, so that the system is described by the
Let 0 =
m
d 2x
2
+ 0 x = 0 .
equation
2
dt
0 =
f0 =
s is the natural angular frequency in rad/s.

m
0
2
is the natural frequency in Hz.
x ( t ) = A cos ( 0t + ) ,
where we have the new constants:

amplitude:
u
A = x0 + 0
0
initial phase angle:
u
= tan 1 0
0 x0
Note that zero phase angle occurs at maximum positive

displacement.
By differentiation, it can be found that the speed of the mass
is
u = U sin ( 0t + ) , where U = 0 A
amplitude. The acceleration is
is the speed
a = 0U cos ( 0t + ) .
Using the initial conditions, the equation can be written
The general solution takes the form
x ( t ) = A1 cos 0t + A2 sin 0t
Initial conditions:
displacement:
velocity
Solution:
The solution above can be written
x ( 0 ) = x0 , so A1 = x0
x& ( 0 ) = u0 , so
x ( t ) = x0 cos 0 t +
u
A2 = 0
0
u0
sin 0t
0
s = spring constant [no units]

x = the displacement [m]
m = mass [kg]
u = velocity of the mass [m/s]
t = time [s]
u
x ( t ) = x0 + 0 cos 0t tan 1 0
0 x0
0
x0 = the initial position [m]

u0 = the initial speed [m/s]
s is the natural angular frequency in rad/s.
0 =
m
It is seen that displacement lags 90 behind the speed and
that the acceleration is 180 out of phase with the
displacement.
SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION,

displacement acceleration - speed
Displacement,
Speed,
Acceleration
Acceleration
Displacement
Speed
3
2
0 t
Phase
Angle
Initial phase angle =0
The speed of a simple oscillator leads the displacement by

90. Acceleration and displacement are 180 out of phase
with each other.
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 4 of 36
FOURIER SERIES
p ACOUSTIC PRESSURE [Pa]
The Fourier Series is a method of describing a

complex periodic function in terms of the frequencies
and amplitudes of its fundamental and harmonic
frequencies.
Sound waves produce proportional changes in

pressure, density, and temperature. Sound is usually
measured as a change in pressure. See Plane
Waves p9.
p = P P0
Let f ( t ) = f ( t + T ) = any periodic signal

where T = the period.
For a simple harmonic plane wave traveling in the x

direction, p is a function of x and t:
j( t kx )
p ( x, t ) = Pe
f (t)
P = instantaneous pressure [Pa]

0
1T
f (t ) =
Then
where =
2T
P = peak acoustic pressure [Pa]

x = position along the x-axis [m]
t = time [s]
1
A0 + ( An cos nt + Bn sin nt )
2
n =1
Pe EFFECTIVE ACOUSTIC PRESSURE

[Pa]
2
= the fundamental frequency
T
A0 = the DC component and will be zero provided the

function is symmetric about the t-axis. This is almost
always the case in acoustics.
An =
Bn =
2
T
t0 +T
t0
f ( t ) cos nt dt
2 t0 +T
f ( t ) sin nt dt
T t0

The effective acoustic pressure is the rms value of the

sound pressure, or the rms sum (see page 34) of the
values of multiple acoustic sources.
An is zero when f(t) is an

odd function, i.e. f(t)=-f(-t),
the right-hand plane is a
mirror image of the lefthand plane provided one of
them is first flipped about
the horizontal axis, e.g.
sine function.
Pe =
P
2
Pe =
Pe = P 2 = p 2 dt
2
P1 + P2 + P3 + L
2
P = peak acoustic pressure [Pa]

p = P P0 acoustic pressure [Pa]
Bn is zero when f(t) is an

even function, i.e. f(t)=f(-t),
the right-hand plane is a
mirror image of the lefthand plane, e.g. cosine
function.
where t0 = an arbitrary time
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 5 of 36
0 EQUILIBRIUM DENSITY [kg/m3]
EQUATION OVERVIEW
Equation of State (pressure)
The ambient density.
0 =
B P0
= 2
c2
c
BT
0 = 2
c
p = Bs
for ideal gases
Mass Conservation (density)

3-dimensional
for liquids
s v v
+ u = 0
t
The equilibrium density is the inverse of the specific volume.

From the ideal gas equation:
P = RT P = 0 RT
B = 0
( )
P

0
s u
+
=0
t x
Momentum Conservation (velocity)

3-dimensional
to the isothermal bulk modulus, 2.1810 for water [Pa]
c = the phase speed (speed of sound) [m/s]

p
u
+ 0
=0
x
t
From the above 3 equations and 3 unknowns (p, s, u)

we can derive the Wave Equation
2 p =
P = pressure [Pa]
= V/m specific volume [m3/kg]
V = volume [m3]
m = mass [kg]
R = gas constant (287 for air) [J/(kg K)]
T = absolute temperature [K] (C + 273.15)
Copper
8900
Glass (pyrex) 2300
Ice
920
Steam @ 100C
0.6
1 2 p
c 2 t 2
EQUATION OF STATE - GAS
0 Equilibrium Density of Selected Materials [kg/m3]

1.21
2700
8500
2600
1-dimensional
v
v
u
p + 0
=0
t
adiabatic bulk modulus, approximately equal

9
Air @ 20C
Aluminum
Brass
Concrete
1-dimensional
Steel
7700
Water, fresh 20C 998
Water, sea 13C 1026
Wood, oak
720
An equation of state relates the physical properties

describing the thermodynamic behavior of the fluid. In
acoustics, the temperature property can be ignored.
In a perfect adiabatic gas, the thermal conductivity of
the gas and temperature gradients due to sound
waves are so small that no appreciable thermal
energy transfer occurs between adjacent elements of
the gas.
B ADIABATIC BULK MODULUS [Pa]

B is a stiffness parameter. A larger B means the
material is not as compressible and sound travels
faster within the material.
Perfect adiabatic gas:
P
2
B = 0
= 0 c = P0
Linearized:

c = the phase speed (speed of sound, 343 m/s in air) [m/s]
P = instantaneous (total) pressure [Pa or N/m2]
P
=
P0 0
p = P0 s
P = instantaneous (total) pressure [Pa]

p = P - P0 acoustic pressure [Pa]
s = 0 = 1 condensation [no units]
0
B Bulk Modulus of Selected Materials [Pa]

Aluminum
Brass
Copper
Glass (pyrex)
75109
136109
16010
39109
Iron (cast)
86109
Rubber (hard)
5109
Lead
42109
Rubber (soft)
1109
Quartz
Steel
3310
170109
Water
*2.18109
Water (sea)
*2.28109
*BT, isothermal bulk modulus
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 6 of 36
EQUATION OF STATE LIQUID
MASS CONSERVATION one dimension
An equation of state relates the physical properties

describing the thermodynamic behavior of the fluid. In
acoustics, the temperature property can be ignored.
For the one-dimensional problem, consider sound

waves traveling through a tube. Individual particles of
the medium move back and forth in the x-direction.
Adiabatic liquid:
p = Bs
x + dx

B = 0
( )
P

0
A = tube area
adiabatic bulk modulus, approximately equal

9
to the isothermal bulk modulus, 2.1810 for water [Pa]
s = 0 = 1 condensation [no units]

0
( uA ) x+ dx
The specific gas constant r depends on the universal

gas constant R and the molecular weight M of the
particular gas. For air r 287 J/ ( kgK ) .
R
M
R = universal gas constant

M = molecular weight
is what's coming out the other side (a different
value due to compression) [kg/s]
r SPECIFIC GAS CONSTANT [J/(kg K)]
r=
( uA) x is called the mass flux [kg/s]
The difference between the rate of mass entering the center

volume (A dx) and the rate at which it leaves the center
volume is the rate at which the mass is changing in the
center volume.
( uA ) x ( uA ) x+ dx =
( uA )
dx
x
dv is the mass in the center volume, so the rate at which

the mass is changing can be written as
dv = A dx
t
t
Equating the two expressions gives
( uA )
A dx =
dx , which can be simplified
t
x
+ ( u ) = 0
t
x
u = particle velocity (due to oscillation, not flow) [m/s]
A = area of the tube [m2]
MASS CONSERVATION
three dimensions
v
v
+ ( u ) = 0
t
where
= x
+ y
+ z
x
y
z
and let = 0 (1 + s )
v v
s + u = 0 (linearized)
t
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 7 of 36
MOMENTUM CONSERVATION one

dimension (5.4)
For the one-dimensional problem, consider sound
waves traveling through a tube. Individual particles of
the medium move back and forth in the x-direction.
x
x + dx
( PA) x
-( PA) x+dx
A = tube area
( PA) x is the force due to sound pressure at location x in

the tube [N]
( PA) x +dx
is the force due to sound pressure at location
ACOUSTIC ANALOGIES
to electrical systems
ACOUSTIC
Impedance:
ZA =
Voltage:
Current:
F = ( PA ) ( PA )
x
x + dx
Z=
L INERTANCE [kg/m4]
Describes the inertial properties of gas in a channel.
Analogous to electrical inductance.
P
dx
= A
x
Force in the tube can be written in this form, noting that this
is not a partial derivative:
F = ma = ( A dx )
V
I
V =IR
V
I=
R
p
U

U = volume velocity (not a vector) [m3/s]
ZA = acoustic impedance [Pas/m3]
x + dx in the tube (taken to be in the positive or

right-hand direction) [N]
The sum of the forces in the center volume is:
ELECTRIC
du
dt
L=
0 x
A
0 = ambient density [kg/m3]

x = incremental distance [m]
A = cross-sectional area [m2]
For some reason, this can be written as follows:
( A dx )
du
u
u
= ( A dx ) + u
dt
x
t
C COMPLIANCE [m6/kg]
u often discarded in acoustics.

x
P = instantaneous (total) pressure [Pa or N/m2]
A = area of the tube [m2]
with the term u
MOMENTUM CONSERVATION
three dimensions
u
u
P + + u = 0
t
x
t
v
v
u v v v
and p +
+ u u = 0
t
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
C=
V
0
V = volume [m3]
0 = ambient density [kg/m3]
U VOLUME VELOCITY [m3/s]

Although termed a velocity, volume velocity is not a
vector. Volume velocity in a (uniform flow) duct is the
product of the cross-sectional area and the velocity.
U=
v
v
Note that uv uv is a quadratic term and that u is
t
quadratic after multiplication
v
v
u
p + 0
= 0 (linearized)
t
The springiness of the system; a higher value means

softer. Analogous to electrical capacitance.
V d
=
S = uS
t d t
V = volume [m3]
S = area [m2]
u = velocity [m/s]
= particle displacement, the displacement of a fluid
element from its equilibrium position [m]
12/20/00 Page 8 of 36
PLANE WAVES
u VELOCITY, PLANE WAVE [m/s]
PLANE WAVES (2.4, 5.7)

A disturbance a great distance from the source is
approximated as a plane wave. Each acoustic
variable has constant amplitude and phase on any
plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
The wave equation is the same as that for a
disturbance on a string under tension.
There is no y or z dependence, so = = 0 .
y z
2
2
One-dimensional wave equation: p = 1 p
x 2 c 2 t 2
General Solution
for the acoustic
pressure of a
plane wave:
The acoustic pressure divided by the impedance, also

from the momentum equation:
p
u
+ 0
=0
x
t
propagating in
the +x direction
p
p
=
z 0 c

z = wave impedance [rayls or (Pa s)/m]
c = dx
dt is the phase speed (speed of sound) [m/s]
k = wave number or propagation constant [rad./m]
r = radial distance from the center of the sphere [m]
(
)
(
)
p ( x, t ) = 1
Ae
Be
424
3+1
424
3
j t kx
u=
j t + kx
PROPAGATION (2.5)
propagating in
the -x direction
a disturbance
F(x-ct)

A = magnitude of the positive-traveling wave [Pa]
B = magnitude of the negative-traveling wave [Pa]
= frequency [rad/s]
t = time [s]
x = position along the x-axis [m]
x
c=
c=
is the phase speed (speed of sound) at which F is
v
k
j t kx )
ARBITRARY DIRECTION PLANE WAVE
WAVE VECTOR [rad/m or m-1]
The phase constant k is converted to a vector. For

v
plane waves, the vector k is in the direction of
propagation.
v
k = k x x + k y y + k z z
The expression for an arbitrary direction plane wave

contains wave numbers for the x, y, and z
components.
p ( x, t ) = Ae
where
j t k x x k y y k z z

k + k +k =
c
2
x
2
y
x
dx
, t 0
t
dt
translated in the +x direction. [m/s]
PROGRESSIVE PLANE WAVE (2.8)

A progressive plane wave is a unidirectional plane
waveno reverse-propagating component.
p ( x, t ) = Ae (
dx
dt
x = c t
where
k +k +k =
c
2
x
2
y
2
z
2
z
THIN ROD PROPAGATION
A thin rod is defined as ? a .

a
a = rod radius
c=
dx
dt
is the phase speed (speed of sound) [m/s]
= Young's modulus, or modulus of elasticity, a

characteristic property of the material [Pa]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 9 of 36
v
PARTICLE DISPLACEMENT [m]
STANDING WAVES
Two waves with identical frequency and phase
characteristics traveling in opposite directions will
cause constructive and destructive interference:
)
)
p ( x, t ) = p1e (
+pe(
1424
3 12424
3
j t kx
The displacement of a fluid element from its

equilibrium position.
v
v
u=
t
j t + kx
moving right
v
u
moving left
for p1=p2=10, k=1, t=0:
p
0c
= particle velocity [m/s]
ACOUSTIC POWER [W]

Acoustic power is usually small compared to the
power required to produce it.
v v
= I d s
S
S = surface surrounding the sound source, or at least the

2
surface area through which all of the sound passes [m ]
for p1=5, p2=10, k=1, t=0:
I = acoustic intensity [W/m2]
I ACOUSTIC INTENSITY [W/m2]
z SPECIFIC ACOUSTIC IMPEDANCE

[rayls or (Pa s)/m] (5.10)
Specific acoustic impedance or characteristic
impedance z is a property of the medium and of the
type of wave being propagated. It is useful in
calculations involving transmission from one medium
to another. In the case of a plane wave, z is real and
is independent of frequency. For spherical waves the
opposite is true. In general, z is complex.
z=
p
= 0 c (applies to progressive plane waves)
u
Acoustic impedance is analogous to electrical

impedance:
pressure
volts
= impedance =
velocity
amps
z = r+ j x
In a sense this is resistive,
i.e. a loss since the wave
departs from the source.
In a sense this is reactive,

in that this value represents
an impediment to propagation.
The time-averaged rate of energy transmission

through a unit area normal to the direction of
propagation; power per unit area. Note that I = puT
is a nonlinear equation (Its the product of two
functions of space and time.) so you can't simply use
jt or take the real parts and multiply, see TimeAverage p33.
I = I (t )
= pu
1 T
pu dt
T 0
For a single frequency:
I=
1
Re{ p u *}
2
For a plane harmonic wave traveling in the +z direction:
1 E 1 E x
E
I=
=
=c
A t A x t
V
p
Pe2
I=
=
20 c 0 c
T = period [s]
I(t) = instantaneous intensity [W/m2]
|p| = peak acoustic pressure [Pa]
Pe = effective or rms acoustic pressure [Pa]
c = dx
0c Characteristic Impedance, Selected Materials (bulk) [rayls]

Air @ 20C
415
Aluminum 17106
Brass
40106
Concrete
8106
Copper
44.5106
Glass (pyrex) 12.9106
Ice
2.95106
Steam @ 100C
242
Tom Penick
Steel
47106
Water, fresh 20C 1.48106
Water, sea 13C 1.54106
Wood, oak
2.9106
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 10 of 36
IMPEDANCE [rayls or (Pa s)/m]
FOURIER'S LAW FOR HEAT

CONDUCTION, HEAT FLUX
Spherical wave impedance is frequency dependent:
Sound waves produce proportional changes in

pressure, density, and temperature. Since the
periodic change in temperature is spread over the
length of a wavelength, the change in temperature per
unit distance is very small.
q = K
T
x
z=

c = dx
dt
q = heat flux [C/m]

T = temperature [C]
K = a constant
x = distance [m]
u VELOCITY, SPHERICAL WAVE [m/s]
SPHERICAL WAVES
u=
SPHERICAL WAVES (5.11)

General solution for a symmetric spherical wave:
p (r, t ) =
p
0 c
=
u 1 j / ( kr )

z = wave impedance [rayls or (Pa s)/m]
c = dx
A j( t kr ) B j( t + kr )
e
+ e
r424
r424
1
3 1
3
divirging from
the source
p
p
j
=
1
z 0 c kr
converging on
the source

A j( t kr )
Progressive spherical wave: p ( r , t ) = e
r
ACOUSTIC POWER, SPHERICAL

WAVES [W]

A = magnitude of the positive-traveling

wave [Pa]
B = magnitude of the negativetraveling wave [Pa]
= frequency [rad/s]
t = time [s]
k = wave number or propagation
constant [rad./m]
For a constant acoustic power, intensity increases

proportional to a reduction in dispersion area.
v v
= I d s
S
2
= 4{
r I
general definition
for spherical dispersion
area of a
spherical
surface
= 2{
r 2 I
SPHERICAL WAVE BEHAVIOR

Spherical wave behavior changes markedly for very
small or very large radii. Since this is also a function
of the wavelength, we base this on the kr product
where kr r/.
for hemispherical dispersion
hemispherical
surface
S = surface surrounding the sound source, or at least the

2
surface area through which all of the sound passes [m ]
For kr ? 1 , i.e. r ? (far from the source):
In this case, the spherical wave is much like a plane

wave with the impedance
z ; 0 c
and with p and u in
phase.
For kr = 1 , i.e. r = (close to the source):

In this case, the impedance is almost purely reactive
z ; j0 r
and p and u are 90 out of phase. The
source is not radiating power; particles are just sloshing

back and forth near the source.
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 11 of 36
FREQUENCY BANDS
CONTIGUOUS BANDS
fu fl FREQUENCY BANDS
The human ear perceives different frequencies at
different levels. Frequencies around 3000 Hz appear
loudest with a rolloff for higher and lower frequencies.
Therefore in the analysis of sound levels, it is
necessary to divide the frequency spectrum into
segments or bands.
f u = 21/ N f l
300
fc fu
log
1k
10k
fl
n+1
n+1
fc fu
n+1
1
f cn +1
= 2N
n
fc
N = the bandwidth in terms of the (inverse) fractional portion

of an octave, e.g. N=2 describes a -octave band
fc CENTER FREQUENCY [Hz]
Octave bands are the most common contiguous bands:
f cn +1
=2
f cn
fc
2
fl =
fu = f c 2
w=
fc
2
e.g. for fc = 1000 Hz, fl = 707 Hz, fu = 1414 Hz
The center frequency is the geometric mean of a

frequency band.
300
fl
a 1 -octave band
N
fu = the upper frequency in the band [Hz]
fl = the lowest frequency in the band [Hz]
fl
The upper frequency of one band is the lower

frequency of the next.
STANDARD CENTER FREQUENCIES [Hz]
fc fu
log
1k
16, 31.5, 63, 125, 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 8000
10k
fc =
Octave bands:
1/3-Octave bands:
10, 12.5, 16, 20, 25, 31.5, 40, 50, 63, 80, 100, 125, 160, 200,
250, 315, 400, 500, 630, 800, 1000, 1250, 1600, 2000, 2500,
3150, 4000, 5000, 6300, 8000
fu fl
fu = the upper frequency in the band [Hz]

fl = the lowest frequency in the band [Hz]
MUSICAL INTERVALS [Hz]

1/12
w BANDWIDTH [Hz]
Each half-step is 2
times higher than the previous
note.
Harmonious frequency ratios:
The width of a frequency band.
fl
fu
w
300
log
1k
10k
w = fu fl = 2 2 N 2
21N
)f
2:1
3:2
4:3
5:4
octave
perfect fifth
perfect fourth
major third
212/12 = 2.000
27/12 = 1.489
25/16 = 1.335
24/12 = 1.260
2/1 = 2.000
3/2 = 1.500
4/3 = 1.333
5/4 = 1.200
IL INTENSITY LEVEL [dB]

Acoustic intensity in decibels. Note that IL = SPL
when IL is referenced to 10-12 and SPL is referenced to
2010-6.
Intensity Level:
I
IL = 10 log
I ref

Iref = the reference intensity 110-12 in air [W/m2]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 12 of 36
If SPECTRAL FREQUENCY DENSITY
PSL PRESSURE SPECTRUM LEVEL
[W/m ]
[dB]
The distribution of acoustic intensity over the

frequency spectrum; the intensity at frequency f over a
bandwidth of f. The bandwidth f is normally taken
to be 1 Hz and may be suppressed.
I
If ( f ) =
f
The spectral frequency density expressed in decibels.

This is what you see on a spectrum analyzer.
Iref = the reference intensity 10
-12
PSL ( f ) = ISL ( f ) = SPL in a 1 Hz band

SPL = sound pressure level [dB]
dBA WEIGHTED SOUND LEVELS
ISL INTENSITY SPECTRUM LEVEL [dB]
ISL ( f ) = 10 log
Same as intensity spectrum level.
I f ( f )1Hz
I ref
[Pa]
(13.2)
Since the ear doesn't perceive sound pressure levels

uniformly across the frequency spectrum, several
correction schemes have been devised to produce a
more realistic scale. The most common is the Aweighted scale with units of dBA. From a reference
point of 1000 Hz, this scale rolls off strongly for lower
frequencies, has a modest gain in the 2-4 kHz region
and rolls off slightly at very high frequencies. Other
scales are dBB and dBC. Most standards, regulations
and inexpensive sound level meters employ the Aweighted scale.
ILBAND FREQUENCY BAND INTENSITY

LEVEL [dB]
ACOUSTICAL SOURCES
The sound intensity within a frequency band.
MONOPOLE (7.1)
ILBAND = ISL + 10 log w
The monopole source is a basic theoretical acoustic

source consisting of a small (small ka) pulsating
sphere.
ISL = intensity spectrum level [dB]

w = bandwidth [Hz]
SPL SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL [dB]

Acoustic pressure in decibels. Note that IL = SPL
when IL is referenced to 10-12 and SPL is referenced to
2010-6. An increase of 6 dB is equivalent to doubling
the amplitude. A spherical source against a planar
surface has a 3 dB advantage over a source in free
space, 6 dB if it's in a corner, 9 dB in a 3-wall corner.
Sound Pressure Level:
P
SPL = 20 log e
Pref
A j( t kr )
e
r
2
where A = jka 0 cu0
p (r, t ) =
a
u0e jt

r = radial distance from the center of the source [m]
= frequency [rad/s]
c=
dx
dt
for Multiple Sources:
N Pei 2
N SPLi /10
SPL = 10 log
= 10 log 10
i =1 Pref
i =1
for Multiple Identical Sources:
SPL = SPL0 + 10 log N

Pe = effective or rms acoustic pressure [Pa]
Pref = the reference pressure 2010-6 in air, 110-6 in water
[Pa]
N = the number of sources
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 13 of 36
DIPOLE
LINE SOURCE (7.3)
The dipole source is a basic theoretical acoustic

source consisting of two adjacent monopoles 180 out
of phase. Mathematically this approximates a single
source in translational vibration, which is what we
really want to model.
r2
r1
p ( r, ) =
and
for
A j t kr )
p ( r , ) = j2 e (
sin ( 12 kd sin )
3
r
1424
3 144244
directivity function

r = radial distance from the center of the source [m]
= frequency [rad/s]
tom@tomzap.com
r ? L , R r x sin ,
L
Far from the source, the wave looks spherical:
Tom Penick
A = jka 20cu0 .
p ( r , ) = Pdx ( r , , t ) dx (abbreviated form)
A = jka 0 cu0
2
spherical wave
dx A j( t kR )
e
L R
one tiny segment of the line source,
A j( t kr1 ) A j( t kr2 )
e
e
r1
r2
where
dx
dt
where Pdx is the pressure at a remote point due to
d
2
c=
Pdx ( R, , t ) =
Let
d
2 sin
dx
as r
r r1
p (r, )
r2
p (r, )
= 0
A line source of length L is calculated as follows.
dx A j( t kr + kx sin )
e
L r
1 A j( t kr ) L / 2 jkx sin
p ( r , , t ) =
e
L / 2 e dx
L r
A j t kr )
p ( r , , t ) = e (
D ( ) where
r
Pdx ( r , , t )
D ( ) =
sin ( 12 kL sin )
1
2
kL sin
Directivity Function
see also Half Power Beamwidth p16.
12/20/00 Page 14 of 36
DIRECTIVITY FUNCTION
CIRCULAR SOURCE (7.4, 7.5a)
The directivity function is responsible for the lobes of

the dispersion pattern. The function is normalized to
have a maximum value of 1 at = 0. Different
directivity functions are used for different elements;
the following is the directivity function for the line
source.
D ( ) =
A speaker in an enclosure may be modeled as a

circular source of radius a in a rigid infinite baffle
vibrating with velocity 0ejt. For the far field pressure
(r > ka2).
p ( r , , t ) = j
sin ( 12 kL sin )
1
2
kL sin
where
D ( ) =
ka 2
j t kr )
0 c 0 D ( ) e (
2r
2 J1 ( ka sin )
ka sin
Directivity function
The following is the directivity function for a focused

source.
D (r) =
J1 ( 2Gr / a )
Gr / a
3.83
null 1 sin 1
ka
First null
J1(x) = first order Bessel J function

r = radial distance from the source [m]
= angle with the normal from the circular source [radians]
t = time [s]
0c = impedance of the medium [rayls] (415 for air)

see also Half Power Beamwidth p16.
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 15 of 36
2
HP HALF-POWER BEAMWIDTH
FOCUSED SOURCE
The angular width of the main lobe to the points where

power drops off by 1/2; this is the point at which the
The dispersion pattern of a focused source is

measured at the focal plane, a plane passing through
the focal point and perpendicular to the central axis.
directivity function equals 1/ 2 .
FOCUSED SOURCE
z= 0
z= d
r
a
0 e jt
Focal Plane pressure
from the Directivity function: D ( HP ) =
2 J ( ka sin )
1
= 1
ka sin
2
1.61634
ka sin HP = 1.61634 2HP = 2sin 1
ka
3.2327
185.22
2HP
radians or
degrees, for ka ? 1
ka
ka
p ( r ) = G0c D ( r )
ka 2
2d
J1 ( 2Gr / a )
and D ( r ) =
(Directivity function)
Gr / a
where
For a circular source:
Focal Plane
G=

r = radial distance from the central axis [m]
G = constant [radians]
a = radius of the source [m]
d = focal length [m]
For a line source:
sin ( 12 kL sin )
from the Directivity function: D ( ) = 1 =
HP
2
1
2
1
2
z0 RAYLEIGH NUMBER [rad.m]
kL sin
1.391558
kL sin HP = 1.391558 2HP = 2sin 1 1
2 kL
The Rayleigh number or Rayleigh length is the

distance along the central axis from a circular piston
element to the beginning of the far field. Beyond this
point, complicated pressure patterns of the near field
can be ignored.
a 2 1 2
z0 =
= 2 ka

d = focal length [m]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 16 of 36
MOVING COIL SPEAKER (14.3b, 14.5)

magnet
Model for the moving coil

loudspeaker.
ZE
R0
V
(1.7)
The mechanical impedance is analogous to electrical
impedance but does not have the same units. Where
electrical impedance is voltage divided by current,
mechanical impedance is force divided by speed,
sometimes called mechanical ohms.
V = u Faraday's law
F = I Lorentz force
Zm MECHANICAL IMPEDANCE [(Ns)/m]
Rm
ZM
L0
RM
LM
CM
ZA
u = velocity of the voice coil [m/s]

I = electrical current [A]
R0 = electrical resistance of the voice coil []
L0 = electrical inductance of the voice coil [H]
s = spring stiffness due to flexible cone suspension material
[N/m]
Rm = mechanical resistance, a small frictional force [(N s)/m
or kg/s]
RM = effective electrical resistance due to the mechanical
resistance of the system []
CM = effective electrical capacitance due to the mechanical
stiffness [F]
LM = effective electrical inductance due to the mechanical
inertia [H]
V = voltage applied to the voice coil [V]
ZE = electrical impedance due to electrical components []
ZA = effective electrical impedance due to mechanical air
loading []
ZM = effective electrical impedance due to the mechanical
effects of spring stiffness, mass, and (mechanical)
resistance []
F = force on the voice coil [V]
= Bl coupling coefficient [N/A]
B = magnetic field [Tesla (an SI unit)]
l = length of wire in the voice coil [m]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
Zm =
F
u
F
sx Rmx
{
{& =
Return
force of
the spring
Force due to
mechanical
resistance
mx
{&&
Rm
Mass
acceleration
F = mx&& + Rm x& + sx
let
F ( t ) = F% ( ) e jt
and
X ( t ) = X% ( ) e jt
then
F% e jt = ( 2 m + jRm + s ) X% e jt
and
X% =
F%
2 m + jRm + s
so the velocity
finally
Z mo =
U% =
dx
dt
=jX% =
jF%
m + jRm + s
2
F%
F%
2 m + jRm + s
=
=
U% jF% / ( 2 m + jRm + s )
j
s
Z mo = Rm + {
jm j
{
{
inertia
damping
due to
mass
spring
effect
m = mass of the speaker cone and voice coil [kg]

x = distance in the direction of motion [m]
[N/m]
Rm = mechanical resistance, a small frictional force [(Ns)/m
or kg/s]
F = force on the speaker mass [N]
= frequency in radians
12/20/00 Page 17 of 36
ZM ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE DUE TO

MECHANICAL FORCES []
Converting mechanical impedance to electrical inverts
each element.
Zr RADIATION IMPEDANCE [(Ns)/m]

(7.5)
This is the mechanical impedance due to air
resistance. For a circular piston:
Z r = 0 cS R1 ( 2ka ) + j X 1 ( 2ka )
m
2
2
RM =
, CM = 2 , LM =
Rmo
s
ZM =
j 8 a 3, ka = 1
Zr 3 2 0
ka ? 1
a 0 c,
2
= RM P CM P LM
Z mo
Z mo = Rm + jm j
The functions R1 and X1 are defined as:
ZM =
s
Rm + jm j
RM = effective electrical resistance due to the mechanical

resistance of the system []
CM = effective electrical capacitance due to the mechanical
stiffness [F]
LM = effective electrical inductance due to the mechanical
inertia [H]
Rm = mechanical resistance, a small frictional force [(Ns)/m
or kg/s]
[N/m]
Zmo = mechanical impedance, open-circuit condition
[(Ns)/m or kg/s]
R1 ( x ) = 1
2 J1 ( x )
x
x2 x4
x6
x8
8 192 9216 737280
4 x x3
x5
x7
x9
5+ 7
+
2H1 ( x ) 3 45 1600 10 10
;
X1 ( x ) =
x
8
3
4
x + x 3 sin x 4 ,
AIR []
2
2Z r
(7.5)
The effective increase in mass due to the loading of

the fluid (radiation impedance).
mr =
The factor of two in the denominator is due to loading

on both sides of the speaker cone.
ZA =
x > 4.32

S = surface area of the piston [m2]
J1 = first order Bessel J function
R1 = a function describing the real part of Zr
X1 = a function describing the imaginary part of Zr
x = just a placeholder here for 2ka
H1 = first order Struve function
mr RADIATION MASS [kg]

ZA ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE DUE TO
, x 4.32
Xr
The effect of radiation mass is small for light fluids

such as air but in a more dense fluid such as water, it
can significantly decrease the resonant frequency.
0 =
s
m + mr
The functions R1 and X1 are defined as:

Xr = radiation reactance, the imaginary part of the radiation
impedance [(Ns)/m]
[N/m]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 18 of 36
paxial AXIAL PRESSURE [Pa]

paxial
ka 2
a 2
=j
0 c u = j 0 u ,
2r
2r
Z MA V
u=
Z MA + Z E
paxial
ELECTROSTATIC TRANSDUCER
(7.4a)
r > ka
1
2
Z MA j0 a 2
=
V0 e jt
Z MA + Z E 2r
ZMA = ZM || ZA = effective electrical impedance due to the

mechanical components and the effect of air []
ZE = electrical impedance due to the voice coil []
(14.3a, 14.9)
A moving diaphragm of area A is separated from a
stationary plate by a dielectric material (air). A bias
voltage is applied between the diaphragm and plate.
Modern devices use a PVDF film for the diaphragm
which has a permanent charge, so no bias voltage is
required. Bias, in this case and in general, is an
attempt to linearize the output by shifting its operating
range to a less non-linear operating region. The DC
bias voltage is much greater in magnitude than the
time-variant signal voltage but is easily filtered out in
signal processing.
oscillation
area
diaphragm
BASS REFLEX ENCLOSURE (14.6c)

V
The bass response of a speaker/cabinet system can

be improved bat the expense of an increase in low
frequency rolloff by adding a port to the enclosure.
dielectric
x
x0
Speaker
Zms 2
V
-
Port
Choose c somewhat less than s / m to add a response

peak just below the existing damping-controlled peak.
Rolloff below that point will increase from 12 dB/octave to 18
dB/octave.
1
Lc Cc
c =
2
Lc =
sc
ZE
R0
V
I
Cc =
RM
LM
Mechanical voltage:
mv
2
Coupling coefficient:
RC
CM
F
1
Z
=
I + ms2 u ,
jCo
LC
CC
PIEZOELECTRIC TRANSDUCER (14.12b)

Uses a crystal (usually quartz) or a ceramic; voltage is
proportional to strain. High efficiency (30% is high for
acoustics.) Highly resonant. Used for microphones
and speakers.
tom@tomzap.com
1
( I + u ) ,
jC0
For this circuit model, there is no

inverting of mechanical impedances
as in the loudspeaker circuit.
Lc = effective electrical inductance due to the cabinet [H]

sc = cabinet stiffness [N/m]
Cc = effective electrical capacitance due to the cabinet [F]
mv = mass of the air inside the port or vent [kg]
Tom Penick
Acoustic voltage: V =
ZC
ZM
L0
Co
Equilibrium capacitance:
C0V0
,
x0
C0 =
A
x0
V0 = bias voltage [V]

C0 = equilibrium capacitance due to diaphragm, back plate,
and dielectric [F]
F = force on the diaphragm [N]
I = electrical current [A]
u = electrical current due to mechanical force [A]
= coupling coefficient [N/V]
u = acoustic velocity [m/s]
Zms = short-circuit mechanical impedance [(N s)/m]
x0 = equilibrium position of the diaphragm [m]
A = area of the diaphragm [m2]
12/20/00 Page 19 of 36
REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION AT

NORMAL INCIDENCE (6.2)
Incident:
(
pi = Pe
i
j t k1 x )
Reflected:
pr = Pr e (
Transmitted:
(
pt = Pe
t
j t + k1 x )
j t k2 x )
k1 = /c1 , r1 = 01 c1
k2 = /c2 , r2 = 02 c2
USING REFLECTION TO DETERMINE

MATERIAL PROPERTIES (6.1)
The impedance of a material (and thereby its density)
can be determined by bouncing a plane wave off of
the material at normal incidence and measuring the
relative sound pressure levels. However, there are
two possible results since we don't know the phase of
the reflected wave, i.e. Pr can be positive or negative.
r1 = ( 0 c) 1
pi
Pi
pt
pr
r2 = ( 0 c) 2
test material
Pr
x=0
SPL difference = 20 log
Boundary Conditions:
1) Pressure is equal across the boundary at x=0.
pi + pr = pt Pi + Pr = Pt
2) Continuity of the normal component of velocity.
ui + ur = ut
R, T, RI, TI REFLECTION AND

TRANSMISSION COEFFICIENTS (6.2)
Pr
r r
Pi
and
=R= 2 1
Pr
Pi
r2 + r1
Pi = peak acoustic pressure, incident [Pa]

Pr = peak acoustic pressure, reflected [Pa]
r1 = characteristic acoustic impedances of the known
material (0c)1 [rayls or (Pas)/m]
r2 = characteristic acoustic impedance of the unknown
material (0c)2 [rayls or (Pas)/m]
The ratio of reflected and transmitted magnitudes to

incident magnitudes. The stiffness of the medium has
the most effect on reflection and transmission.
i) r2 >> r1 Medium 2 is very hard compared to medium 1
and we have total reflection. R 1, T 2
Note that T=2 means that the amplitude doubles, but
there is practically no energy transmitted due to high
impedance.
ii) r2 = r1 The mediums are similar and we have total
transmission. R = 0, T = 1
iii) r2 << r1 Medium 2 is very soft and we have total
reflection with the waveform inverted. R 1, T
P r r
R= r = 2 1
Pi r2 + r1
T=
Pt
2r2
=
Pi r2 + r1
r r
RI = 2 1
r2 + r1
TI =
4r2 r1
( r2 + r1 )
Pi, Pr, Pt = peak acoustic pressure (or magnitude) of

incident, reflected, and transmitted waves [Pa]
r1, r2 = characteristic acoustic impedances of the materials
(0c)1, (0c)2 [rayls or (Pas)/m]
RI = reflection intensity coefficient [no units]
TI = transmission intensity coefficient [no units]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 20 of 36
TRANSMISSION THROUGH PARTITIONS
a ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT
The absorption coefficient can be measured in an
impedance tube by placing a sample at the end of the
tube, directing an acoustic wave onto it and measuring
the standing wave ratio.
a=
Wa
SWR 1
= 1
Wi
SWR + 1
An alternative method is to place a sample in a reverberation

room and measuring the effect on the reverberation time for
the room. Difficulties with this method include variations
encountered due to the location of the sample in the room
and the presence of standing waves at various frequencies.
0.161V
as = a0 +
Ss
a Absorption Coefficient, Selected Materials [no units]

250 Hz
0.50
0.03
0.06
0.01
0.05
0.25
0.06
0.25
0.10
0.11
0.03
0.01
0.35
0.25
1 kHz
0.75
0.04
0.35
0.02
0.07
0.75
0.03
0.12
0.04
0.07
0.03
0.02
0.65
0.17
THIN PARTITION [dB] (13.15a)

For a planar, nonporous, homogeneous, flexible wall,
the transmission loss is dependent on the density of
the partition and the frequency of the noise.
2 c

Pi + Pr = 1 + j s Pt TI = 0
0 c
s
TL = 20 log
Ii
c
= 20 log ( f s ) 20 log 0
It
This is the Normal Incidence Mass Law. Low

frequency roll off of the transmitted wave will be 6
dB/octave. Doubling the mass of the wall will give an
additional 6 dB loss.
1 1

Ts T0
Wi = power incident on a surface [W]

Wa = power absorbed by ? [W]
Wr = Wi - Wa = power in the reflected sound [W]
as = absorption coefficient of the sample [no units]
a0 = absorption coefficient of the empty room [no units]
V = volume of the room [m3]
Ss = surface area of the sample [no units]
Ts = reverberation time with the same in place [s]
T0 = reverberation time in the empty room [s]
acoustic tile suspended ceiling

brick
carpet
concrete
concrete block, painted
fiberglass, 1" on rigid backing
glass, heavy plate
glass, windowpane
gypsum, " on studs
floor, wooden
floor, linoleum on concrete
floor, terrazzo
upholstered seats
wood paneling, 3/8-1/2"
TL TRANSMISSION LOSS THROUGH A
4 kHz
0.60
0.07
0.65
0.02
0.08
0.65
0.02
0.04
0.09
0.07
0.02
0.02
0.60
0.10
Loss through a thin partition in air (0c = 415):
TL0 = 20 log
Ii
= 20 log ( f s ) 42
It
Transmission loss as a function of power:
TL0 = 10log
Wi
Wt
s = surface density of the partition material [kg/m2]

0c = impedance of the medium [rayls or (Pas)/m] (415 for
air)
f = frequency [Hz]
Pt = peak acoustic pressure, transmitted [Pa]
Ii = intensity of the incident wave [W/m2]
It = intensity of the transmitted wave [W/m2]
Wi = power of the incident wave [W/m2]
Wt = power of the transmitted wave [W/m2]
s SURFACE DENSITY [kg/m2]

The surface density affects the transmission loss
through a material and is related to the material
density.
s = 0 h
0 = density of the material [kg/m3]
h = thickness of the material [m]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 21 of 36
TL TRANSMISSION LOSS IN
COINCIDENCE EFFECT (13.15a)
COMPOSITE WALLS AT NORMAL

INCIDENCE [dB]
When a plane wave strikes a thin partition at an angle,

there are alternating high and low pressure zones
along the partition that cause it to flex sinusoidally.
This flexural wave propagates along the surface of
the wall. At some frequency, there is a kind of
resonance and the wall becomes transparent to the
wave. This causes a marked decrease in the
transmission loss over what is expected from the
mass law; it can be 10-15 dB.
For walls constructed of multiple materials, e.g. a brick

wall having windows, the transmission loss is the sum
of the transmission losses in the different materials.
TL0 = 10 log
1
, where TI = 1 Ti Si ,
TI
S i
for a wall in air: Ti = 132

f S
Coincidence occurs
when tr = p.
Si = area of the ith element [m2]

Ti = TI for of the ith element (transmission intensity
coefficient [no units]
s = surface density [kg/m2]
The wave equation

for a thin plate:
Waves striking a wall at an angle see less impedance

than waves at normal incidence.
1
S
1+
cos
20 c
4
12 2
+
=0
2
y 4 h 2cbar
t2
( y, t )
h
Particle displacement:
Dispersion:
pi
TI ( ) =
tr
( y, t ) = e
j t y / C p
hcbar f [m/s]
3
Trace wavelength: tr =
[m]
sin
Cp
[m]
Flexural wavelength: p =
f
c2
Coincidence frequency: f c =
[Hz]
1.8hcbar
pt
TRANSMISSION AT OBLIQUE
INCIDENCE [dB]
pr
Cp ( f ) =
TL
TI = transmission intensity coefficient [no units]

= angle of incidence [radians]
(dB)
Mass law
6 dB/octave
slope
air)
10-15 dB
s = surface density [kg/m2]
fc
DIFFUSE FIELD MASS LAW [dB]

In a diffuse field, sound is incident by definition at all
angles with equal probability. Averaging yields an
increase in sound transmission of 5 dB over waves of
normal incidence.
TLdiffuse = TL0 5
Loss through a thin partition in air (0c = 415):
TLdiffuse = 20 log ( f S ) 47
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
log f
Design considerations: If f < fc, use the diffuse field mass

law to find the transmission loss. If f > fc, redesign to avoid.
Note that fc is proportional to the inverse of the thickness.
= transverse particle displacement [m]

h = panel thickness [m]
cbar = bar speed for the panel material [m/s]
t = time [s]
= angle of incidence [radians]
12/20/00 Page 22 of 36
DOUBLE WALLS
DOUBLE WALL result
Masses in series look like series electrical

connections. We want to determine the motion of the
second wall due to sound incident on the first.
Assume that d << and let:
mi = S i
th
mass per unit area of i wall
P0 0c
=
stiffness per unit area of air
d
d
f1 = pi + pr force per unit area on wall 1
f1
m1
m2
x1
Double walls are most effective.
s2
Z w ; j3
From Newton's Law F=ma:
Mass 2:
s ( x1 x2 ) = m2 &&
x2
Let
f1 = F1e
jt
xi = X i ( ) e
( s1 s 2 )
; 6dB/octave
20c
s1
f1 s ( x1 x2 ) = m1 &&
x1
Z w ; j ( s1 + s 2 )
At high frequencies f > f0
x2
Mass 1:
Both walls move together (in phase) like one wall of twice
the mass. So the mass law is recovered.
TL ; 20log
s=
At low frequencies f < f0
s1 s 2 d
0 c 2
TL ; 20log
3 ( s1 s 2 )
; 18dB/octave
202c 3
At very high frequencies f << f0

The walls decouple. The transmission loss is the sum of
the losses of the two walls; there is no interaction.
TL ; TL1 + TL2 ; 12dB/octave
jt
A
x
b
644474448
}
}
2
s m1
s X 1 F1
=
s m2 2 X 2 0
s
Apply Cramer's rule,
Xi =
= det A and
i = det A, with b in the i th column
where
The wall impedance is
ZW =
F1
mm
=
= j ( m1 + m2 ) 1 2 3
j 2 js
s
S 1 S 2 d 3
ZW =j ( S 1 + S 2 )
0
Resonance occurs at ZW=0:
f0 =
1 0 c 2 1
1
+
2
d S 1 S 2
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 23 of 36
MUFFLERS
EXPANSION CHAMBER BOUNDARY

CONDITIONS
EXPANSION CHAMBER
When sound traveling through a pipe encounters a
section with a different cross-sectional area, it sees a
new impedance and some sound is reflected. The
dimensions can be chosen to optimize the
transmission loss through the exit at particular
frequencies. We assume d < .
expansion
chamber
gas
flow
pi
pr
p+
p-
pt
pipe
0
Let
pi = Pe
i
j( t kx )
pr = Pr e
j( t + kx )
j t kx )
p+ = P+ e (
j t + kx )
p = P e (
(
pt = Pe
t
j t kx )
R=
Pr
Pi
T=
Pt
Pi
p
ui = i
0 c
p
ur = r
0 c
p
u+ = +
0 c
p
u =
0 c
p
ut = t
0 c
P
P
= +
=
Pi
Pi
Boundary condition 1: at x = 0,
pi + pr = p+ + p Pi + Pr = P+ + P
Pi Pr P+ P
+ = +
1 + R = + (i)
Pi Pi Pi Pi
Boundary condition 2: at x = 0,
Conservation of mass
by equating volume
velocities. The volume
velocity is the crosssectional area times the
net velocity. See p8.
Volume velocity is equal

across the boundary.
Area
Sc
Area Sp
S p ( ui + ur ) = S c ( u+ + u ) S p ( Pi Pr ) = S c ( P+ P )
Pi Pr Sc P+ P
(ii)
=
1 R = m ( )
Pi Pi S p Pi Pi
(i) + (ii):
(1 + m) + (1 m) = 2
[Eqn. 1]
Boundary condition 3: at x = l,
jkl
p+ + p = pt P+ e jkl + P e jkl = Pe
e jkl + e jkl = Te jkl
[Eqn. 2]
Boundary condition 4: at x = l,
Sc ( u+ + u ) = S p ut
( P+ + P ) =
e jkl e jkl = m1 Te jkl
Sp
Sc
Pt
[Eqn. 3]
m = the ratio of the cross-sectional area of the expansion

chamber to the cross-sectional area of the pipe.
Next, solve the three equations:
pi = acoustic pressure, incident wave [Pa]

pr = acoustic pressure, reflected wave [Pa]
p+ = pressure, expan. chamber forward-traveling wave [Pa]
p- = pressure, expan. chamber reverse-traveling wave [Pa]
pt = acoustic pressure, transmitted wave [Pa]
P+ = peak acoustic pressure, expansion chamber forwardtraveling wave [Pa]
P- = peak acoustic pressure, expansion chamber reversetraveling wave [Pa]
Pt = peak acoustic pressure, transmitted [Pa]
air)
R = reflection coefficient [no units]

T = transmission coefficient [no units]
= expansion exit transmission coefficient [no units]
= expansion exit reflection coefficient [no units]
Sp = cross-sectional area of the pipe [m2]
Sc = cross-sectional area of the expansion chamber [m2]
Next, apply the boundary conditions:
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 24 of 36
EXPANSION CHAMBER, FINAL STEPS
A Helmholtz resonator is a vessel having a large

volume with a relatively small neck. The gas in the
neck looks like a lumped mass and the gas in the
volume looks like a spring at low frequency.
Solve the three equations:
(1 + m )
jk l
e
e jk l
(1 m )
+ jk l
e
e + jk l
Cramer's Rule:
TL = 10 log
HELMHOLTZ RESONATOR (10.8)
0 2
e jk l = 0
m1 e jk l T 0
S
M
e jk l
T
T=
=
cos kl + j 12 ( m + m1 ) sin kl
1
1
= 10 log 2
TI
T
V = volume
Stiffness due to a gas volume:

Mass of the gas in neck:
Transmission loss in an expansion chamber:
m = 0 l A
0 c 2 A2
V
[N/m]
[kg]
neck
l l + 0.8 A
Design point
s=
Some gas spills out of the neck, so the

mass plug is actually slightly longer than
the neck. In practice, the effective length
is:
2
TL = 10 log 1 + 14 ( m m1 ) sin 2 kl
TL
A= area
Resonance:
kl
0 =
S
,
m
f0 =
1 S
c
A
=
2 m 2 l V
FLOW EFFECTS
Muffler performance is affected by flow rate, but the
preceding calculations are valid for flows up to 35 m/s.
TEMPERATURE EFFECTS
The effect of having high temperature gases in a
muffler causes the speed of sound to increase, so
becomes larger.
343 T + 273
f
293
= wavelength [m]
f = frequency [Hz]
T = temperature [C]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 25 of 36
E(t) ROOM ENERGY DENSITY [J/m3]
SIDEBRANCH RESONATOR
(12.2)
Sound growth: The following expression describes
the effect of sound energy filling a room as a source is
turned on at t=0.
Refer to the Helmholtz resonator above.
V = Volume
A = Area
Helmholtz
resonator
pipe
gas
flow
pi
pr
E (t ) =
pt
The effect here is similar to the effect of blowing across the

top of a coke bottle. The air across the bottle creates noise
at many frequencies but the coke bottle responds only to its
resonant frequency.
f V 2
0

sc

TL 10 log 1 +
f0
f
f f

0
The following is the differential equation that describes

the growth of sound energy in a live room.
dE
Ac
V
+
E = W0
{
d
t
4
{
power
{
the rate at which
the rate at which

energy increases
in the volume
pi + pr
z 0c
z 0c
0 c
s/m , z 0
pt
(s m) c
0
s m + j0c
2
TL = transmission loss [dB]

f = frequency [Hz]
f0 = resonant frequency of Helmholtz resonator [Hz]
V = resonator volume [m3]
s = stiffness [m3]
4V
Ac
AVERAGE ENERGY DENSITY [J/m3]

(12.2)
E =
(5.8)
The amount of sound energy (potential and kinetic)

per unit volume. In a perfectly diffuse field, E does not
depend on location.
E=
, where
W0 = power of the sound source [W]

A = sound absorption, in units of metric sabin or English
2
2
sabin [m or ft ]
t = time [s]
= time constant [s]
E0 = initial energy density [J/m3]
c = the speed of sound (343 m/s in air) [m/s]
ROOM ACOUSTICS
E ENERGY DENSITY [J/m3]
dE
4W0
+E =
dt
Ac
E ( t ) = E0 e t /
z=
of the
input
source
Sound decay: The following expression describes

the effect of sound dissipation as a source is turned
off at t=0.
ut
s
j
0,

jm
energy is absorbed
by the surfaces
This can be rewritten to include the time constant.
For a duct of impedance 0c with a Helmholtz resonator

having stiffness s and neck mass m, the arrangement can be
modeled as follows.
uH
4W0
1 et / )
(
Ac
1
E dV
V
E = energy density [J/m3]

V = room volume [m3 or ft3]
2
prms
P2
=
0 c 20 c
prms = acoustic pressure, rms [Pa]

P = peak acoustic pressure or pressure magnitude [Pa]
air)
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 26 of 36
A ABSORPTION [m2 or ft2]
The absorption or absorption area may have units of

metric sabins or English sabins, named for Wallace
Sabine (1868-1919). The absorption area can be
thought of as the equivalent area to be cut out of a
wall in order to produce the same effect as an object
of absorption A. See also ABSORPTION
COEFFICIENT p21.
A = a S = Ai
where a =
Wabs POWER ABSORBED [W]
(12.1)
1
ai Si , Ai = ai Si
S
Wabs = aWincident
AVERAGE ABSORPTION [m2 or ft2]
1
ai Si
S
Wincident = power incident on the surface [W]

a = average absorption coefficient [no units]
S = total surface area [m2 or ft2]
Ai = sound absorption of a particular material in the room
[m2 or ft2]
ai = absorption coefficient of a particular material [no units]
Si = area represented by a particular material [no units]
Wincident INCIDENT POWER [W]
= average absorption coefficient [no units]

Ai = sound absorption of a particular material in the room
[m2 or ft2]
where a =
(12.2)
(12.2)
The total power incident on the walls of a room.
Wincident =
1
Sc E
4

= average energy density [J/m ]
(12.3)
The average sound absorption over an area.
a=
1
Wabs
A
ai Si , a =
=
S
Wincident S
A = total absorption area [m2 or ft2]

Wabs = power absorbed by the surfaces [W]
Wincident = power incident on the surfaces [W]
MEASURING ABSORPTION [m2 or ft2]

The absorption of a sample can be measured by
placing the sample in a reverberation chamber and
measuring the effect it has on reverberation time. The
absorption value for a person @ 1kHz is about
0.95 m2, for a piece of furniture about 0.08 m2. See
also ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT p21.
1 1
As = 0.161V
Ts T0
As = sound absorption of the sample [m2 or ft2]
V = volume of the room [m3]
Ts = reverberation time with the sample in place [s]
T0 = reverberation time in the empty room [s]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 27 of 36
T60 REVERBERATION TIME [s]
(12.3)
The time required for a sound to decay by 60 dB, i.e.

to one millionth of its previous value. Sound decay is
linear when viewed on a log scale.
SPL
[dB]
60 dB
t =0
60 =
(metric),
Including air absorption (for
0.161V
T=
A + 4mV
ARCHITECTURAL [no units] (12.3)

I = I 0e mx = I 0e mct
(English)
a 0.2 ):
For most architectural applications, the air absorption

coefficient can be approximated as:
1.7
(metric)
0.161V
4mV S ln (1 a )
(metric)
= time constant [s]

2
2
sabin [m or ft ]
m = air absorption coefficient [no units]

I0 = initial acoustic intensity [W/m2]
h = relative humidity (limited to the range 20 to 70%) [%]
f = frequency (limited to the range 1.5 to 10 kHz) [Hz]
= air absorption coefficient due to combined factors [no
units]
LM MEAN FREE PATH [m]

The average distance between reflections in a
rectangular room. This works out to 2L/3 for a cubic
room and 2d/3 for a sphere.
LM =
(p,q,r) MODES, rectangular cavity
(9.1)
The modes of a volume are the frequencies at which

resonances occur, and are a function of the room
dimensions. For example, the lowest mode will be the
frequency for which the longest dimension equals
-wavelength and is represented by (1,0,0).
2
m = 2
m = 5.5 10 4 ( 50 / h )( f /1000 )
More accurate, Eyring-Norris reverberation formula:
T=
4 2
Vf
c3
m AIR ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT,
Sabin formula:
0.049V
T=
A
N( f )
f = frequency [Hz]
V = room volume [m3]
T
4V
10 log e T = 13.816 , =
ac
0.161V
T=
A
(9.2)
The number of modes (resonant frequencies) per unit

hertz. The modal density increases with frequency
until it becomes a diffuse field. In a diffuse field, the
modal structure is obscured and the sound field
seems isotropic, i.e. the SPL is equal everywhere.
Rectangular room:
T60
N(f) MODAL DENSITY [Hz-1]
c p q r
f ( p, q, r ) =
+ +
2 L W H
p, q, and r form the mode numbers. They are integers

representing the number of half-wavelengths in the length,
width, and height respectively. To avoid having more than
one mode at the same frequency, the ratio of any two room
dimensions should not be a whole number. Some
recommended room dimension ratios are 1.6:1.25:1.0 for
small rooms and 2.4:1.5:1.0 or 3.2:1.3:1.0 for large rooms.
4V
S

n NUMBER OF REFLECTIONS [no units]

The number of acoustic reflections in a room in time t.
n=
ct ctS
=
LM 4V

t = time [s]
LM = mean free path [m]
f = frequency [Hz]
L, W, H = room length, width, and height respectively [m]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 28 of 36
R ROOM CONSTANT [m2]

Note that
DIRECT FIELD
R ; A when a is very small.

A
aS
R=
=
1 a 1 a
The direct field is that part of a room in which the

dominant sound comes directly (unreflected) from the
source.
SPL
[dB]

2
2
sabin [m or ft ]
Direct field
(slope is 6 dB per
doubling of distance)
Reverberant
field
SPLrev
rd
SPL SOUND POWER LEVEL [dB]

W
Source: SPL = Lw = 10 log
Wref
Energy density (direct):
cW
4
Q
+ +10 log 0 2 ref
SPL = Lw + 10 log
2
R
4r
Pref 3
144
42444
In mks units, this is 10 log 1.04,

which is small enough to be ignored.
4
Q
+
SPL = Lw + 10 log
2
R
4r
Edir =
log r
I Q W
=
c c 4 r 2
[J/m3]

Q = quality factor (Q=1 when source is remote from all
surfaces) [no units]
W = sound power level of the source [W]
r = distance from the source to the observation point [m]
rd REVERBERATION RADIUS [m]
Lw = sound power level of the source [dB]

Wref = reference power level, 10-12 [W]
Q = quality factor [no units]
R = room constant [m2]
Pref = the reference pressure 2010-6 in air, 110-6 in water
[Pa]
The distance from the source at which the SPL due to

the source falls to the level of the reverberant field.
rd =
QR
16
Q = quality factor (Q=1 when source is remote from all

surfaces) [no units]
Q QUALITY FACTOR [no units]

A factor that is dependent on the location of a source
relative to reflective surfaces. The source strength or
amplitude of volume velocity.
Q = 1 The source is located away from surfaces.
Q = 2 The source is located on a hard surface.
Q = 4 The source is located in a 2-way corner.
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 29 of 36
REVERBERANT FIELD
COCKTAIL PARTY EFFECT
The area in a room that is remote enough from the

sound source that movement within the field does not
cause appreciable change in sound level. The area of
the room not in the direct field.
Consider a room of a given volume V and reverberation time

T, and assume a fixed distance d among speakers and
listeners in M small conversational groups. In each group,
only one person is speaking at a time. There is a theoretical
maximum number of groups that can exist before the onset
of instability and loss of intelligibility. That is, as more
conversations are added, one must speak louder in order to
be heard. But with everyone speaking louder, the
background noise increases, hence the instability.
Direct field
SPL
[dB]
(slope is 6 dB per
doubling of distance)
Reverberant
field
SPLrev
B
rd
log r
d
Sound power level:
SPL rev = Lw + 6 10 log R [dB]
Energy density (reverberant):
Erev =
4Wrev 4W
[J/m3]
=
Ac
Rc
SPLrev = sound power level in the reverberant field [m]

rd = distance from the source to the reverberant field
boundary [m]
Lw = sound power level of the source [dB]
Wrev = reverberant sound power level of the room [W]
NR NOISE REDUCTION [dB]
Energy density at B due to speaker A:
Reverberant energy density due to other M-1

conversations:
Erev = ( M 1)
SNR =
S
TL = NR + 10log w
R2
, provided
E1
Erev
1 R
+ 1
2
M 1 16d
Notice that the power W drops out of the equation.

Now if we require that this signal to noise ratio be some
minimum required in order for the listener to be able to
understand the speaker, the expression can be written:
NR = SPL1 SPL2
M < 1+
For measuring transmission loss:
4W
Rc
Signal to noise ratio:
(13.13)
The noise reduction from one room to an adjoining room is

the difference between the sound power levels in the two
rooms. The value is used in the measurement of
transmission loss for various partition materials and
construction.
4
W 1
+
2
c 4 d
R
E1 =
1 R
+ 1
2
SNR min 16d
Assume R ; A so that T = 0.161V / A ; 0.161V / R , then

we can rewrite the expression in terms of the room volume V
and the reverberation constant T.
R2 ; A2
Sw = surface area of the wall [m2]

R2 = room constant of the receiving room [m2]
A2 = sound absorption or absorption area of the receiving
2
room [m ]
M < 1+
1 V
+ 1
2
SNR min 312d T
[mks units]
If we further assume that to the listener, the speaker must

be as loud as the background noise, then the maximum
number of speakers (conversations) in the room is
M max ; 2 +
V
312d 2T
W = power output of a speaker [W]

M = the number of speakers (or groups)
d = distance between speakers in the same group [m]
E = energy density [J/m3]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 30 of 36
THERMOACOUSTIC CYCLE
THERMOACOUSTIC ENGINE
Consider a small volume of air in acoustic oscillation

at t0 and ambient pressure p0. As it moves toward the
source, pressure and temperature increase while
volume decreases. The volume of air slows and
reverses direction at t1 and transfers heat to the metal
plate. As the volume of air moves away from the
source, pressure and temperature decrease. At the
volume reaches t3, it slows and again reverses
direction. The cooler volume absorbs heat from the
metal place. This action takes place all along the
length of the metal plate, forming a bucket brigade of
heat transfer.
A transducer in one end of a half-wavelength chamber

creates a high power standing wave. Thin metal
plates are positioned of the way from one end so
that velocity, displacement and pressure amplitudes
will all be high.
Thermoacoustic Engine
Transducer
Hot
Displacement
Cold
Velocity
Pressure
time
p
t0
t1
t2
Displacement
t3
t0
Pressure
Source
Metal plate
t1
Source
p = A cos kx sin t , k =
Metal plate
t2
Source
u=
A
sin kx cos t
0 c
A
sin kx cos t
0c
Metal plate
t3
Source
3
8
length
c
, =
/2
/2
0
Q
Metal plate
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 31 of 36
THERMOACOUSTIC GRADIENT
Also called critical gradient. The oscillatory motion
and oscillatory temperature of gas particles along the
metal plates establishes a temperature gradient along
the plates. The parallel stacking of plates increases
the power of the engine but does not affect the
gradient.
T
T
2 0
Maximum temperature gradient:
dT
dx
= ( 1) kT0
critical

T0 = ambient temperature [K]
GRADIENT RATIO
The ratio of the operating temperature gradient to the
critical gradient.
dT / d x
dT / d x critical
> 1: Thermoacoustic heat engine

Heat flow generates sound (does work)
QH
+
Vout
QC
< 1: Thermoacoustic refrigerator
Acoustic energy pumps heat from cold end to hot
end of stack
QH
+
Vin
QC
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 32 of 36
GENERAL MATHEMATICAL
PHASOR NOTATION
x + j y COMPLEX NUMBERS
Im
y
When the excitation is sinusoidal and under steadystate conditions, we can express a partial derivative in
phasor notation, by replacing with j . For
example, the Telegrapher's equation V = L I

z
t
V
becomes
= LjI . Note that V ( z , t ) and
z
I ( z , t ) are functions of position and time (space-time
Re
x + jy = Ae = A cos + jA sin
Re{ x + jy} = x = A cos
functions) and V ( z ) and I ( z ) are functions of position
Im{ x + jy} = y = A sin
only.
Magnitude { x + jy} = A = x 2 + y 2
Phase { x + jy} = = tan 1
j=e
Sine and cosine functions are converted to

exponentials in the phasor domain.
y
x
Example:
v v
E ( r , t ) = 2 cos ( t + 3 z ) x + 4sin ( t + 3 z ) y
j
2
The magnitude of a complex number may be written as the

absolute value.
Magnitude {x + jy} = x + jy
The square of the magnitude of a complex number is the
product of the complex number and its complex conjugate.
The complex conjugate is the expression formed by
reversing the signs of the imaginary terms.
x + jy = ( x + jy )( x + jy ) * = ( x + jy )( x jy )
2
= Re{2e j3 z e jt x + ( j) 4e j3 z e jt y }
v v
E ( r ) = 2e j3 z x j4e j3 z y
TIME-AVERAGE
When two functions are multiplied, they cannot be
converted to the phasor domain and multiplied.
Instead, we convert each function to the phasor
domain and multiply one by the complex conjugate of
the other and divide the result by two. The complex
conjugate is the expression formed by reversing the
signs of the imaginary terms.
For example, the function for power is:
P (t ) = v ( t ) i (t )
watts
Time-averaged power is:
P (t ) =
1
T
v ( t ) i ( t ) dt watts
T
For a single frequency:
P (t ) =
1
Re{V I * } watts
2
T = period [s]
V = voltage in the phasor domain [s]
I* = complex conjugate of the phasor domain current [A]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 33 of 36
RMS
SERIES
rms stands for root mean square.

root
mean
square
p 2
f ( t )rms =
1+ x ; 1+
f (t )
1
x , x =1
2
1
x 3x 2 5 x 3 35 x 4
; 1 +
+
L , 12 < x < 12
2
8
16
128
1+ x
1
; 1 + x 2 + x 4 + x 6 + L , 12 < x < 12
2
1 x
1
; 1 + 2 x + 3x 2 + 4 x 3 + L , 12 < x < 12
2
(1 x )
1
; 1 x + x 2 x 3 + L , 12 < x < 12
1+ x
1
; 1 + x + x 2 + x 3 + L , 12 < x < 12
1 x
The plot below shows a sine wave and its rms value, along
with the intermediate steps of squaring the sine function and
taking the mean value of the square. Notice that for this
type of function, the mean value of the square is the peak
value of the square.
BINOMIAL THEOREM
Also called binomial expansion. When m is a positive
integer, this is a finite series of m+1 terms. When m is
not a positive integer, the series converges for -1<x<1.
(1 + x )
EULER'S EQUATION
e j = cos + j sin
TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES
e+ j + e j = 2 cos
J1:
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
j sin = sinh ( j )
j cos = cosh ( j )
CALCULUS
sin u du = 12 u 14 sin 2u + C
j tan = tanh ( j )
u du = 12 u + 14 sin 2u + C
m ( m 1) 2
m ( m 1)( m 2 )L ( m n + 1) n
x +L +
x +L
2!
n!
BESSEL FUNCTION EXPANSION

z 2z3
3z 5
+ 2 2 2 +L , z = 1
2 24 24 6
e+ j e j = j 2sin
e j = cos j sin
cos
= 1 + mx +
LINEARIZING AN EQUATION
Small nonlinear terms are removed. Nonlinear terms
include:
variables raised to a power
variables multiplied by other variables
values are considered variables, e.g. t.
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 34 of 36
NABLA, DEL OR GRAD OPERATOR
DOT PRODUCT
The dot product is a scalar value.
A B = (x Ax + y Ay + z Az ) (x B x + y B y + z B z ) = Ax B x + Ay B y + Az B z
A B = A B cos AB
x y = 0 , x x = 1
B y = (x Bx + y By + z Bz ) y = By
Projection of B
along :
A
AB
(B a )a
The dot product of 90 vectors is zero.

The dot product is commutative and distributive:
AB = BA
A (B + C) = A B + A C
Compare the operation to taking the time derivative.

Where /t means to take the derivative with respect
to time and introduces a s-1 component to the units of
the result, the operation means to take the
derivative with respect to distance (in 3 dimensions)
and introduces a m-1 component to the units of the
result. terms may be called space derivatives and
an equation which contains the operator may be
called a vector differential equation. In other words
A is how fast A changes as you move through
space.
A
A
A
in rectangular
A = x
+ y
+ z
coordinates:
x
y
z
in cylindrical
A 1 A
A
A = r
+
+ z
coordinates:
CROSS PRODUCT
A B = (x Ax + y Ay + z Az ) (x Bx + y B y + z B z )
= x (Ay Bz Az B y ) + y ( Az Bx Ax B z ) + z (Ax B y Ay Bx )
A B = n A B sin AB
is the unit vector normal to both A
where n
and B (thumb of right-hand rule).
B A = A B
xy = z
y x = z
z = r
r = z
xx = 0
The cross product is distributive:
A (B + C) = A B + A C
AB
n
A
r
r
z
A 1 A 1 A
A = r
+
+
r
r
r sin
in spherical
coordinates:
2 THE LAPLACIAN
The divergence of a gradient
Laplacian of a scalar in
rectangular coordinates:
Laplacian of a
vector in rectangular coordinates:
In spherical and
cylindrical
coordinates:
2 A =
2 A 2 A 2 A
+
+
x 2 y 2 z 2
v
2 Ay
2 Ax
2 Az
A = x
+
y
+
z
x 2
y 2
z 2
2
2 A (A ) A
= grad (div A ) curl(curl A )
Also, we have:
A ( B C) = ( A C) B ( A B ) C
DIVERGENCE
The del operator followed by the dot product operator
is read as "the divergence of" and is an operation
performed on a vector. In rectangular coordinates,
means the sum of the partial derivatives of the
magnitudes in the x, y, and z directions with respect to
the x, y, and z variables. The result is a scalar, and a
factor of m-1 is contributed to the units of the result.
For example, in this form of Gauss' law, where D is a
density per unit area, D becomes a density per unit
volume.
div D = D =
Dx Dy Dz
+
+
=
x
y
z
D = electric flux density vector D = E [C/m2]

= source charge density [C/m3]
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 35 of 36
CURL curl B = B
GLOSSARY
The circulation around an enclosed area. The curl of

vector B is
in rectangular coordinates:
curl B = B =
B B
B B B B
x z y + y x z + z y x
z
x x
y
z
y
in cylindrical coordinates:
curl B = B =
1 Bz B Br Bz
1 ( rB ) Br
r
z
r r
z
r

z
r
in spherical coordinates:
curl B = B = r
1 ( B sin ) B
+
r sin
1 1 Br ( rB ) 1 ( rB ) Br
r sin
r
r r

The divergence of a curl is always zero:
( H ) = 0
SPHERE
Area = d = 4r
Volume = 16 d 3 = 43 r 3
2
adiabatic Occurring without loss or gain or heat.

anechoic room Highly absorptive room. a 1.
enthalpy (H) A thermodynamic property. The sum of the
internal energy U and the volume-pressure product PV. If a
body is heated without changing its volume or pressure, then
the change in enthalpy will equal the heat transfer. Units of
kJ. Enthalpy also refers to the more commonly used specific
enthalpy or enthalpy per unit mass h, which has units of
kJ/kg.
entropy A measure of the unavailable energy in a closed
thermodynamic system, varies in direct proportion to
temperature change of the system. The thermal charge.
harmonic wave A waveform that is sinusoidal in time.
isentropic Having constant entropy, no change in thermal
charge. However there could be heat flow in and out,
analogous to current flow.
isothermal Having constant temperature, no heat flow to/from
the surroundings. Analogous to voltage.
pink noise Noise composed of all audible frequencies with a
3 dB per octave attenuation with frequency increase. The
attenuation is based on a per Hz value; the SPLs for each
octave are equal.
reverberation room Characterized by long decay time.
a0 << 1, large T0..
TDS time delay spectrometry. A sophisticated method for
obtaining anechoic results in echoic spaces.
white noise Noise composed of all audible frequencies at
equal amplitude per Hz.
For a more comprehensive glossary, see the file
DictionaryOfAcousticTerms.PDF.
GRAPHING TERMINOLOGY
With x being the horizontal axis and y the vertical, we have
a graph of y versus x or y as a function of x. The x-axis
represents the independent variable and the y-axis
represents the dependent variable, so that when a graph
is used to illustrate data, the data of regular interval (often
this is time) is plotted on the x-axis and the corresponding
data is dependent on those values and is plotted on the yaxis.
Tom Penick
tom@tomzap.com
12/20/00 Page 36 of 36

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ENGINEERING ACOUSTICS EE 363N

cross product .....................35

specific acoustic impedance

trace wavelength ...............22

k WAVE NUMBER [rad/m]

A log based unit of energy that makes it easier to

One decibel is approximately the minimum discernable

wave vector ......................... 9

The wave number of propagation constant

s CONDENSATION [no units]

= instantaneous density [kg/m3]

c SPEED OF SOUND [m/s]

= ratio of specific heats (1.4 for a diatomic gas) [no units]

0 = equilibrium (ambient) density [kg/m3]

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION,

and Newton's Law:

s is the natural angular frequency in rad/s.

is the natural frequency in Hz.

where we have the new constants:

initial phase angle:

Note that zero phase angle occurs at maximum positive

amplitude. The acceleration is

Using the initial conditions, the equation can be written

The general solution takes the form

The solution above can be written

s = spring constant [no units]

x0 = the initial position [m]

SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION,

Initial phase angle =0

The speed of a simple oscillator leads the displacement by

p ACOUSTIC PRESSURE [Pa]

The Fourier Series is a method of describing a

Sound waves produce proportional changes in

Let f ( t ) = f ( t + T ) = any periodic signal

For a simple harmonic plane wave traveling in the x

P = instantaneous pressure [Pa]

P = peak acoustic pressure [Pa]

Pe EFFECTIVE ACOUSTIC PRESSURE

A0 = the DC component and will be zero provided the

P0 = ambient (atmospheric) pressure ( p = P0 ). At sea

The effective acoustic pressure is the rms value of the

An is zero when f(t) is an

P = peak acoustic pressure [Pa]

Bn is zero when f(t) is an

where t0 = an arbitrary time

0 EQUILIBRIUM DENSITY [kg/m3]

The ambient density.

for ideal gases

Mass Conservation (density)

The equilibrium density is the inverse of the specific volume.

Momentum Conservation (velocity)

to the isothermal bulk modulus, 2.1810 for water [Pa]

c = the phase speed (speed of sound) [m/s]

From the above 3 equations and 3 unknowns (p, s, u)

level, P0 101 kPa [Pa]

EQUATION OF STATE - GAS

0 Equilibrium Density of Selected Materials [kg/m3]

adiabatic bulk modulus, approximately equal

An equation of state relates the physical properties

B ADIABATIC BULK MODULUS [Pa]

Perfect adiabatic gas:

= instantaneous density [kg/m3]