Geometric Modelling

Geometric Modelling
2
1
0
-1
1
-1
-1
0
1
2
Lecture in Winter Term

by G. Greiner
Transscript by J. Kaminski
Revision by S. Bergler
ii
iii
Contents
1 General Remarks on Curves and Surfaces
2 Polynomial Curves
2.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Different Basis of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Lagrange Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Bernstein Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.3 Comparison of Lagrange and Bernstein Representation
2.2.4 Change of Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Polar Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
3
3
4
4
5
7
7
8
3 Bzier Curves
3.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1.1 Shape Properties for Bzier Curves . . . . .
3.2 Algorithms for Bzier Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.1 The de Casteljau Algorithm . . . . . . . . .
3.2.2 The de Casteljau Subdivision Algorithm . . .
3.2.3 How to draw a Bzier Curve . . . . . . . . .
3.2.4 Degree Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2.5 Degree Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3 Bzier Splines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3.1 Construction of complex Curves . . . . . .
3.3.2 -Continuity of two Bzier Curves . . . . .
3.3.3 Geometrical Construction of continuous Joins
3.3.4 Interpolation with Bzier Splines . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
11
11
13
15
15
17
18
19
21
23
23
24
26
28
4 B-splines
4.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 B-spline Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Shape Properties of B-spline Curves . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 Comparison of B-Spline and Bzier Curves . . . .
4.3 Control Points and Polar Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4 Multiple Knots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5 Algorithms for B-spline Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.1 The de Boor Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.2 Conversion of B-spline Curves into Bzier Splines
4.5.3 The Boehm Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.4 Knot Deletion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.5.5 Subdivision for uniform B-spline curves . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
31
31
34
35
36
37
38
41
41
45
45
47
48
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Contents
4.6
iv
Interpolation and Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.1 B-spline Interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.2 Special case: Cubic spline interpolation at the knots
4.6.3 B-spline approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.6.4 Parametrization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
51
51
52
54
55
5 Rational Curves
5.1 Rational Bzier Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.1 Properties of rational Bzier curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.2 Evaluation of rational Bziercurves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.3 Influence and properties of the weights . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1.4 Quadratic rational Bzier Curves as Conic Sections . . . . . . .
5.1.5 Segments of Conic Sections as quadratic rational Bzier Curves
5.1.6 Rational Bzier-Spline Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2 Rational B-Spline Curves (NURBS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
57
57
58
59
59
61
62
64
65
6 Elementary Differential Geometry for Curves

6.1 Reparametrization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Planar Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.3 Space Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.4 Geometric and Parametric Continuity . . . . .
6.4.1 Geometric Continuity of Bzier Curves
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
67
67
68
70
72
74
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
77
77
78
79
79
80
82
83
83
83
84
84
84
85
7 Tensor Product Surfaces

7.1 General Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2 Tensor Product Bzier Surfaces . . . . . . . . .
7.3 Algorithms for TP Bzier Surfaces . . . . . . .
7.3.1 Evaluation with the TP Approach . . .
7.3.2 The direct de Casteljau Algorithm . .
7.4 Tensor Product B-Spline Surfaces . . . . . . .
7.5 Algorithms for TP B-Spline Surfaces . . . . . .
7.5.1 Evaluation of TP B-Spline Surfaces . .
7.5.2 Knot insertion . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.6 Interpolation and Approximation . . . . . . . .
7.6.1 General interpolation . . . . . . . . . .
7.6.2 Special case: Interpolation at the knots
7.7 Trimming of parametric Patches . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
8 Ray Tracing of TP-Bzier Surfaces (Bzier Clipping)
87
9 Triangular Bzier Patches

9.1 Barycentric Coordinates in . . . . . .
9.2 Bernstein Polynomials over Triangles . .
9.3 Triangular Bzier Patches . . . . . . . . .
9.4 Algorithms for Triangular Bzier Patches
9.4.1 The de Casteljau Algorithm . . .
91
91
92
95
96
96
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Contents
9.5
9.6
9.4.2 Degree Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

9.4.3 Subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
-Continuity of Triangular Bzier Patches . . . . . . . . . .
Interpolation with piecewise Bzier Triangles (Split Surfaces)
9.6.1 Clough-Tocher . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.6.2 Powell-Sabin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10 Triangle meshes
10.1 Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.2 Computer representation of triangle meshes .
10.3 Parametrization of triangle meshes . . . . . .
10.3.1 The spring modell . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.2 Parametrization of the border vertices
10.3.3 Parametrization of the inner vertices .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
96
97
100
102
102
103
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
105
105
109
111
111
112
112
.
.
.
.
.
115
117
120
121
121
124
11 Subdivision Surfaces
11.1 Approximative schemes: Loop-Subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.2 Interpolatory schemes: Modified Butterfly-Subdivision . . . . . .
11.3 Limit points for approximative subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.3.1 Limit points for the subdivision of cubic splines . . . . . .
11.3.2 Limit points for the subdivision of regular triangle meshes
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Contents
vi
vii
List of Figures
1.1
1.2
Curves in the plane and in space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

A torus and a free form surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
1
2.1
2.2
2.3
Quadratic Lagrange polynomials with respect to paramter values and . .

Bernstein polynomials for , and . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Polar Form of a Curve of degree . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
6
10
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15
3.16
3.17
3.18
A Bzier curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Convex hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Variation diminishing property . . . . . . . . . . . . .
de Casteljau schemas for and . . . . . . .
Graphical representation of the de Casteljau algorithm
Evaluation of with de Casteljau . . . . . . . . . .
Left partial curve after de Casteljau subdivision . . . .
Multiple subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recursive subdivision . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . .
Degree elevation
. . . . . . . . . . .
Degree elevation
. . . . . . . . . . .
Degree reduction
Joins of Bzier curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Join conditions in the de Casteljau algorithm . . . . . .
de Casteljau conditions for - and -continuity . . .
-continuation of the standard parabola . . . . . . . .
-join of several cubic Bzier segments . . . . . . . .
Interpolation with Catmull-Rom Splines . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
12
13
14
15
15
16
18
19
19
19
20
22
24
25
26
27
27
29
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
A knot vector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B-splines for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B-splines for . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The B-spline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Local convex hull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
control points coincide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
control points on a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
control points on a line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
B-splines over a knot vector with multiplicities (emphasized: ) .
Bzier representation of a B-spline curve with endpoint interpolation
Evaluation schema of the de Boor algorithm for . . . . . . .
Visualization of the coefficients for the de Boor algorithm ( ) .
Example for the de Boor algorithm (1): coefficients . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
31
32
32
33
35
35
35
36
39
42
42
43
43

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
List of Figures
viii
4.14
4.15
4.16
4.17
4.18
4.19
4.20
4.21
4.22
Example for the de Boor algorithm (2): evaluation . . . . . . .

Example for the de Boor algorithm (3): graphical construction
Schema for the Boehm algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example for the Boehm algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Knot insertion at . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geometrical construction: cutting the corners . . . . . . . . .
Subdivision with open knot vector and . . . . . . . . .
Illustration of parameter values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chordal parametrisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
44
44
46
47
48
49
50
51
56
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
Homogeneous coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interpretation of rat. curves with homogeneous coordinates (proj. )
de Casteljau scheme for rational Bzier curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Effect of the weights ( ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conic sections: ellipsis, parabola und hyperbola . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Intersection of a cone with a pyramid and projection of the intersection line
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
57
58
59
60
61
64
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
Arc length . . . . . . . . . . .
The 2D Frenet frame . . . . .
The 3D Frenet frame . . . . .
Spiral . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Continuity of Bzier splines .
Generalized A-frame property
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
68
69
71
72
73
75
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
7.10
A tensor product Bzier surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Parameter grid, control net and resulting surface . . . . . . .
de Casteljau scheme for tensor product Bzier surfaces . . .
Bilinear interpolation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Direct de Casteljau scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Knot insertion with the Boehm algorithm . . . . . . . . . .
Building a hierarchical knot grid for B-spline patches . . . .
Trimming a patch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Specifying inner and outer contours in the parameter domain
Determining inside and outside of a trimmed patch . . . . .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
77
78
80
80
81
83
83
85
85
86
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
Bzier clipping, step 1 . . .

Bzier clipping, steps 5 and 6
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
87
88
89
90
90
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
Barycentric coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Divide ratios and barycentric coordinates . . . . . . . . . .
Arrangement of indices for Bernstein polynomials
Triangular control nets for and . . . . . . . . .
de Casteljau scheme for triangular Bzier patches . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Degree elevation
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
92
93
93
95
96
97
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
List of Figures
ix
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
Splitting triangles: 1-to-2 and 1-to-4 split . . . .

A control net and the first 1-to-4 subdivision step
Farin-Prautzsch 1-to-4 subdivision scheme . . . .
Attaching two Bzier triangles continuously . . .
Diamond condition for . . . . . . . . . .
Clough-Tocher split surface scheme . . . . . . .
Powell-Sabin split surface scheme . . . . . . . .
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7
1-neighbourhood and 2-neighbourhood of a vertice

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
not possible in manifold triangulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
open and closed fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Moebius Strip and Klein Bottle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tetrahedron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Two-torus: surface of genus 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A local part of a triangular mesh (a) is mapped into the plane by expontial mapping (b) and the local weights are determined (c). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
11.6
11.7
11.8
11.9
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1-to-4 split . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
mask for the calculation of odd and even vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
masks for the calculation of irregular even vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Loop-Subdivision: top: coarse triangle mesh, bottom: after 1 subdivision step .
Loop-Subdivision: top: after 2 steps, bottom: after 3 steps . . . . . . . . . . .
Butterfly: Mask for the calculation of the odd vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
one irregular neighbour vertice with valence 3, 4 and 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4-point-scheme for boarder vertices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Butterfly-Subdivision: top: coarse triangle mesh, bottom: after 1 subdivision
step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11.10Butterfly-Subdivision: top: after 2 steps, bottom: after 3 steps . . . . . . . . .
98
98
99
100
101
102
103
105
106
107
107
108
108
114
115
117
117
118
119
120
120
121
122
123
List of Figures
xi
Bibliography
[1] C. de Boor. A Practical Guide to Splines (Applied Mathematical Sciences Vol. 27).
Springer, Heidelberg 1987
[2] M. do Carmo. Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces. Prentice Hall, Englewood
Cliffs, 1976
[3] J. Hoschek, D. Lasser. Grundlagen der geometrischen Datenverarbeitung. Teubner,
Stuttgart, 1992
[4] G. Farin. Curves and Surfaces for Computer-Aided Geometric Design: A Practical Guide.
Academic Press, San Diego, edition, 1997
[5] L. Piegel. The NURBS Book. Springer, 1995
Bibliography
xii

A curve is a one-dimensional connected point set in a two-dimensional plane or in threedimensional space. It is at least piecewise smooth.
A surface is a two-dimensional point set in three-dimensional space with the same properties.
Figure 1.1: Curves in the plane and in space
Distinguish between regular and free form (= non-regular) curves and surfaces. Regular
curves are e. g. lines and line segments, circles and arcs; regular surfaces are e. g. triangles,
rectangles, polygons in the plane and spheres, cylinders, cones and parts of them in 3D
space.
Non-regular curves and surfaces is everything else (e. g. fender or hood of a car).
Figure 1.2: A torus and a free form surface
There are three ways to describe curves and surfaces mathematically.
example circle:
implicit

explicit

Graph of

parameterized
example sphere:
implicit
explicit

Graph von

parameterized
Proposition: "Reasonable" curves and surfaces can be described (at least piecewise) in each of
the tree ways. Note that and are not unique!
Change of representation:

:

:

Invert and define .
Remark: reasonable means here: differentiable and , e. g.
.
:
: implicit function theorem. If the following statements are true, can be
solved to :
continuous
has continous partial derivations and
and
and it holds

All statements are also true for surfaces.

Remark:
regular forms (circles, straight lines, spheres, cones usw.) are mostly described explicitly
free form geometries mostly parametric
2 Polynomial Curves
2.1
Basics
Polynomial of th degree:

set of all polynomials

are coefficients of the polynomial
If , then is the degree of the polynomial
Set of all polynomials of degree :
degree
Definition 2.1 (Polynomial Curve)

A two-dimensional (three-dimensional, -dimensional) polynomial curve is a parameterized
:
curve

with

(2.1)
The set of all -dimensional polynomial curves of degree is denoted by .
Example:

Evaluation with equation 2.1 requires multiplications and additions, thus

it is of type . A smarter way to evaluate the equation is to save and reuse the intermediary
results of the multiplication of the parameter . In this case we have multiplications and
additions (complexity ). An even faster evaluation is possible using Horners Rule:
Algorithm 2.1 (Horners Rule)

Complexity: with multiplications and additions. Pseudo code:

for to do

end for
2 Polynomial Curves
2.2
Different Basis of
Note that and are linear spaces (vector spaces).

(polynomial functions)
2D curve
3D curve
D curve
Remark: The dimension of a space corresponds to the number of degrees of freedom in this space. These
are the coefficients for polynomial functions.
The standard basis for is the monomial basis . Other possible basis for are
presented in the next sections.
2.2.1
Lagrange Polynomials
Definition 2.2
Given parameter values

with . The polynomial

(2.2)
is called the th Lagrange1 polynomial of degree .

Theorem 2.1
The Lagrange polynomials
form a basis of :

Sketch of Proof:

(2.3)

Interpretation: The points are interpolated at parameter values . There is only one polynomial of th degree, that interpolates these points (number of conditions = number of
unique solvable system of linear equations), therefore the Lagrange repdegrees of freedom
resentation is unique.
Example: Given
.

Joseph Louis de Lagrange (17361813)
2.2 Different Basis of

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
-0.2
Figure 2.1: Quadratic Lagrange polynomials with respect to paramter values and
2.2.2
Bernstein Polynomials
Definition 2.3
The polynomial

is called the th Bernstein2 polynomial of degree .
Additional agreement: , if or .

(2.4)
Remark: Properties of the binomial coefficients:

(1) definition:

(2) recursive definition:

(3) Pascal triangle: recursion:
Theorem 2.2
Properties of Bernstein polynomials:
(1)
(2)
(3)
2

and symmetry:

(Binomial
Theorem:

)

(partition of 1)
(positivity)
Serge N. Bernstein, 1912
2 Polynomial Curves
(4)
(5)
(6)

(symmetry)
has a maximum in at .
(recursion)
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Figure 2.2: Bernstein polynomials for , and
Example:

Definition 2.4 (General Bernstein Polynomial)

Given the parametric interval :

is called the th Bernstein polynomial for the interval .
(2.5)
Theorem 2.2 holds also true.

How we get the general Bernstein Polynomial:

Evaluating formula 2.3 at yields:

.
Remark: Note that with

is represented here in barycentric coordinates with respect to and .
Theorem 2.3
The Bernstein polynomials
form a basis of :

(2.6)
2.2 Different Basis of
7
2.2.3
Comparison of Lagrange and Bernstein Representation
Different representations:

will be interpolated

will be interpolated

.

.
The location of or determine the shape of the curve somehow

intuitively. This is not true for the monomial coefficients .
2.2.4
Change of Basis
How to switch from one representation to another? A general rule from Linear Algebra claims:

:
.
.
..
..

Theorem 2.4
Given two linear combinations representing one vector
.
.
..
..

..
.
Proof:

..
.

..
.

..
.

(2.7)
Example:

Supplement: Affine Maps

Definition 2.5
A map
is called affine, if

(2.8)
2 Polynomial Curves
for all with . The linear combination is called affine combination in this
case. If additionally holds true for all , then it is called convex combination.
An affine map especially preserves affine combinations, i. e.

(2.9)
is called multiaffine, if for any fixed arguments

the map

is affine. (Diction: bi-affine, tri-affine etc.)
Definition 2.6
A map
Example:

!
"
(2.10)
is multiaffine.
is multiaffine.
is not multiaffine.

Theorem 2.5 (Characterization of Affine Maps)

is affine a linear map and a translation vector exist such that .
Remark:
affine maps map lines onto lines
parallelity is preserved
division ratios are preserved
angles are not preserved
examples for affine maps: rotation, scaling, shearing
2.3
Polar Forms
Theorem 2.6 (Polynomials and Polar Forms)

For each polynomial
of degree exists a unique map
following properties:
(1)
is n-affine:

with the

if

2.3 Polar Forms
9
(2)
is symmetric in each variable, i. e.

(3)

(diagonal property)
Diction: is the polar form (blossom) of .

Example:

General formula for polynomials of degree in monomial representation:

:
(2.11)

#

Example:

#

.
Consider a degree 2 polynomial curve:
ing way:
. This can be decomposed in the follow-

2 Polynomial Curves
10

Figure 2.3: Polar Form of a Curve of degree
Corollary 2.1
are coefficients with respect to the Bernstein basis. With degree we
have coefficients , .

Corollary 2.2
This gives reason to a geometric construction to get the point corresponding to the curve parameter :

This geometric construction is called the de Casteljau algorithm. (see section 3.2.1).
11
3 Bzier Curves
3.1
Basics
Definition 3.1 (Bzier Curve)

A polynomial curve

(3.1)
is called Bzier curve1 of degree over with the gereralized Bernstein polynomial
. The points are called control points or Bzier points, the polygon formed by the
control points is called control polygon.
Theorem 3.1 (Bzier Points and Polar Form)

Given a polynomial of degree , the Bzier points with respect to are

(3.2)
Proof: Write as an affine combination of and :

Now we have:

decompose s

Pierre Bzier, 1966
3 Bzier Curves
12
Example: Given: , , .

Figure 3.1: A Bzier curve
Theorem 3.2(Derivative of a Bzier Curve)

Let a Bzier curve over . Then:

(3.3)

Proof: Consider

(i)

3.1 Basics
13
(ii)

Corollary 3.1

(3.4)
etc. for higher derivatives.

3.1.1
Shape Properties for Bzier Curves
Theorem 3.3(Lemma of Bzier)

For Bzier curve over we have:
(1) For , is contained in the closed convex hull of the control polygon. (The
curve point is a convex combination of the ).
Remark: A set of points

is called convex, if for any two points

the line
.

Figure 3.2: Convex hull
(2) End-point interpolation: and , i. e. the curve runs through the first
and the last control point.
(3) Tangency condition: In the end-points the curve is tangent to the control polygon.

und
3 Bzier Curves
14
(4) Affine invariance: Let an affine map, then

I. e. to transform the curve with the affine transformation , it is sufficient to transform the
control points.
(5) Variation diminishing property:
A Bzier curve does not vary more than its control polygon.
More precisely: For any hyperplane $ in (line in , plane in etc.), then
$
$ control polygon

Figure 3.3: Variation diminishing property
Proof:
(1) convex hull:

set

For

(2)
und

(Theorem 3.1, diagonal property of the polar form)

(3)
(4)

because
sonst
The same for .
Let an affine map .

(5) see [4].

3.2 Algorithms for Bzier Curves
15
3.2
3.2.1
Algorithms for Bzier Curves

The de Casteljau Algorithm
The de Casteljau algorithm is a method for evaluatingBzier curves.

Given: control points of a Bzier curve .
Algorithm 3.1 (de Casteljau)

%

Then: is a point on the Bzier curve.

Remark: The points
depend on parameter for
(3.5)
.

Figure 3.4: de Casteljau schemas for and
Sketch of Proof: The proof of theorem 3.1 on page 11 is just the application of de Casteljaus
algorithm. Only the intermediate results are renamed:

Graphical representation of the de Casteljau algorithm for , and :

Figure 3.5: Graphical representation of the de Casteljau algorithm

3 Bzier Curves
16

#

Example:

Bzier representation with respect to :

Evaluation of with de Casteljau at :

#

#

Figure 3.6: Evaluation of with de Casteljau
We can compute the polar form of any value using the de Casteljau algorithm. Note that due to
the symmetry of the polar form, there are two possibilities.
Find:

(1)

de Casteljau: evaluate first , then :

#

#

(2) symmetric variation: first , then

#

17

##

#

#
#

Remark:
The de Casteljau algorithm is stable (only evaluation of convex combinations).
Complexity is (in contrast to with Horners rule).
Improvement is possible by recursive subdivision.
3.2.2
The de Casteljau Subdivision Algorithm
Theorem 3.4
Let
Define:
a Bzier curve over and & .

&
&

Bzier curve over &

Bzier curve over &
where & are points of the de Casteljau algorithm evaluated at & . Then:

&

&
(3.6)
Proof: According to the proof of theorem 3.1 the left part of is:

&
&

&
3 Bzier Curves
18
( & are Bzier points with respect to & ). Similar for the right part.
Example: According to figure 3.5 set and . See figure 3.7 for evaluation of the
de Casteljau algorithm. The control points of the Bzier curve over & are .

Figure 3.7: Left partial curve after de Casteljau subdivision
By repeated subdivision (e. g. uniform subdivision at the midpoints) we get a sequence of polygons that converges fast to the Bzier curve.
a -continuous curve (i. e. two times differentiable).

Let a line defined by
. Then:

'

Lemma 3.1
Let
(3.7)
(Proof follows from Taylor expansion.)

Consequence: The uniform subdivision for Bzier curves converges (at least) quadratically.
Remark: The evaluation of Bzier curves at equidistant parameter values converges quadratically, too.
3.2.3
How to draw a Bzier Curve
Given: degree , ,

Find: polygon for piecewise linear approximation of .
Algorithm 3.2
(1) Evaluate at parameter values &
with &
evaluation of Berstein polynomials).
&
(e. g. with de Casteljau or by
(2) Draw the polygon & & .

Example:

Algorithm 3.3
(1) Subdivide
Casteljau.

& & & & &
at the parametrical midpoint &

in
and using de
19

Figure 3.8: Multiple subdivision
(2) Continue recursively until a certain recursion depth .

(3) Draw the control polygon of the last recursion step of (2).

Figure 3.9: Recursive subdivision
3.2.4
Degree Elevation
Theorem 3.5
Let
a Bzier curve of degree over .

Assume
as Bzier curve of degree over . Then:

(3.8)

(where )

Figure 3.10: Degree elevation

Proof:
(i) Let
the -affine polar form of (as polynomial of degree ).
3 Bzier Curves
20
Definition 3.2

(a) affine in every

(b) symmetric
(c) diagonal

(ii)

(3.9)
is the polar form of (as polynomial of degree ).

Example:


Remark:
The repeated degree elevation yields a sequence of polygons then converge slowly to the Bzier
curve.
One can use this fact to prove the variation diminishing property of Bzier curves (see [4]).
21
3.2.5
Degree Reduction
Given: a Bzier curve

.

.
Find: a representation with reduced degree:
This is not possible
in general; therefore find the best approximation . The degree elevation of

yields , where in general . Find control points
such that

1st Method of Solution:

Evaluation of equation 3.8 yields:

This leaves a linear system to solve.

Example:
Given: control points

are obtained as follows:
The new control points

To receive the minimum we have to set the gradient of to zero. The partial derivatives of can
be written as

( (

(

(

with
Then, the gradient of is:

grad

We receive two sets of linear equations: one for the x-coordinate and one for the y-coordinate:

# #

# # # #

#

# #

#
# #

# # # #

#

# #
3 Bzier Curves
22
with the solution:

The Bzier curve with reduced degree is depicted in figure 3.12.

Figure 3.12: Degree reduction

2nd Method of Solution:

Another method is based on the fact that degree elevation is a linear porcess, i. e. the control
points of the degree-elevated curve can be obtained by an appropriate matrix multiplication on
the initial control points. E. g., the degree elevation
with the initial points
and the control points of the degree elevated curve can be described by
the following matrix:

# #

# #

# #

To find the degree reduction of a curve, one has to solve the linear system . In general,
this is not possible (over-determined linear system). Therefore find the best possible solution
satisfying the condition .

Theorem 3.6 (Gauss Normal Equation)

The best approximation for the unsolvable linear system can be obtained by

Proof:
(3.10)
min min

3.3 Bzier Splines
23
To receive the minimum set the derivation to zero:
(

(

Remark: Due to the structure of , the square matrix is tri-diagonal. Therefore, the linear system
can be solved very efficiently.
Example:

Given: control points
(see figure 3.12)

The following matrix describes the degree elevation

# #

# #

:

To calculate the new control points use Gauss Normal Equation

with the result

3.3
3.3.1

Bzier Splines
Construction of complex Curves
To model more complex shapes with Bzier curves, there are two possibilities:
Method 1: use a Bzier curve of high degree. This method may cause numerical problems.
Method 2: split curve into several simple parts and represent every segment as a low
degree Bzier curve.
Definition 3.3
A Bzier spline is a piecewise polynomial curve. The segments are represented by Bzier curves.
3 Bzier Curves
24

Figure 3.13: Joins of Bzier curves
Problem: continuity of the joins? Discontinuities or non-differentiable joins cause nonsmoothness of the curve.
Definition 3.4
Given two polynomial curves
and ) . Then the curves are
continuous at if ) ) )
)
.
-
Interpretation:
-continuous = continuous, no jumps

-continuous = -continuous + same tangent vector
-continuous = -continuous + same osculating circle.
-Continuity of two Bzier Curves

Theorem 3.7

and )
Bzier curves over
Let

, . Then:
) are -continuous at

3.3.2
and
(3.11)

Proof: Any Bzier curve has a unique representation over every interval. (In this case we only
.) Therefore
consider over the interval , but in fact the curve has the domain
we can define curve over the interval without changing it:

..
.

3.3 Bzier Splines
25
)

) *
*

..
.

*
)

) are -continuous at
*

for all
Remark:

Figure 3.14: Join conditions in the de Casteljau algorithm
3 Bzier Curves
3.3.3
26
Geometrical Construction of continuous Joins
Let ) and like above and

(1)
(2)
. Then:

) are -continuous
.
) are -continuous
(3)

) are -continuous A-frame property:

over
Example: Given: standard parabola

Find: continuation ) ? over
-continuity:

-continuity: .

Result: see figure 3.16

Figure 3.15: de Casteljau conditions for - and -continuity

Remark: The figure 3.17 is fully described by the location of , the endpoints and the intervals .
Note: The points
are B-Spline control points (see chapter 4).
3.3 Bzier Splines
27

Figure 3.16:

-continuation of the standard parabola

Figure 3.17:

-join of several cubic Bzier segments
3 Bzier Curves
3.3.4
28
Interpolation with Bzier Splines
Given: Points and parameter values
.
Find: A curve that interpolates the points at the corresponding parameter values, i. e. all
must be on this curve.
A simple idea are Catmull-Rom Splines 2 :
find a (e. g. cubic) Bzier curve between two neighbour points ,
specify the tangents (= derivatives) at the end points as follows:

(3.12)
(3.13)
Theorem 3.8
If , you get the control points of an interpolating Bzier curve as follows:

(3.14)
(3.15)
Sketch of Proof:

Remark:
Problem: What happens at the end points?
1st case: closed curve (i. e.
case: open curve (

hold true.
nd
).
).
In this case the natural end conditions

and
3.3 Bzier Splines
29

Figure 3.18: Interpolation with Catmull-Rom Splines

When interpolating points, you have to consider the order (or topology = neighbourhood relation)
of the points.
Only if the points are uniformly distributed, you can assume that all parameter intervals have the
length 1 (e. g. ). In general, this is not true.
E. Catmull, R. Rom. A Class of interpolating Splines, 1974
3 Bzier Curves
30
31
4 B-splines
4.1
Basics
B-spline curves are piecewise polynomial curves with built-in -continuity at the joins. Mainly
we deal with curves of degree that are -continuous, e. g. a B-spline curve of degree 1 is
piecewise linear and -continuous.

where is the number

Given: degree and a sequence of knots
of control points of the curve. Thus, the knot vector + defines parameter intervals
.

Figure 4.1: A knot vector
The B-spline basis functions are defined recursively by degree :

otherwise

General recursion formula:

Definition 4.1 (Normalized B-spline Basis Functions)

otherwise
(4.1)

(4.2)
The are computed according to the follwing scheme:

. . . .

..
..
..
..

.

..

4 B-splines
32
Example: We choose the knot vector + ), i. e. .

Figure 4.2: B-splines for

Figure 4.3: B-splines for

Remark: The B-spline is tangent-continuous at the joins.
4.1 Basics
33

Figure 4.4: The B-spline
Properties of B-splines
(1)
is piecewise polynomial of degree .
(2) The support of : !!

of intervals per section.
(3) Positivity: for
(4) Partition of 1:

,
i. e. the support consists

.
for .
(5) The derivative of a basis function is given by

(4.3)
Proof by induction on k:
initial condition:
and are either or (see fig. 4.2), and thus is either

or

(see fig. 4.3).

induction step: Inductional assumption: Equation 4.3 is true for
Use the product rule to differentiate the basis function:

Substitute equation 4.3:

.

4 B-splines
34

Because of

, we obtain:

Example: Support for cubic B-splines:

4.2

..
.

..
.

..
.

B-spline Curves
Definition 4.2
Given:
degree

control points or .
knot vector

(4.4)
is called B-spline curve. The points are called control points or de Boor points 1. They form a
control polygon.
1
Carl de Boor, 1972
4.2 B-spline Curves
35
4.2.1
Shape Properties of B-spline Curves
Theorem 4.1
(Shape properties of B-spline curves)

Let
a B-spline curve of degree
following properties hold true:
over the knot vector + .
Then the
(1) In general there is no endpoint interpolation.
(2) For
, lies in the convex hull of the control points
(local convex hull).

Figure 4.5: Local convex hull
(3) Local control: For

the curve is independent of

for
and .
(4) If control points coincide, then the curve goes through this point and is tangent to the
control polygon (Fig. 4.6).

Figure 4.6:
control points coincide
(5) If control points are on a line, then the curve touches this line (Fig. 4.7).

Figure 4.7:
control points on a line
4 B-splines
36
(6) If control points are on a line , then for

segment of the curve coincides with (Fig. 4.8).

Figure 4.8:

,
i. e. a whole

control points on a line
(7) Derivative:

mit

(4.5)

(8) If knots
coincide, then , i. e. the curve goes through
a control point and is tangent to the control polygon.
(9) If is an affine map, then:

(affine invariance).
(10) Variation diminishing property: If $ is a hyper plane in , then

4.2.2
$ $ control polygon
Comparison of B-Spline and Bzier Curves
Bzier Curves
+ control polygon gives an impression of the possible run of the curve
+ the run of the Bzier curve can be changed by the translation of control points
but:
control points have global influence on the run of the Bzier curve
more control
number of control points depends on the degree of the Bzier curve
points, i. e. more possibilities to influence the run of the curve, only possible by degree
elevation
4.3 Control Points and Polar Forms
37
B-Spline Curves
B-Spline curves do not have the disadvantages of Bzier curves.

Geometric properties of Bzier curves like "convex hull" or "variation diminishing" are also
valid for B-Spline curves.
Additional advantages are:
+ B-Spline functions are defined locally
+ Translation of a control point has only local influence on the run of the curve
+ Insertion of additional control points without degree elevation
+ Smoothness of the junction of adjoining segments can be influenced "easily"
Basis Functions
Curves
polynomial
Bernstein polynomials
piecewise polynomial
(normalized) B-splines

over knots +
Bzier curves

B-spline curves

)
Table 4.1: Review: curve schemes mentioned so far
4.3
Control Points and Polar Forms
Theorem 4.2 (Control points and

polar forms)

Given: a B-spline curve
of degree over a knot vector
. restricted to the interval

is a polynomial curve and has a unique polar
form
. Then:

for
%
(4.6)
e. g. for this means:

Special case: The Bzier representation of the curve segment

over the interval

can be obtained as usual by inserting the interval borders
und
into the polar form:

An application of this property is the conversion of a B-spline curve into a Bzier spline curve.
4 B-splines
38
Example: + . Consider the curve segment where

. In this segment, is the polar form of the B-spline curve . Control points:
Bzier points of
:

Given:

Find:
The Bzier points are obtained by construction of suitable affine combinations, e. g.

Similar computation for the other control points.
4.4
Multiple Knots
Multiple Knots are allowed, if the multiplicity of the knots is less or equal to the degree. Generalized knot vector:

(4.7)
Exception: The first and last knot may have the multiplicity .
We have to extend the definition of the B-spline basis functions to the case of multiplicities:

otherwise
(4.8)
The recursion formula reduces B-splines of degree to B-splines of degree

:
4.4 Multiple Knots
39
, i. e. the multiplicity of ist greater or equal to .

(2) case , i. e. the multiplicity of is greater or equal to .

(3) case , i. e. the multiplicity of is greater or equal to .

(1) case

(4.9)
(4.10)
Example:
(4.11)

Figure 4.9: B-splines over a knot vector with multiplicities (emphasized:
)
Using a knot vector with multiple knots, some B-spline basis functions can vanish:
Example: Quadratic B-spline basis functions over +

does not exist!
Remark: The higher the multiplicity of the knots the smaller is the continuity (see Theorem 4.3).

Theorem 4.3 (Curry-Schoenberg)

. These knots have multiplicities
Given: a sequence of knots
, ,, where the inner knots have the multiplicity , and the border knots
4 B-splines
40
have the multiplicity , , . Now consider this knot vector as a sequence of single
- with the corresponding multiplicities , , .
knots - -

The normalized B-splines of degree with respect to this knot vector make a basis of the following space:
is a polynomial of degree and is -continuous
at the value - ,
.

Remark:
The most important special case are the proper splines, where
.
If we insert a new knot , the dimension of the space increases by 1, i. e. the space of all piecewise
polynomial functions over the old knot vector is a linear subspace of that over the new knot vector.
Multiple Knots and Endpoint Interpolation

The curves are to be at least -continious. So from Theorem 4.3 follows, that the maximal
multiplicity of the knots may be . At the end points we can equate , because the curve
does not depend on (see scheme on page 34: For , does not contribute to the
computation of , but does). Therefore the maximum multiplicity allowed at
the endpoints is .
Theorem 4.4 (Endpoint interpolation)
If an end knot has multiplicity , then the B-spline curve interpolates the corresponding
control point and is tangent to the control polygon.
Sketch of Proof: Consider a B-spline curve of th degree over the knot vector

.
.

we obtain:

For the basis function for

This is the first Bernstein polynomial of th degree with respect to the interval .
with .
Similar, it can be shown that with ..
Because of and . the end points are interpolated.
Tangential property:

since does not exist and . All the other basis functions must be zero at
the parameter value (affine combination). So the line is the tangent to the Bzier curve at
control point . Similar for ..

4.5 Algorithms for B-spline Curves
41
+ .
We construct a piecewise polynomial curve over this knot vector that lives on three not
Example:

vanishing parameter intervals:

control points:
control points:

control points:
Consider the interval . B-spline control points that affect are:

The Bzier representation of is obtained as follows:

4.5

Algorithms for B-spline Curves

is a B-spline curve of degree
, where multiple knots are allowed.
In this section,
4.5.1

over a knot vector
The de Boor Algorithm
The de Boor algorithm is a method for evaluating B-spline curves.

Given:
control points and knot vector + of a B-spline curve

.
and a parameter intervall
Find: value of at

4 B-splines
42

Figure 4.10: Bzier representation of a B-spline curve with endpoint interpolation
Algorithm 4.1 (de Boor)

and
with

Then:
(4.12)

.
The evaluation scheme for the de Boor algorithm is depicted in Figure 4.12.The coefficients can
be visualized as divide ratios of line segments (see Figure 4.11).

Figure 4.11: Evaluation schema of the de Boor algorithm for

Remark: The de Boor algorithm is the analogue to the de Casteljau algorithm for Bzier curves.
43

Figure 4.12: Visualization of the coefficients for the de Boor algorithm ( )
Example:
+
(see fig. 4.13, 4.14 and 4.15).

/

/

Figure 4.13: Example for the de Boor algorithm (1): coefficients
Now consider the following knot vector:

Here:

, and have all the multiplicity . Then:

This is the de Casteljau algorithm!

Corollary 4.1
As we only consider affine transformations, assumption of the interval
loss of generality.
is not a
4 B-splines
44

Figure 4.14: Example for the de Boor algorithm (2): evaluation

Figure 4.15: Example for the de Boor algorithm (3): graphical construction
45
If two neighbouring knots have the multiplicity , then the corresponding B-spline curve
is a Bzier curve between these knots.
By insertion of all knots until multiplicity we can construct the Bzier polygon.
4.5.2
Conversion of B-spline Curves into Bzier Splines
Find:

over a knot vector .

Bzier representation for each polynomial segment .
Given: B-spline curve

There are two possibilities:

(1) Insert knots
and
, until both have the multiplicity .
(2) Use the polar form.
+ . Consider interval .

The control points are given.
To find the Bzier points and , construct suitable affine
Example: Knot vector:
combinations, e. g.

4.5.3
The Boehm Algorithm
How can we insert a new knot into a knot vector without changing the curve? Insertion of knots
is useful for:
adding local detail
as basis of other algorithms (e. g. de Boors algorithm for curve evaluation)
to convert B-splines into Bzier splines.
Insertion of an additional knot , lets say at

.

+

,
gives a new knot vector

With the theorem of Curry-Schoenberg (theorem 4.3) we get: every B-spline curve over the
knot vector + has also a unique representation over the knot vector +.

4 B-splines
46
from the given ? An answer is given by the Boehm2

How to compute the new control points
algorithm.

. Then:
With theorem 4.2, we get
and also

By construction of suitable affine combinations we get e. g.

The other control points are obtained similar. More general:

Algorithm 4.2 (Boehm)

(4.13)
The coefficients can be visualized as divide ratios of line segments. In the following schema,

,

0

and

1
2
.
there is

Figure 4.16: Schema for the Boehm algorithm
Wolfgang Boehm, 1980

47
Example:
+ .

Figure 4.17: Example for the Boehm algorithm
Remark:
According to Theorem 4.3 we can insert inner knots up to multiplicity
to mulitplicity .
and at the end points up
) gives only

Insertion of an existing knot (i. e. increasing the multiplicity of the knot to
new control points.
Insertion of knots until multiplicity makes the B-spline curve interpolate control points. This
gives the de Boor algorithm to evaluate B-spline curves.
4.5.4
Knot Deletion
Knot deletion is the inverse process to knot insertion. In general, it is not possible to remove a
knot without changing the curve. Therefore, try to remove a knot and find a curve that is as close
as possible to the original curve (see degree elevation degree reduction for Bzier curves).
Knot insertion is a linear process:

(4.14)
is minimal. With theorem 3.6 we
. Find control points such that

Short:
have to solve the linear system

(4.15)
4 B-splines
48
and get
4.5.5

Subdivision for uniform B-spline curves
Intention: Create a series of polygons that converge fast to the curve. The subdivison of Bspline curves is achieved by insertion of many additional knots or by doubling the number of
knots.

Let

a B-spline curve of degree over the knot vector +

with for every or simply . A knot vector with this property
is called uniform knot vector.

Insert new knots at :
Then:

over the new knot vector +.
Repeating this process gives a sequence of polygons that coverges fast to (compared with
subdivision for Bzier curves).
are obtained again with suitable affine combinations. For this gives Chaikins 3
The
algorithm.
Example 1: and knot vector with multiplicity at the endpoints
+
Knots are inserted where the curve has full support, in this example at

G. Chaikin, 1995

Figure 4.18: Knot insertion at

.
49
According to Figure 4.18 we obtain the following new control points:

Therefore we can calculate the new control points from

old control points as follows:

for
for

The graphical evaluation is also called "Corner Cutting". You can see the result after two steps
of iteration in Figure 4.19.

Figure 4.19: Geometrical construction: cutting the corners
Example 2: and open knot vector e.g. +

Evaluation according to the following scheme (see Figure 4.20):

for
for

4 B-splines
50

Figure 4.20: Subdivision with open knot vector and
For the algorithm is more complicated, as new control points can depend on up to three
old control points:
Example 3: and knot vector with multiplicity at the endpoints, control points
Evaluation according to the following scheme:

for

for

Example 4: and open knot vector, control points

Evaluation according to the following scheme:

for
for

4.6 Interpolation and Approximation
51
4.6
Interpolation and Approximation
Given:
3 data points

with 3 corresponding parameter values
over a knot vector +
an -dimensional space with basis functions

Find: Curve
that interpolates / approximates the data points
Remark: The given points are to be interpolated / approximated at the parameter values
. Imagine the knot vector is the time axis and the parameter the time: The curve we want
to find, should run through the point at time (see Figure 4.21).

!

!
!
!
!
!

Figure 4.21: Illustration of parameter values
There are three cases to distinguish:

(1)
(2)
(3)
3 : number of conditions = number of degrees of freedom interpolation

3 : overdetermined system of equations approximation
3 : underdetermined system of equations "constrained" interpola-
tion/approximation
4.6.1
B-spline Interpolation
Given:
points

with
parameter values

with knot vector +

Find: control points such that the curve
interpolates

the given points

at the parameter values , i. e.
.
an
-dimensional space:
In matrix notation:

..
.

..
... ...
.

(4.16)
4 B-splines
52
Therefore, the interpolation problem is always solvable in case the matrix

is invertible.
Remark:
Matrix has at most non-zero entries per row (support of :

).
Matrix is a band diagonal matrix. There are efficent numerical methods to solve a linear system
consisting of a band diagonal matrix and a vector.
Theorem 4.5 (Schoenberg-Whitney)
Matrix A is invertible

Proof: See [1]. A choice of the parameter values that always fulfills the requirements of
Theorem 4.5 are the Greville abscissas.
Definition 4.3
The parameter values
are called Greville abscissas.

Remark:
For the Greville abscissas holds:

fulfills , if all inner knots in

.
have multiplicity
. Reason for this:
Applications typically only give the , but no parameterization. In this case, choose a
parameterization that is suitable for the application.
4.6.2
Special case: Cubic spline interpolation at the knots
Given:
degree
a
-dimensional space
data points

knot vector +

Find: cubic B-spline curve over + with

That means: we choose those knots as parameter values that lie in the area where the curve has
full support. Then the conditions of Theorem 4.5 are fulfilled. But the number of conditions is
smaller than the number of degrees of freedom. Hence for the uniqueness of the curve we need
additional conditions.
53
Possible additional conditions:
(1) Specification of tangents at the end points: '
'
(2) Natural end condition:

(3)

In the case of closed curves (i. e. ):

The degrees of freedom are used to create -continuity at the point

Example 1: Interpolation at the knots of an arbitrary knot vector by a cubic spline with additional condition 2

Linear system to solve:

..
.
.
.
..
..
..

.

.

..

Example 2: Interpolation at the knots of an end point interpolating knot vector
+ by a cubic spline with additional condition 2

4 B-splines
54

analogue:

The linear system that we have to solve is derived by modification of the linear system of
Example 1:

..
.
.
..
..

.

with

.

..

Example 3: Interpolation at the knots of an end point interpolating and uniform knot vector
+

by a cubic spline with additional
condition 2
The linear system
is:

# #

# #
#

..

#
# #

.

..
.
.

.. ..

.

..

# #
#

.

# # #
# #

..

.

..

.

..

.

Remark: In the case of end point interpolating splines the matrix is tridiagonal (see Example 2 and 3).
4.6.3
B-spline approximation
If there are given more data points than control points available in the -dimensional space,
then interpolation of the data points is usually impossible. The linear system
is overdetermined and therefore not solvable.
55

and with
We can use the Gauss Normal Equation (Theorem 3.6) to minimize the error
it, to approximate the data points at the best:

is minimal
derivation

Thus, the approximation has exactly one solution if and only if the matrix is invertible:
exists
4.6.4

Theorem of Schoenberg-Whitney is fulfilled

columns of are linear independent
Parametrization
An important item of interpolation and approximation of data points is the choice of the parameter values (parametrization). By choosing a proper parametrization great deflections and
loops of the curve can be avoided in some degree.
The easiest way to determine the is to set . This is called the uniform or equidistant
parametrization. The disadvantage is the disregard of the position of the data points. For this
reason the interpolating curve will have unwanted loops and deflections in most cases.
Interpretation: Imagine the parameter value is the time. Because of the -continuity the
speed and the acceleration is continuous. On account of the uniform parametrization large distances between data points must be managed in the same time as distances between data points
that are close to each other. Therefore the speed is higher between points with large distance, but
speed and acceleration are continuous and we receive loops and deflections of the curve between
data points with short distance.
One way to take the positions of the data points into account is to choose the distance of the
parameters proportional to the distance of the data points:

uniform for
This parametrization is called
centripetal for #
chordal for
with

The chordal parametrization is depicted in Figure 4.22: The distances between the parameter
values and are equal to the distances between the data points . und . .
Affine transformation does not change the parametrization. Hence, the parameter values can
determined as follows for a given interval :

for

4 B-splines
56

!

!

!
!
!
Figure 4.22: Chordal parametrisation

Remark: It is also possible to choose the knot vector
case:
depending on the parameter values . Cubic
57
5 Rational Curves
A more general approach are rational curves. Using the polynomial curves we have examined
so far it is not possible to represent conic sections (e. g. circle arcs). This becomes possible if
we extend the schemes to rational curves. Of special interest in this chapter are rational Bzier
curves and rational B-spline curves (NURBS).
A rational curve can be described in two ways:
as a quotient of polynomials
as central projection of a -dimensional curve onto a -dimensional plane.
Example: A two-dimensional point is extended by another dimension to 4 4 4 )
and can be represented by a line through the origin:
"
"! "# "
! #
Figure 5.1: Homogeneous coordinates
By projection onto the plane 4 (division by 4 ) we get back the 2D point.

Remark: This representation is called homogeneous coordinates. The aim is to represent -dimensional
affine maps as linear homogeneous transformations (i. e. matrices) in the -dimensional space.
5.1
Rational Bzier Curves
Definition 5.1 (Rational Bzier curve)

A rational Bzier curve in is the projection of a polynomial Bzier curve in .
Definition 5.2 (Rational Bzier curve, analytic definition)
Given:
control points
(e. g. )
(projections of the -dimensional control points )
5 Rational Curves
58
"

"

$

#
Figure 5.2: Interpretation of rat. curves with homogeneous coordinates (proj.
)

4 4
(homogeneous component of the control points)
We can assume without loss of generality: 4 4 .
weights 4
Then:

4
5

4
is called rational Bzier curve over the interval .
5.1.1
Properties of rational Bzier curves
Let a rational Bzier curve and 4 4
4 .
(1) If all 4 , then we get the well known polynomial Bzier curves.
(2)
(3)

(convex hull property)

(endpoint interpolation)
(4) The curve is tangent to the control polygon in the endpoints.

(5) Affine (even projective) invariance affine yields:

5
I. e.
(6)
!

5

!

shows the variation diminishing property with respect to .
(5.1)
5.1 Rational Bzier Curves
59
5.1.2
Evaluation of rational Bziercurves
The de Casteljau algorithm in homogeneous coordinates can be used to evaluate and subdivide
the curve.
1st possibility:
Evaluate de Casteljau in the next higher dimension and project the result onto the 4 -plane.
The computation is done according to the scheme in Figure 5.3.
4

4

4

4

4

4

(5.2)
"

"
"

"
"

"
"

"
"
"

"

"
Figure 5.3: de Casteljau scheme for rational Bzier curves
Problem: The Algorithm is numerically unstable if the weight differ very much.
2nd possibility: Rational de Casteljau algorithm
with
5.1.3

4

44 4

for "
4 4 4
(5.3)
Influence and properties of the weights

Theorem 5.1 (Effect and properties of the weights)

4 the rational Bzier curve is equal to a polynomial Bzier
(1) For 4 4
curve.
(2) Multiplication of all weights with a common factor does not change the curve.
(3) More general: If for all ratios
4 4
4 4
const.
then the curve has the same shape but another parametrization.
(4) Increasing the weight 4 pulls the curve to the control point . Decreasing the weight
4 pushes the curve away from the control point (see Figure 5.4).
5 Rational Curves
60
(5) In the limit case:

#

(5.4)
Remark: From the properties (2) and (3) follows that we can assume without loss of generality that
(proof given in the exercices).
" %
"
" %
"
Figure 5.4: Effect of the weights ( )
Supplement: Conic Sections

Definition 5.3 (Conic section)
analytic: given a quadratic polynomial
)
.
6

quadratisch
linear
konstant
then a conic section is defined as the point set

)
i. e. a conic section is the
geometric: section of a plane with a double cone.
The coefficients . determine the type of the conic section.
.

#
#
.
The type of the conic section can be seen directly from the determinant of this matrix.
Graph
Angle between cone axis

and plane
determinant of
ellipsis
parabola
hyperbola
greater than cone opening

equals cone opening
less that cone opening
greater than 0
equals 0
less than 0
#
# .

61
Figure 5.5: Conic sections: ellipsis, parabola und hyperbola
Example:
"
#

"
#

$
%

)
)
)
unit circle
standard parabola
hyperbola
Conic sections can not be represented as polynomials but as rational functions.

Theorem 5.2
Each rational quadratic Bzier curve is part of a conic section. For
4 we have:

&
ellipsis

'
parabola
hyperbola
4
4
and
4
4
4
Each part of a conic section can be represented as a rational quadratic Bzier curve.
5.1.4
Quadratic rational Bzier Curves as Conic Sections
Theorem 5.3
Given: a rational quadratic Bzier curve over with

44
Choose coordinate system 2 7 such that

(5.5)
5 Rational Curves
Then:
62
is part of a conic section with the defining equation
2 7 4 2 7
Proof: Let 8 8 4

4

(5.6)
.

8 8

Thus, in the coordinate system 2 7 we have

7
2

and additionally:

4
2 7
4
4

4 2 7

2 7

(2) From equation 5.6 follows 2 7 4 27 2 7 and therefore

4
2
2 7

7
4

4
$%
4 4

4

&

ellipsis
'
4

parabola
(
4
hyperbola
4

5.1.5

Segments of Conic Sections as quadratic rational Bzier Curves
Given:
) . 6
conic section
)
63
two points on the same component of (e. g. on the same

branch of a hyperbola) with intersecting tangents.
Find: Representation of the corresponding segment of a conic section as a rational quadratic
Bzier curve " 4 " 4 4 .
Procedure:
(1) Choose as given.
(2) Choose as intersection point of the tangents + and + :
(3)
(4)
() ()
+ ( (
Intersection point: solve + + .
Express the given polynomial ) in the coordinate system 2 7 with
:
2 7
2 7
2 7
Inserting this into ) gives a new polynomial (also of degree 2) with )
) . ) describes the conic section in the coordinate system 2 7.
Determine the weight 4 using equation 5.6

)2 7 4 2 7 2 7 0

0
2 7 2 7
27
4
4
These are two equations for two variables

solutions 4 0 .
Example: Unit circle:
)
"
(1)
comparison of the coefficients gives the

5 Rational Curves
(2)
(3)
(4)
+
" +

2

7
) 2 7 7 2 2 7 2 7
Comparison of coefficients to determine 4 and 0 :

" 0

4 4
Remark: For a circle arc of an arbitrary opening angle we get
5.1.6
64
.
Rational Bzier-Spline Curves
A rational Bzier-spline curve is a curve that is composed of single rational Bzier curves.
Example: Representation of the circle with four segments. Control points:

The weights are 4 4 and 4 (see example in the previous section).

The corresponding 3D curve is the intersection curve of a cone (opened at top) with a pyramid
(opened at bottom).
Figure 5.6: Intersection of a cone with a pyramid and projection of the intersection line
Remark: The higher dimensional curve is not smooth while the projected curve is smooth. This is quite
typical for rational spline curves. By projection one can gain differentiability!
5.2 Rational B-Spline Curves (NURBS)
65
Theorem 5.4
and )
with control points
Given: Rational Bzier curves
,

and weights 4 4,

. Additionally, set 4 4

.
The curve composed from and ) is continuously differentiable

4
4

4

(5.7)
Geometric interpretation:
divides the line segment from to
by the ratio
4.
Proof: We have 4

can summarize:
and )

. Because
, we

4

4
5.2
Rational B-Spline Curves (NURBS)
no local support
local support
rational
rational Bzier curves
NURBS
polynomial
Bzier curves
B-splines
Table 5.1: Summary: polynomial and rational curve schemes
NURBS = non-uniform rational B-spline.

Definition 5.4 (Rational B-spline curve)
A rational B-spline curve in is the projection of a B-spline curve in .
Definition 5.5 (Rational B-spline curve, analytic definition)
Given:
degree ,
knot vector + ,
control points ,
weights 4
4 with 4 4 .
5 Rational Curves
Then:
66

4
4
(5.8)
is called rational B-spline curve.

Advantages:
compared with rational Bzier-spline curves:
of th degree
-continuity of rational B-spline curves
compared with B-spline curves: more degrees of freedom

Disadvantages: is linearly dependent of the , but not of the 4 .
For tasks of approximation and interpolation NURBS are improper, because you cant build
a linear system of equations.
67

We are not (really) interested in the parametric representation of curves but in the shape of a
curve. What characterizes shape?
6.1
Reparametrization
Definition 6.1 (Regular curve)

Let a differentiable curve " . Then: is called regular
all . is the (unique) tangent direction at the point .
for
Now we consider a reparametrization or parameter transformation of a regular curve:

&
Definition 6.2 (Equivalence of curves)

Let and & regular curves. Then: and & are called equivalent
& ) there exists a differentiable mapping with for
(notation:
all such that & .
Example:
&

&
Example: Arc length
Let a regular curve. If we denote the length of the curve segment
with 9!", then:
9!"
#
#

* +

"

(6.1)
This leads to a nice parametrization (arc length parametrization). In this special case we have
9!" for all and therefore
!
"

for all
68

&
Figure 6.1: Arc length

Example: Circle:
:

#$
&

Parameter transformation:
: yields

#$

&
.
Theorem 6.1
Every regular curve can be reparametrized by arc length parametrization. This can be achieved
by the following parameter transformation:
Let '
then &

'

(6.2)
is a reparametrization according to the arc length.

Example: In the previous example we had ' , thus &
$
:.
Remark: Bzier curves are rarely arc length parametrized.
6.2
Planar Curves
Definition 6.3 (2D Frenet frame)

Given: Let a regular parametric curve.
The local coordinate system
6 6 with

6
6 6 rotated by

is called 2D Frenet frame1 of .
1
Jean Frdric Frenet (1816-1900)
(6.3)
(6.4)
6.2 Planar Curves
69
'
'
Figure 6.2: The 2D Frenet frame
Theorem 6.2 (Frenet)

For the derivatives of 6 and 6 the following holds:
6 4 6

6 4 6
The quantity ; %
is called curvature of the curve.

For arc length parametrized curves:

;
4

curve bends to the left

curve bends to the right
Sketch of Proof: The theorem states that 6 and 6 (respectively 6 und 6 ) are perpendicular;
this is the case if and only if 6 const., because from 6 6 6 6
follows 6 and 6 const. This is true by the normalization of 6 .

Remark:
&
is the radius of the osculating circle with the midpoint

Theorem 6.3
it holds true that
For a curve point

; '

Example: Ellipsis:

(6.5)
70

;
'

'

Theorem 6.4
The curvature characterizes the curve uniquely short of rotation and translation. Additionally:
; is a line segment.
; ; const. is a circle arc (with radius & ).
Remark: Distinguish between geometric and parametric properties of a curve. Geometric means independent of the parametrization. Example:
parametric
geometric
unit tangent vector
Frenet frame
curvature
6.3
tangent vector
curvature vector

all derivatives
Space Curves
Definition 6.4 (3D Frenet frame)

Given: curve . The local coordinate system

6
6 6 6 with

unit tangent vector
6 6 6

6

main normal vector
(6.6)
binormal vector
shows the following properties:
6 6 6 is orthonormal

!
6 6 !
with the same orientation

6 6 6 is positively oriented (right handed system)
Theorem 6.5 (Frenet-Serret)

For the derivatives the following holds:
6
6
6

4 6
4 6
4 6
4 6
(6.7)
6.3 Space Curves
71
'
'
'
Figure 6.3: The 3D Frenet frame
In matrix notation:
4

6
6

6

4 4 6

6

4 6
Definition 6.5 (Curvature and torsion)
curvature:
torsion:
; 4
(6.8)
- 4
(6.9)
Theorem 6.6
Formulas to compute ; and - :
quantity
arc length parameter
;

-
$%

Example: Spiral:

<
Derivatives:

<
arbitrary parameter

$%

(6.10)
72
Figure 6.4: Spiral

<
6 (
6 ( <

<

<

6 6 6 ( <

; < <
<
,,
,,

,
,
- < ,,, .=
,,, < <

, <
<
<
Remark:
The osculating plane is
curves).

(see osculating circle for planar
The normal plane is .

We have assumed throughout that
)

are linearly independent! (i. e.

,
Theorem 6.7 (Base theorem for space curves)

Curvature and torsion characterize a space curve uniquely short of rotation und translation. Additionally:
6.4
-
6 is a planar curve.

Geometric and Parametric Continuity
Remember: continuity of composed Bzier splines
Two polynomial curves and ) . are called (parametric) -continuous
at , if ) )
)
.
6.4 Geometric and Parametric Continuity
73

Figure 6.5: Continuity of Bzier splines
Definition 6.6 (Geometric continuity)

Two polynomial curves and ) . are called (geometric) ) -continuous
& are -continuous.
at , if the arc length parametrizations & and )
Remark:
-continuity depends on parametrisierung ab, -continuity does not!
Theorem 6.8 (Charakterization of geometric continuity)

The following statements are equivalent:
(1)
(2)
(3)
and ) are ) -continuous

& (or & and )) are -continuous.
either or ) can be reparametrized such that and )
There exist constants (Beta-constraints) such that

)
(6.11)

& ) (.
Proof: Let ' and ( parameter transformations such that & ' und )
& are -continuous
& ( ' ) ( ' are

: & and )
F and )
continuous.

: Assume: ) and ' are -continuous at .
) ' ' ' '
) ' ' ' ' '
) '

Note that '

.
In matrix notation:

)

)

)

... ...
)

..

...

-


(3)
74
(2): Define ' locally by

'

Remark: Normally, of interest are only:
fr

6.4.1
Geometric Continuity of Bzier Curves

and
.
and ) . with

Given: Bzier
curves

)
and the interval lengths % and .
Theorem 6.9 (Characterization of ) -continuity (tangent continuity))

Equivalent are:
(1)
(2)
and ) have the same tangent direction (i. e. the same tangent unit vector) at
(3) divide ratio:

Sketch of Proof: (1)
(1)

(2): follows from )

(3): use equation for -constraints and

)

Theorem 6.10 (Characterization of ) -continuity (curvature continuity))

Equivalent are:
(1)
(2)
and ) have the same unit tangent vector and the same curvature vector at (6%
6 6% 6 !% ! )
(3) There exist constants

holds.
0 0 with 0 0 such that the generalized A-frame property
6.4 Geometric and Parametric Continuity
75

Figure 6.6: Generalized A-frame property
Sketch of Proof: (1)
(3): Use -constraints:
) and

) ) and for the control points

%

generalized A-frame condition:

00%

0 %

0 %

0

0

respectively
00
0 00 00 0
76
77

7.1
General Approach
Given: two curve schemes in 3D space:

)
and
with scalar basis functions and 3 .

The tensor product of these schemes is:
>

3
3

(7.1)
2
1
0
-1
1
-1
-1
0
1
2
Figure 7.1: A tensor product Bzier surface
Of special interest are:

Definition 7.1 (Tensor Product Bzier Surface)
>

(7.2)
Definition 7.2 (Tensor Product B-Spline Surface)

with knot vectors +

)

and >
.

(7.3)
78
Remark: We can factorize:
!

!

!

!

Each fixed gives a control point of the ! curve
The tensor product surface is a curve of curves!
With the same approach we get rational tensor product Bzier and B-spline surfaces: consider a
TP Bzier or a TP B-spline surface in 4D space (homogeneous coordinates) and divide by the 4
component. This gives:

4
4
4
Definition 7.3
The array of control points
of a tensor product surface is called the control net of the surface
(analogon of control polygon for curves).

Figure 7.2: Parameter grid, control net and resulting surface
7.2
Tensor Product Bzier Surfaces
Given: a tensor product (TP) Bzier surface
>

Theorem 7.1 (Shape properties of TP Bzier surfaces)

(a) Convex hull property: >
convex hull

for
.
(b) Interpolation of the four corners of the control net:
> > > > .
7.3 Algorithms for TP Bzier Surfaces
79
(c) Tangency in the corner points, e. g. the tangent plane at

and .
>
is spanned by
(d) The boundary curves are Bzier curves, their control points are the boundary points of the
control net (e. g. >

is Bzier curve).
(e) Affince invariance
(f) Variation diminishing property does not hold!
Sketch of Proof:
affine invariance: >

combination:

convex hull:
7.3

must be a barycentric (affine)

and

>
is a convex combination.
Algorithms for TP Bzier Surfaces
7.3.1
Evaluation with the TP Approach
Given:
TP Bzier surface >

parameter values ,

Proceeding:
(1) Apply the univariate de Casteljau algorithm in -direction times:
.

(2) Apply the univariate de Casteljau algorithm in

-direction once:
>

.
or first in
-direction, afterwards in -direction. The evaluation with the TP approach first in
-direction, then in
-direction is depicted in Figure 7.3.
Choice of the best order of evaluation (smallest number of needed arithmetic operations):
If
If
: first in -, afterwards in

-Richtung
: first in
-, afterwards in -Richtung
80
)

(
)

Figure 7.3: de Casteljau scheme for tensor product Bzier surfaces
7.3.2
The direct de Casteljau Algorithm
Idea: use bilinear interpolation instead of linear interpolation.

Theorem 7.2 (Bilinear interpolation formula)
>

(7.4)
)
Figure 7.4: Bilinear interpolation
The bilinear interpolation formula (see Figure 7.4) is applied to the whole control net in the
direct de Casteljau Algorithm (see Figure7.5). Therefore the evaluation scheme looks like a
three-dimensional pyramid.
7.3 Algorithms for TP Bzier Surfaces
81
Algorithm 7.1 (Direct de Casteljau)

(7.5)

"
Then:
>
.
)

(
)

Figure 7.5: Direct de Casteljau scheme
Problem: If you have to use the univariate de Casteljau algorithm on from a certain step.
This makes the implementation considerably more difficult.
Comparison of direct de Casteljau and TP approach according to the number of convex combinations (CC):

TP approach
CC
CC
direct de Castejau
CC
CC

In practice the TP approach is used, because it is more efficient and you dont have to do any
distinction of cases.
Remark: Other algorithms like degree elevation or subdivision can be derived from the corresponding
algorithms for curves.
7.4
82
Tensor Product B-Spline Surfaces
Given:
knot vector +

knot vector >

3
array of control points

surface

)

Theorem 7.3 (Shape properties of TP B-spline surfaces)

(a) Local convex hull property:

convex hull
%
(b) Affine invariance

(c) Endpoint interpolation: if

then

and

.
In this case: tangency in the corner points, and the boundary curves are B-spline curves
with the boundary points of the control net as curve control points. The tangential plane
at the corners is spanned by the control points, e. g. + % ?
, .
(d) Local control: a control point has influence only on a part of the surface.
Changing
will change
only for

.
(e) Variation diminishing property does not hold!

Remark: Remember from curves: a Bzier curve is a special case of a B-spline curve. A Bzier curve
over the interval with the control points is a B-spline curve over the knot vector
with the same control points. The same property holds true for tensor product

surfaces.
7.5 Algorithms for TP B-Spline Surfaces
83
7.5
7.5.1
Algorithms for TP B-Spline Surfaces

Evaluation of TP B-Spline Surfaces

)
Given:

with knot vectors > and + .
The proceeding is similar to the TP approach of TP Bziersurfaces:
(1) Evaluate B-Spline curves of degree
with de Boor in
-direction.
(2) Evaluate one B-Spline curve of degree with de Boor in -direction.

7.5.2
Knot insertion
The Boehm knot insertion algorithm for increasing modelling parameters (i. e. control points) in
a local area will produce overhead, because the refinement of the control net can only be done
by adding new rows and columns.

Figure 7.6: Knot insertion with the Boehm algorithm
One alternative are hierarchical B-splines (by Forsey and Bartels, Siggraph88). In this solution,
a B-spline surface &
is composed of a patch
over a coarse parameter grid and,
local detail )
defined over a locally refined parameter grid. You can see in Figure 7.7 that
the grid is refined only where needed.

)

)

)
Figure 7.7: Building a hierarchical knot grid for B-spline patches
7.6
84
Interpolation and Approximation
7.6.1
General interpolation
Be

@

. Consider @
as basis functions

:

Task: Interpolation/approximation of data points with parameter values

:

.
3
Interpolation and approximation are exactly the same as for Bzier and B-Spline curves.
Problem: For curves we have the Theorem of Schoenberg-Whitney, that says if the interpolation/approximation matrix is invertable. But there is no comparable theorem for surfaces.
7.6.2
Special case: Interpolation at the knots
Interpolation over grids:

Given: data points
with parameter values
for

Find: surface

@

.
with

% 3

@ @

..
..
..

.
@

.
@

+

..
.

3

..

..

.

.

..

,
..
.

The resulting matrix system is very large. For 3 for example you have to do
operations. Therefore the following proceeding is better:
A B
(2) Solve A
(1) Solve @
Tasks (1) and (2) are interpolation problems of curves, for whom the corresponding algorithms
can be applied.
Interpolation at the knots:
If

, then tasks (1) and (2) are tridiagonal matrices and therefore solvable in a
fast way.
7.7 Trimming of parametric Patches
85
7.7
Trimming of parametric Patches
One disadvantage of tensor product Bzier and B-spline surfaces is that all patches are squarelike; it is not possible to model surfaces that does not have a well-defined tangent plane (i. e. if
).
Figure 7.8: Trimming a patch
A solution are trimmed patches. Specify a set of closed contours ) ) in the parameter
domain, where ) is the outer contour and ) ) are inner contours (see Figure 7.9). By
definition:
shall belong to the trimmed surface if

is inside with respect to ) and

is outside with respect to ) ) .
)

Figure 7.9: Specifying inner and outer contours in the parameter domain
How to determine if a point is inside or outside the trimmed surface (see Figure 7.10)?
Theorem 7.4
Given: a closed contour )
with ) ):
a ray emanating from intersects the contour times with being odd.
is outside ) a ray emanating from intersects the contour times with being
is inside )
even.
86
* *
*
*
* *
Figure 7.10: Determining inside and outside of a trimmed patch
87

In this chapter, we want to discuss an algorithm to compute intersections between rational tensor
product Bzier surfaces and rays. In particular, this is important for rendering Bzier patches
using the ray tracing approach.
For more information see Nishita et al., Siggraph90.
Given:
rational TP Bzier patch

4

4

(8.1)
ray C 8
Find: intersection, i. e. find and

such that C
.
Remark: This problem is analytically solvable only for low polynomial degrees. Therefore an iterative
approximation algorithm as presented here is normally a better approach.
1st step:
Represent the ray as an intersection of two planes:
.
.
Figure 8.1: Bzier clipping, step 1
Example: Select plane normal vectors that are perpendicular to 8 - , e. g.

. and . - . Then determine and by applying
:

.
.
88
2nd step:
Find intersection of with the two planes:
- ,,
.
,
,,
"
. ,
- ,,
.

,
,,

4

4

,

.
We get
5

>

with

and

- ,, .

,

4
,,
4
. ,
- ,, .

,

4
,,
4

. ,
and
Remark: This is a projection of ! along " onto a plane that is perpendicular to ".
,

3rd step:
89
Choose two directions in space:
direction perpendicular to direction, const.

$ direction perpendicular to
direction,
const.
In case of a biquadratic patch:

$

,
-
-
Alternate the directions and $ and iterate on the following steps:

4th step:
Determine the (signed) distances
of the projected control points

to . This gives a
Bzier representation of the distance-to- -function that can be used to determine the distance
of an arbitrary point to :
B

5th step:

Plot the values

in a --diagram (see figure 8.4)
6th step:
Determine the convex hull of the points in this diagram (by connecting maxima and minima of
the columns) and intersect it with the -axis. This gives an interval .
90

Figure 8.4: Bzier clipping, steps 5 and 6
7th step:
Clip away the parametric domain and by two subdivision steps (using the de
Casteljau algorithm for Bzier patches).

Switch direction
$
and repeat steps 4 to 7. The parameter values of the
intersection point must be within the box

.
Stop when the size of the box is smaller than a threshold value or the convex hull in step 6 does
not intersect with the axis; this indicates that there is no intersection of C and .
91

The tensor product surfaces discussed in the previous chapter have been defined over rectangular
parameter domains. Now we will consider Bzier patches defined over triangular parameter
domains. There are two major advantages:
triangles give more topological flexibility
tensor product surfaces have high polynomial degree, e. g. a biquadratic TP patch has
actually degree 4 (see table below for all monomials occurring in a biquadratic TP patch).

9.1
Barycentric Coordinates in
Normally, a point
is given by an origin and two directions and such that
2 7 . We call 2 and 7 the standard coordinates of with respect to the
coordinate system . Now we introduce another type of 2D coordinates based on three
points:
Definition 9.1 (Barycentric coordinates)

Given: Three points , and that are not on a line. An arbitrary point can be represented
as an affine combination
! " -
The coefficients
5 > + .
! " -
! " -
(9.1)
are called barycentric coordinates of with respect to the triangle
Theorem 9.1
Given: Triangle 5 > + and point . The barycentric coordinates ! " - of with respect
to 5 > + are unique and can be determined by
where
-

"

!

5 > +
$%

5 > +
(9.2)
92
Sketch of Proof: Equation 9.1 can be rewritten as a linear system with tree variables:

5 > + !

5 > +
"

So we have
$%
5 + > +
5 + > +

$%

and are linear dependent.
The formulas for ! " and - follow from Cramers rule.
0
/
.
$
Figure 9.1: Barycentric coordinates

Remark:
Because of we can represent the barycentric
coordinates also as ratios of areas, i. e.

#

is inside
If #
9.2

$

# and $ .
$ then is the barycenter of .
Bernstein Polynomials over Triangles
A 1-dimensional analogon to barycentric coordinates: if . divides the interval such that
. then . and . .
The th Bernstein polynomial of degree over the interval is defined as follows:
.
9.2 Bernstein Polynomials over Triangles
93
.
/
Figure 9.2: Divide ratios and barycentric coordinates
Definition 9.2 (Bernstein polynomial over triangles)

Given: Point having barycentric coordinates ! " - with respect to a triangle
, a triple of indices with degree and . Then:
! "
-

(9.3)
is called a Bernstein polynomial over the triangle .

Example:

Figure 9.3: Arrangement of indices % for Bernstein polynomials
Theorem 9.2
The Bernstein polynomials
of degree ).
form a basis of (= bivariate polynomials

Sketch of Proof: The number of Bernstein polynomials is ,

which is the dimension of bivariate polynomials of degree . Example: for we have 10
linear independent polynomials: .
Theorem 9.3 (Properties of triangular Bernstein Polynomials)

.
(1) If is inside , then

94
(2) Partition of 1:

(9.4)
(3) Recursion:
!

"
-

(9.5)
Sketch of Proof:
if is inside .

! " -
! "

(1) follows from definition; ! " (2)
(3)
! "

-

.
!
!

Similar for "
and -
.
Theorem 9.4 (Polar Forms in 2D)

For each polynomial of degree there exists a unique polar form
with
is symmetric
is multiaffine, i. e.
* & * &
is diagonal, i. e. .
Example:

9.3 Triangular Bzier Patches
95
9.3
Triangular Bzier Patches
Definition 9.3 (Triangular Bzier Patch)

Given: degree , parameter domain , points
with . Then:

(9.6)

is called triangular Bzier patch over the triangle .

The points
are called control points or Bzier points. They form the control net.

Figure 9.4: Triangular control nets for and
Theorem 9.5 (Control Points and Polar

Form)
Given: triangular Bzier patch

. Then:

5 5 > > + +

Sketch of Proof: Let ! " - the barycentric coordinates of such that

Assume that , then
(9.7)
! " - .
! " -

5 >
> + +
5

.
Theorem 9.6 (Shape Properties of Triangular Bzier Patches)

(a) convex hull property: convex hull of
for
(b) end point interpolation: , , .
(c) end point tangency: e. g. the tangent plane at is
+ !

(d) The boundary curves are Bzier curves formed by the boundary control points.
(e) affine invariance
9.4
9.4.1
96
Algorithms for Triangular Bzier Patches

The de Casteljau Algorithm
To evaluate , we need the barycentric coordinates ! " - of .

Algorithm 9.1 (de Casteljau for Bzier triangles)

!
"
-

% " %
(9.8)
Then: with ! " - .

Sketch of Proof: According to theorem 9.5, we have

This is a solution for the recursion formula, it leads to .

Figure 9.5: de Casteljau scheme for triangular Bzier patches
9.4.2
Degree Elevation
As an example, we first consider here the degree elevation from quadratic to cubic triangular
Bzier patches:

, we need a mapping for the polar forms
To find the
:

(9.9)
97
It is easy to see that this is symmetric, multiaffine and diagonal, so is a polar form.
Example:

Algorithm 9.2 (Degree elevation)

Given: Bzier triangle

such that
Find: control points

9.4.3

Subdivision
There are two possibilities to perform a subdivision for triangular Bzier patches:
1st possibility: divide
into two triangles (1-to-2 split).
E. g. dividing the line segment with gives

(9.10)

2nd possibility: divide
98
into four triangles (1-to-4 split, see figure 9.7).
1
1
1
Figure 9.7: Splitting triangles: 1-to-2 and 1-to-4 split
Figure 9.8: A control net and the first 1-to-4 subdivision step
Algorithm 9.3 (1-to-2 split)

Perform de Casteljau algorithm:

for . Then: the outer faces of the resulting tetrahedron are control points of the two
subdivided triangles (see figure 9.5).
Algorithm 9.4 (1-to-4 split, Farin-Prautzsch method)
Perform four 1-to-2 splits with de Casteljau (see figure 9.9).
Instead of subsequently using the de Casteljau algorithm for subdivision, it is also possible to
pre-calculate the split points using polar forms:
99
1
$
1
( $
1
( $
1
1
1
1
( $
1
1
Figure 9.9: Farin-Prautzsch 1-to-4 subdivision scheme

we get:
Example: If we want to split at
and

Supplement: Derivatives of Multivariate Functions

Considering multivariate (here: bivariate) functions, there are three types of derivatives:
%
partial derivatives are %
and $
directional derivative: the derivative of

4 4$ is
8

at a certain point in direction
8 4 ( 4 (
( #

8
(

( $ (
total derivative: the Jacobian matrix
( (
D% ( (

For bivariate functions, the Jacobian matrix is a matrix with the dimension of the
space D%
.
100
-Continuity of Triangular Bzier Patches
9.5
Given: two Bzier triangles and ) which have the parameter domains %
.
and
$
Figure 9.10: Attaching two Bzier triangles continuously
How to determine that and ) are -continuous along the edge ? Assume a point
on the edge in cartesian coordinates $ (and assume that and ) are also given in
cartesian representation).
: ).
() and ( () .
: and (

( (
(
(

(
: and (( (() ((
((
) and (
(
)

(
(
In general:
( (
( (
for all .
()
( (
-continuity can be characterized using polar forms. Assume and * are polar forms of and
).
:
*
*
..
.
*
:
*
*
..
.
9.5 -Continuity of Triangular Bzier Patches
101
*
for all . An equivalent condition for -continuity:

tions hold for .
holds and the above equa-
:

*

for all
. Equivalent:
holds and and .
In general:
Theorem 9.7
The Bzier triangles and ) with the parameter domains %
are -continuous if
and

*

for all
% and %.
(9.11)
Geometric interpretation (for ):
E " - is a representation of in barycentric coordinates with respect to

. Then:
*
E * " * - *
Figure 9.11: Diamond condition for
These quadrilaterals (highlighted in figure 9.11) are affine images of the parameter quadrilateral
, therefore they have to be planar (diamond condition).
9.6
102
Interpolation with piecewise Bzier Triangles (Split Surfaces)
One application of triangular Bzier patches is the interpolation of scattered data points using
smooth triangular surfaces.
Given: data points and corresponding data values .
Find: a smooth (i. e.
.
) scalar function
that interpolates the given data, i. e.
Note that there exist many approaches to solve this problem.

General procedure:
1st step: triangulate the set of data points, e. g. using Delaunay triangulation (see lecture
on Graphical Algorithms for details).
2nd step: split each triangle. We want to discuss here two methods of splitting, the
Clough-Tocher method that gives three cubic Bzier patches and the
Powell-Sabin method that gives six quadratic Bzier patches.
3rd step: estimate the normal vectors (or partial derivatives) at each data point. These are
used to determine the control points.
9.6.1
Clough-Tocher
Figure 9.12: Clough-Tocher split surface scheme
This is how the control points in figure 9.12 are obtained:
: given data points .
: Assume that the orthogonal derivative along an edge is linear and linearly interpolate
: specified by the directional derivatives obtained in 3 rd step.
the orthogonal derivative at the end points.
9.6 Interpolation with piecewise Bzier Triangles (Split Surfaces)
103
: diamond condition at the interior edges for -continuity
: choose the barycenter of the triangle.

9.6.2
Powell-Sabin
Figure 9.13: Powell-Sabin split surface scheme
Here, the control points according to figure 9.13 are obtained as follows:
: given data points .
: diamond condition at the outer edges for -continuity
: specified by the directional derivatives obtained in 3 rd step.

: diamond condition at the interior edges for -continuity
: barycenters of the given triangles (incenters can also be used; the only condition is that
has always the same barycentric coordinates with respect to its corresponding triangle).
104
105
10 Triangle meshes
Triangle meshes are used for modelling geometric objects. The representation of triangles is
supported by the graphics hardware and there are efficient algorithms.
Triangle meshes consist of:

a set of edges A
6
6
!

!

a set of triangles +

!

!
with

a set of vertices F
10.1
Basics
Notations:
For vertices
the edges 6 and triangles with
For edges 6
6 resp. are called adjacent.
all triangles with 6 " are called adjacent.
(1-)neighbourhood of a vertice: all adjacent triangles and the edges and vertices they
consist of (see Figure 10.1)
2-neighbourhood of a vertice: neighbourhood of the neighbourhood (see Figure 10.1)
n-neighbourhood: neighbourhood of the (
)-neighbourhood
valence 7$ of a vertice
: number of adjacent edges resp. number of neighbour vertices
Figure 10.1: 1-neighbourhood and 2-neighbourhood of a vertice !
We only consider manifold triangulation, i. e. triangle meshes with the following properties:
10 Triangle meshes
106
(1) The intersection of two different triangles is

a common edge,
a common vertice or
empty. (see Figure 10.2)
Figure 10.2: not possible in manifold triangulations
10.1 Basics
107
(2) Edges have
border edge
oder two adjacent triangles inner edge.
one adjacent triangle
(3) If the adjacent triangles of a vertice build a

open fan (see Figure 10.3), the vertice is a vertice at the border:
7$ adjacent triangles
closed fan (see Figure 10.3), the vertice is a inner vertice:
7$ adjacent triangles
Figure 10.3: open and closed fan
(4) orientable surfaces, i.e.

the normals can be oriented constantly
no Moebius Strips and Klein Bottles (see Figure 10.4)
Figure 10.4: Moebius Strip and Klein Bottle
(5) The triangle is connected
the border edges build a close polygon.

Example: Tetrahedron
F

A

+

10 Triangle meshes
108
Figure 10.5: Tetrahedron
Theorem 10.1 (EULER formula for general polyhedrons)

If F is the number of vertices, A the number of edges, the number of faces, ) the genus of the
surface (number of holes (see Figure 10.6)) and the number of border polygons die Anzahl
der Randpolygone, we have:
A )
Figure 10.6: Two-torus: surface of genus 2
Example:
) F A
tetrahedron: ) F A
torus: ) F A
sphere:

10.2 Computer representation of triangle meshes
109
For the estimation of the required memory of a triangle mesh the following theorem is important.
Theorem 10.2
For large triangle meshes holds:
F A F
Proof:

ii) F A (because the genus and the number of border polygons is vanishing in
large triangle meshes)
F A A F A
i) Each triangle has 3 edges, each inner edge belongs to 2 triangles.
A
F

10.2
Computer representation of triangle meshes
The information of triangle meshes consists of

geometry: where are the vertices, edges and triangles?
topology: how are the vertices connected to edges and triangles?
This information should be suitably stored for the application and as efficient as possible.
Remark: In the following holds:
Below there are presented three possible representations of triangle meshes in the computer:
(1) explicit representation
For all triangles
the vertices

are stored.
floats

Remark: Maximal redundant, because the geometry is multiply stored.
(2) "shared vertex" or "indexed face set"

list of coordinates of all vertices
floats
list of all triangles by referencing the vertex list, i. e. for

we store
integers
Remark:
Efficient because geometry and topology is separated. Therefore it is suitable for archiving
the data.
Edges are only stored implicitly. Explicit access is difficult.
10 Triangle meshes
110
Frequent operations are expensive (e. g. access to the neighbour of a vertex).

Vertices of the triangles are normally stored counter clockwise.
(3) extended shared vertex
list of vertices with reference to one adjacent triangle. (convention for border vertices: right border triangle)
floats integers
list of triangles with reference to adjacent triangles (at the border:

integers
)
Remark: The extended shared vertex structure is suitable especially for the processing triangle
meshes. E. g. neighbour vertices can be found easily because of the stored lists.
Example: tetrahedron
(1) explicit data structure
0
1
2
3
1.0, 1.0, 1.0

1.0, 1.0, 1.0
1.0, 1.0, 1.0
1.0, -1.0, -1.0
-1.0, 1.0, -1.0

-1.0, -1.0, 1.0
1.0, -1.0, -1.0
-1.0, -1.0, 1.0
-1.0, -1.0, 1.0

1.0, -1.0, -1.0
-1.0, 1.0, -1.0
-1.0, 1.0, -1.0
(2) shared vertex structure
0
1
2
3
1.0
-1.0
-1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
-1.0
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
1.0
-1.0

0
1
2
3
0
0
0
3
1
2
3
2
2
3
1
1
10.3 Parametrization of triangle meshes
111
(3) extended shared vertex structure
10.3

0
1
2
3
1.0
-1.0
-1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
-1.0
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
1.0
-1.0
0
0
0
1
0
1
2
3
0
0
0
3
1
2
3
2
2
3
1
1
3
3
3
0
1
2
0
2
2
0
1
1
Parametrization of triangle meshes
Given: data points

Find: parameter values for which the angles and splitting ratios of the triangle mesh are
preserved.
Notations:
border points:

(indices of) neighbour of

:
10.3.1

The spring modell
In order to parameterize the inner points we use the spring modell from physics. Interpretation:
Springs are attached to the inner points and fixed along the edges at the neighbour points. The
springs are idealised and have the minimum size 0. The mesh is getting flat and the springs are
as minimal tensed as possible.
Parameterization of data points by spring modells requires the minimization of a quadratic functional. That corresponds to solving a linear system of equations.
The spring equation is:

(
(

Minimization:

/
B

B
((

/

(

(

sonst
( B
(
$

10 Triangle meshes
112

$

$
B

B

$
@
with

B

$
B
@

B

"

sonst
Remark:
B

B

.
..

.
"

..

B

& is invertible because it is diagonal dominant.
Proceeding of parameterization:
(1) parameterization of the border vertices
(2) parameterization of the inner vertices
10.3.2
Parametrization of the border vertices
First the border vertices of the triangle mesh have to be parameterized by one of the following
possibilities.
i) method for curves over a circle
ii) specify corners and parameterize over a polygon with corners
iii) projection of the border vertices onto the least squares plane
Remark: It is possible that method iii) leads to convolutions of the border polygon. The projected border
polygon is not convex necessariliy.
10.3.3
Parametrization of the inner vertices
Given: vertices

Find: parameter values
, which fulfill the following:

(1) identity property: parameterization is identical with the triangle mesh, that has been
pressed into the plane.
(2) regularity resp. no convolutions
10.3 Parametrization of triangle meshes
113
Choice of the B
:
a)
B

are called #

uniform parametrization
zentripetal parametrization
chordal parametrization
Disadvantage: If the given triangle mesh lies in a plane, the mesh is getting deformed.
The parameterization does not fulfill (1), but (2).
b) discret harmonic parameterization
B

%
%
Disadvantage: parameterized triangle mesh might be convoluted.
The parameterization fulfills (1), but not (2).
c) shape preserving parameterization: fulfills (1) and (2)
i) Flattening of the 1-neighbourhood of a inner point v by exponential map (see Figure 10.3.3 (a) and (b)):

with
" !

and
& 4

0
! : 0

and
"
"
0 4
4
ii) determine B
by averaging the barycentric coordinates (see Section 9.1)
For each & we find one , so that & &
&
,
i. e. - & -
&
-
&
with - -
-

all other -
(see Figure 10.3.3 (c))

Finally: B$
-
Dieses B$ ist das B zwischen den Punkten

und
4 .
Es ist klar, dass
i)

B$ &
denn f"ur alle gilt

-
&
10 Triangle meshes
114
ii)

B$

ist damit Konvexkombination der &
Remark: Diese '

sind i. d. R. nicht symmetrisch, d. h.

(a)
(b)

'
'
.

(c)
Figure 10.7: A local part of a triangular mesh (a) is mapped into the plane by expontial mapping (b) and
the local weights are determined (c).
115
Motivation: Comparison TP-Surfaces - Triangle Meshes
memory requirements
smooth surface
display on screen
free forms
complex forms
TP-Surfaces
Triangle Meshes
+
+
-
+
+
+
Subdivision surfaces are a compromise between TP-surfaces and triangle meshes. In the following, we learn that Subdivision Surfaces offer a good possibility for surface modelling (e. g.
in movies). The modelling process consists of two steps: First build a coarse triangle mesh of
the object, then apply several subdivision steps. We receive a smooth surface, which is - or
-continuous in the limit and interpolates or approximates the original mesh.
Basic idea: 1-to-4 split (see Figure 11.1)
Figure 11.1: 1-to-4 split
Analogously: subdivision of curves

useful terms:
"old" points: even vertices
"new" points: odd vertices
There are two kinds of subdivision schemes:
(1) interpolative subdivision: Even vertices are kept, odd vertices are added.
(2) approximative subdivision: Also the position of the even vertices changes.
Remark:
The more subdivision steps, the smaller the triangles (and the smoother the surface).
In the limit (after subdivision steps): smooth surface
Advantages and disadvantages of subdivision surfaces:

+ arbitrary topology
+ scalability
+ compromise between triangle meshes and TP-surfaces
+ numerical stability
+ code simplicity
+ adaptivity
no simple method with global -continuity in the limit
artifacts at vertices with high valence
Objectives for the development of subdivision schemes:
efficient calculation of even and odd vertices
simplicity and locality of this rules
affine invariance
convex combinations
continuity of the limit surface
116
11.1 Approximative schemes: Loop-Subdivision
117
11.1
Approximative schemes: Loop-Subdivision
The Loop-Subdivision scheme is approximative. It is the most simple subdivision scheme. Even
and odd vertices in regular triangle meshes are calculated with the following masks:
odd vertices:
even vertices:

odd

at the boarder:

even

at the boarder:

odd

even
Figure 11.2: mask for the calculation of odd and even vertices
For irregular even vertices the Loop-Subdivision uses the scheme in Figure 11.3.

with valence of 0$0

and

#
Figure 11.3: masks for the calculation of irregular even vertices
At regular vertices the limit surface of the Loop-Subdivision scheme is -continuous. At irregular vertices it is -continuous. You can see a triangle mesh and three Loop-Subdivision steps
in the Figures 11.4 und 11.5.

Figure 11.4: Loop-Subdivision: top: coarse triangle mesh, bottom: after 1 subdivision step
118
119
11.1 Approximative schemes: Loop-Subdivision
Figure 11.5: Loop-Subdivision: top: after 2 steps, bottom: after 3 steps
11.2
120
Interpolatory schemes: Modified Butterfly-Subdivision
Butterfly-Subdivsion is a interpolatory scheme. It reaches -continuity of the limit surface.

It only needs one rule for the calculation of the odd vertices, because the even vertices are
interpolated.
Inner points:
(1) regular neighbour vertices

Figure 11.6: Butterfly: Mask for the calculation of the odd vertices
(2) one irregular neighbour vertice

k
5:

k = 3:

k = 4:

#
:
Figure 11.7: one irregular neighbour vertice with valence 3, 4 and 5
(3) two irregular neighbour vertices Use mask from (2) for both neighbours and average the
results
Remark: Case 3 is only possible in the first subdivision step.
11.3 Limit points for approximative subdivision
121

Figure 11.8: 4-point-scheme for boarder vertices
Boarder vertices: At the border the 4-point-scheme for curves is applied (Figure 11.8).
You can see a triangle mesh and three Butterfly-Subdivision steps in the Figures 11.9 und 11.10.
11.3
Limit points for approximative subdivision
In this section subdivision is written as a linear process. By analysing the so-called subdivision
matrix the position of the vertices on the limit surface and propositions about the continuity of
the limit surface can be deduced.
11.3.1
Limit points for the subdivision of cubic splines
The formulas for subdividing cubic splines from section 4.5.5 example 4 for open knot vectors

can be
are applied. These formulas for the calculation of the shifted vertices

displayed in matrix form as follows:

#

#

#

# #

# #

By repeated insertion we get:

#

We have to know the matrix > for the calculation of the limit points. Therefore we have to
diagonalize the subdivision matrix S:
> 5 B 5
Figure 11.9: Butterfly-Subdivision: top: coarse triangle mesh, bottom: after 1 subdivision step
122
123
Figure 11.10: Butterfly-Subdivision: top: after 2 steps, bottom: after 3 steps
124
R: matrix consisting of eigenvectors

D: eigenvalues of the diagonal matrix

5

B

5

> > > 5B 5 5 B5 5B5 5B5

> 5B5 5 #
B 5

#

5

5
#

#

5

5

Remark: The subdivision matrix of good subdivision schemes for curves has the eigenvalues .
11.3.2
Limit points for the subdivision of regular triangle meshes
Analogously to curves:

..

.

. ..

..
.

Subdivision matrix:

..

..
..

>

..

.

...

125
In the same way as for curves we diagonalize the subdivision matrix. The eigenvalues of the
matrix are .
In the limit we receive the following subdivision matrix and the limit point of
:

>

..

.
. ..

..
.

..
.

..
.

..
.

..
.

Remark: Eigenvalue criterias for the determination of the continuity of the limit surface for
Eigenvalues ( ( ( of the subdivision matrix
(
( (
( ( (
-continuous

-continuous
-continuous
The analysis of the Loop scheme for irregular vertices and the Butterfly scheme for all vertices only yields
-continuity.

Geometric Modelling

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geometric Modelling

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Geometric Modelling

Lecture in Winter Term

1 General Remarks on Curves and Surfaces

6 Elementary Differential Geometry for Curves

7 Tensor Product Surfaces

8 Ray Tracing of TP-Bzier Surfaces (Bzier Clipping)

9 Triangular Bzier Patches

9.4.2 Degree Elevation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Curves in the plane and in space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Quadratic Lagrange polynomials with respect to paramter values and . .

Example for the de Boor algorithm (2): evaluation . . . . . . .

A tensor product Bzier surface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bzier clipping, step 1 . . .

Splitting triangles: 1-to-2 and 1-to-4 split . . . .

1-neighbourhood and 2-neighbourhood of a vertice

1 General Remarks on Curves and Surfaces

Figure 1.1: Curves in the plane and in space

Figure 1.2: A torus and a free form surface

There are three ways to describe curves and surfaces mathematically.

1 General Remarks on Curves and Surfaces

Remark: reasonable means here: differentiable and , e. g.

All statements are also true for surfaces.

Polynomial of th degree:     

  set of all polynomials

Definition 2.1 (Polynomial Curve)

Evaluation with equation 2.1 requires   multiplications and additions, thus

                

Note that and are linear spaces (vector spaces).

 with       . The polynomial

      

is called the  th Lagrange1 polynomial of degree .

 form a basis of :

Joseph Louis de Lagrange (17361813)

2.2 Different Basis of

  

  

Remark: Properties of the binomial coefficients:

Serge N. Bernstein, 1912

       

Figure 2.2: Bernstein polynomials for  ,   and 

Definition 2.4 (General Bernstein Polynomial)

Theorem 2.2 holds also true.

Evaluating formula 2.3 at  yields:

 form a basis of :

2.2 Different Basis of

Comparison of Lagrange and Bernstein Representation

Different representations: 

 will be interpolated  

The location of     or     determine the shape of the curve somehow

Supplement: Affine Maps

An affine map especially preserves affine combinations, i. e.

         

is called multiaffine, if for any fixed arguments 

Theorem 2.5 (Characterization of Affine Maps)

Theorem 2.6 (Polynomials and Polar Forms)

2.3 Polar Forms

 is symmetric in each variable, i. e.

     

Diction:  is the polar form (blossom) of .

General formula for polynomials of degree in monomial representation: 

   . This can be decomposed in the follow-

                    

Figure 2.3: Polar Form of a Curve of degree  

Definition 3.1 (Bzier Curve)

Polynomial of th degree:

set of all polynomials

Evaluation with equation 2.1 requires multiplications and additions, thus

with . The polynomial

is called the th Lagrange1 polynomial of degree .

form a basis of :

Figure 2.2: Bernstein polynomials for , and

Evaluating formula 2.3 at yields:

form a basis of :

Different representations:

will be interpolated

The location of or determine the shape of the curve somehow

is called multiaffine, if for any fixed arguments

is symmetric in each variable, i. e.

Diction: is the polar form (blossom) of .

General formula for polynomials of degree in monomial representation:

. This can be decomposed in the follow-

Figure 2.3: Polar Form of a Curve of degree

Proof: Write as an affine combination of and :

Example: Given: , , .

Theorem 3.2(Derivative of a Bzier Curve)

Theorem 3.3(Lemma of Bzier)

(4) Affine invariance: Let an affine map, then

$ control polygon

und

The de Casteljau algorithm is a method for evaluatingBzier curves.

Then: is a point on the Bzier curve.

Figure 3.4: de Casteljau schemas for and

Graphical representation of the de Casteljau algorithm for , and :

a Bzier curve over and & .

&

Bzier curve over &

Given: degree , ,

(2) Draw the polygon & & .

& & & & &

at the parametrical midpoint &

and using de

(2) Continue recursively until a certain recursion depth .

a Bzier curve of degree over .

the -affine polar form of (as polynomial of degree ).

(a) affine in every

is the polar form of (as polynomial of degree ).

Given: a Bzier curve

.

(

Given: control points

The following matrix describes the degree elevation

-continuous = continuous, no jumps