Liceo Tecnolgico Copiap

English Department

Technical Drawing Course

For high school
Adapted text by Nicole Uribe O.

2009

UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION OF TECHNICAL DRAWING
Technical drawing is the discipline of creating standardized technical drawing by architects, CAD drafters, design
engineers, and related professionals. Technical drawing includes the various fields and technologies
underpinning electronics, which has in turn revolutionized the art with new tools in the form of Computer Aided
Design (CAD).
A technical drawing or engineering drawing is a type of drawing and form of graphic communication, used in the
transforming of an idea into physical form. This type of drawing is used to fully and clearly define requirements
for engineered items, and is usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout,
nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc.
The process of creating a technical drawing is called drafting or technical drawing. A person who does drafting is
known as a drafter. In some areas this person may be referred to as a drafting technician, draftsperson, or
drawing can hold many purposes and meanings, while a technical drawing is intended to concisely and clearly
communicate all needed specifications of a created object or objects.
Technical drawing, also known as drafting, refers to the discipline of producing precise illustrations of things in
fields like architecture and engineering. Generally, the term technical drawing pertains to any kind of drawing
fashioned with technical ideas. Good examples of technical drawing are mechanical drawings, charts, and
sketches. Technical drawings are a means of graphic communication, which aims to clearly and concisely
communicate information about transforming technical ideas or concepts into reality. A technical drawing often
contains both a graphic representation of its subject, and dimensions, notes and specifications.
Today the mechanics of the drafting task have been greatly accelerated through the use of computer-aided
design and drafting systems, but regardless of whether a draft is drawn by hand or with computer assistance, the
field-use-drawing must be reproducible with a version control system to maintain authorized and approved
changes to the master document (or computer files, the modern analog).
In some fields, particularly electronics, draftsmen are also known by the ambiguous "designer", whose job would
be distinct and separate from the engineers specifying and working out the design details. In short, draftsmen
are communicators that are part of an engineering team charged with producing specialty documentation
packaged as a design, which, following the standards of the field, can be understood by others with the same
training. Technical drawing in perspective is a universal picture language by which ideas and information may be
made readily available for others.

HISTORY
Drawing to communicate technical ideas may predate the written language. The oldest drawing instruments
known, a drawing board inscripted with a temple plan, date from the 3rd millennium BC from the city of Lagash
in Babylon. The ancient Greeks influenced drawing through their work in geometry, and tools such as the
compass and triangles used in engineering were then developed.
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One of few surviving medieval architectural drawing from the period between the fall of the Roman Empire and
the 13th century is the Plan of Saint Gall, a architectural drawing of a monastic compound dating from the early
9th century. The Plan depicts an entire Benedictine monastic compound including churches, houses, stables,
kitchens, workshops, brewery, infirmary, and even a special house for bloodletting. The Plan was never actually
built, and was so named because it was kept at the famous medieval monastery library of the Abbey of St. Gall,
where it remains to this day.

Design for a Flying Machine, Leonardo da Vinci, 1488.

The beginning of contemporary technical drawing originates from 15th century renaissance artists like the Italian
Architect Filippo Brunelleschi, who in about 1415 demonstrated the geometrical method of perspective, used
today by artists, by painting the outlines of various Florentine buildings onto a mirror. Leonardo da Vinci further
developed perspective and technical drawing, using geometric principles from famous Greek mathematicians like
Pythagoras of Samos, and Euclid of Alexandria. In the 18th century the mathematician Gaspard Monge
developed descriptive geometry, when designing a complicated fortress in a star shape using orthographic
projection. Early 19th century isometric drawing was introduced by the Englishman William Farish.
Prior to the 18th century there was no need for interchangeable parts, the ability to select components for
assembly at random and fit them together within proper tolerances, and accurate drawings were not necessary.
Inventors, engineers and builders made each product one at a time, and each product was unique. Many designs
used through the 19th century were accomplished by first completing a hand sketch of the object to build. These
were them converted into wooden models from which patterns were constructed. This practice followed well
into the 20th century by some. One of the first efforts to create a program to standardize drawing and establish a
mechanical drawing school came from the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia in 1824.
The 18th century architectural practice technical drawing had become the normal medium for design. Architects
were among the first design discipline to make use of conventions of plan, elevation and section in design and
production control. It was the scale of the projects and number of crafts involved that called for a separation
between design and construction. By the time the Industrial revolution began, these architectural conventions
were readily available to engineers.
Since the Industrial Revolution specialized fields of engineering design have developed to meet the needs of
industry. Military and civil engineering were the first, from which others developed such as mechanical,
electrical, chemical, aerospace industrial engineering, and many others.
Eventually the development of the computer had a major impact on the methods used to design and create
technical drawings.
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Fields of technical drawing

The field of technical drawing and drafting work is applied in many specialties, such as:
Aeronautical drafters: prepare engineering drawings detailing plans and specifications used in the
manufacture of aircraft, missiles, and related parts.
Architectural drawing : draw architectural and structural features of buildings and other structures. These
workers may specialize in a type of structure, such as residential or commercial, or in a kind of material
used, such as reinforced concrete, masonry, steel, or timber. Architectural drawing can includes all
architectural contracts and drawings such as plot plans, floor plans, elevations, sections, details,
schedules, etc., and any architectural drawing that forms a part of the contract documents.
Civil drafters : prepare drawings and topographical and relief maps used in major construction or civil
engineering projects, such as highways, bridges, pipelines, flood control projects, and water and sewage
systems.
Electrical drafters : prepare wiring and layout diagrams used by workers who erect, install, and repair
electrical equipment and wiring in communication centers, power plants, electrical distribution systems,
and buildings.
Electronics drafters: draw wiring diagrams, circuit board assembly diagrams, schematics, and layout
drawings used in the manufacture, installation, and repair of electronic devices and components.
Mechanical drafters: prepare drawings showing the detail and assembly of a wide variety of machinery
and mechanical devices, indicating dimensions, fastening methods, and other requirements.
Process piping or pipeline drafters: prepare drawings used in the layout, construction, and operation of
oil and gas fields, refineries, chemical plants, and process piping systems.
Further, special fields of technical drawings, such as the drawing of gears and cams, welding, riveting, electrical
components and circuits, piping, structures, and mapping and typography have evolved to support the
specialized fields of engineering.

Types of technical drawings

Construction drawing

Construction drawing of a Machine tool part.

Construction drawing is a type of technical drawing, created within the engineering discipline, and used to fully
and clearly define requirements for engineered items.
Construction drawings are usually created in accordance with standardized conventions for layout,
nomenclature, interpretation, appearance (such as typefaces and line styles), size, etc.
Its purpose is to accurately and unambiguously capture all the geometric features of a product or a component.
The end goal of an engineering drawing is to convey all the required information that will allow a manufacturer
to produce that component.
Cutaway drawings

Cutaway drawing of a Nash 600.

A cutaway drawing is a technical illustration, in which surface elements three-dimensional models are selectively
removing, to make internal features visible, but without sacrificing the outer context entirely.
The purpose of a cutaway drawing is to allow the viewer to have a look into an otherwise solid opaque object.
Instead of letting the inner object shine through the surrounding surface, parts of outside object are simply
removed. This produces a visual appearance as if someone had cutout a piece of the object or sliced it into parts.
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Cutaway illustrations avoid ambiguities with respect to spatial ordering, provide a sharp contrast between
foreground and background objects, and facilitate a good understanding of spatial ordering.
Explore view drawing

Gear pump exploded.

An exploded view drawing is a technical drawing of an object that shows the relationship or order of assembly of
the various parts. It shows the components of an object slightly separated by distance, or suspended in
surrounding space in the case of a three-dimensional exploded diagram. An object is represented as if there had
been a small controlled explosion emanating from the middle of the object, causing the object's parts to be
separated an equal distance away from their original locations.
An exploded view drawing can show the intended assembly of mechanical or other parts. In mechanical systems
usually the component closest to the center are assembled first, or is the main part in which the other parts get
assembled. This drawing can also help to represent disassembly of parts, where the parts on the outside
normally get removed first.
Patent drawing

Wright brothers Patent drawing, 1908.

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A patent drawing is a technical drawing of a patent invention, that shows the nature of the invention. The
drawing must show every feature of the invention specified in the claims, and is required by the patent office
rules to be in a particular form.
The applicant for a patent will be required by law to furnish a drawing of the invention whenever the nature of
the case requires a drawing to understand the invention. This drawing must be filed with the application. This
includes practically all inventions except compositions of matter or processes, but a drawing may also be useful
in the case of many processes.
The drawing must show every feature of the invention specified in the claims, and is required by the patent
office rules to be in a particular form. The Office specifies the size of the sheet on which the drawing is made, the
type of paper, the margins, and other details relating to the making of the drawing. The reason for specifying the
standards in detail is that the drawings are printed and published in a uniform style when the patent issues and
the drawings must also be such that they can be readily understood by persons using the patent descriptions.
Technical illustrations

Illustration of a drum set.

Technical illustration is the use of illustration to visually communicate information of a technical nature.
Technical illustrations can be component technical drawings or diagrams. The aim of technical illustration is to
generate expressive images that effectively convey certain information via the visual channel to the human
observer.
The main purpose of technical illustration is to describe or explain these items to a more or less nontechnical
audience. The visual image should be accurate in terms of dimensions and proportions, and should provide an
overall impression of what an object is or does, to enhance the viewers interest and understanding.
Illustrative techniques are often designed in way that even a person with no technical understanding clearly
understands the piece of art. The use of varying line widths to emphasize mass, proximity, and scale helped to
make a simple line drawing more understandable to the lay person. Cross hatching, stippling, and other low
abstraction techniques gave greater depth and dimension to the subject matter.

Sketch for a government building.

Technical sketches

A sketch is a rapidly executed freehand drawing that is not intended as a finished work. In general, a sketch is a
quick way to record an idea for later use. Architect's sketches primarily serve as a way to try out different ideas
and establish a composition before undertaking a more finished work, especially when the finished work is
expensive and time consuming.
Architectural sketches, for example, are a kind of diagrams. These sketches, like metaphors, are used by
architects as a mean of communication in aiding design collaboration. This tool helps architects to abstract
attributes of hypothetical provisional design solutions and summarizes their complex patters, hereby enhancing
the design process.

Manual drafting
The basic drafting procedure is to place a piece of paper (or other material) on a smooth surface with right-angle
corners and straight sidestypically a drafting table. A sliding straightedge known as a T-square is then placed on
one of the sides, allowing it to be slid across the side of the table, and over the surface of the paper.

A drafting table
"Parallel lines" can be drawn simply by moving the T-square and running a pencil or technical pen along the Tsquare's edge, but more typically the T-square is used as a tool to hold other devices such as set squares or
triangles. In this case the draftsman places one or more triangles of known angles on the T-squarewhich is
itself at right angles to the edge of the tableand can then draw lines at any chosen angle to others on the page.
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Modern drafting tables (which have by now largely been replaced by CAD workstations) come equipped with a
parallel rule that is supported on both sides of the table to slide over a large piece of paper. Because it is secured
on both sides, lines drawn along the edge are guaranteed to be parallel.

Technical drawing instruments

Size chart with ANSI sizes

Stencils for correct technical writing.

In addition, the draftsperson uses several tools to draw curves and circles. Primary among these are the
compasses, used for drawing simple arcs and circles, and the: French curve, typically a piece of plastic with
complex curves on it. A spline is a rubber coated articulated metal that can be manually bent to most curves.

Drafting templates assist the draftsperson with creating recurring objects in a drawing without having to
reproduce the object from scratch every time. This is especially useful when using common symbols; i.e. in the
context of stagecraft, a lighting designer will typically draw from: the USITT standard library of lighting fixture
symbols to indicate the position of a common fixture across multiple positions. Templates are sold commercially
by a number of vendors, usually customized to a specific task, but it is also not uncommon for a draftsperson to
create their own templates.

Basic drafting system

Drawing
type "name"

Dimensions
Drawing
Dimensions
(width X height) type "name" (width X height)
8.5 by 11.0 inches
11.0 by 17.0 inches
A-size
B-size
22 cm by 28 cm
28 cm by 43 cm
17.0 by 22.0 inches
22.0 by 34.0 inches
C-size
D-size
43 cm by 56 cm
56 cm by 86 cm
34.0 by 44.0 inches
44.0 by 68.0 inches
E-size
F-size
86 cm by 112 cm
112 cm by 173 cm
68.0 by 88.0 inches
88.0 by 136 inches
G-size
H-size
224 cm by 173 cm
173 cm by 345 cm
As can be seen in the series, the height of the previous drawing
size becomes double the height of the next size in the sequence.

This basic drafting system requires an accurate table and constant attention to the positioning of the tools. A
common error is to allow the triangles to push the top of the T-square down slightly, thereby throwing off all
angles. Even tasks as simple as drawing two angled lines meeting at a point require a number of moves of the Tsquare and triangles, and in general drafting can be a time consuming process.
A solution to these problems was the introduction of the mechanical "drafting machine", an application of the
pantograph (sometimes referred to incorrectly as a "pentagraph" in these situations) which allowed the
draftsman to have an accurate right angle at any point on the page quite quickly. These machines often included
the ability to change the angle, thereby removing the need for the triangles as well.
In addition to the mastery of the mechanics of drawing lines, arcs and circles (and text) onto a piece of paper
with respect to the detailing of physical objectsthe drafting effort requires a thorough understanding of
geometry, trigonometry and spatial comprehension, and in all cases demands precision and accuracy, and
attention to detail of high order.
Although drafting is sometimes accomplished by a project engineer, architector even by shop personnel such
as a machinistskilled drafters (and/or designers) usually accomplish the task and are always in demand to some
level.
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Computer Aided Design

An oblique view of a four-cylinder inline crankshaft with pistons.

Today, the mechanics of the drafting task have largely been automated and accelerated through the use of
Computer Aided Design systems (CAD). Computer-aided design is the use of computer technology to aid in the
design and particularly the drafting of a part or product, including entire buildings. It is both a visual (or drawing)
and symbol-based method of communication whose conventions are particular to a specific technical field.
Drafting can be done in two dimensions ("2D") and three dimensions ("3D"). Drafting is the integral
communication of technical or engineering drawings and is the industrial arts sub-discipline that underlies all
involved technical endeavors. In representing complex, three-dimensional objects in two-dimensional drawings,
these objects have traditionally been represented by three projected views at right angles.

CAD drafters
CAD drafters prepare technical drawings and plans, which are used to build everything from manufactured
products such as toys, toasters, industrial machinery, and spacecraft to structures such as houses, office
buildings, and oil and gas pipelines.
In the past, drafters sat at drawing boards and used pencils, pens, compasses, protractors, triangles, and other
drafting devices to prepare a drawing by hand. Now, most drafters use Computer Aided Design and Drafting
(CADD) systems to prepare drawings. Consequently, some drafters may be referred to as CADD operators.
With CADD systems, drafters can create and store drawings electronically so that they can be viewed, printed, or
programmed directly into automated manufacturing systems. CADD systems also permit drafters to quickly
prepare variations of a design. Although drafters use CADD extensively, it is only a tool. Drafters still need
knowledge of traditional drafting techniques, in addition to CADD skills. Despite the nearly universal use of CADD
systems, manual drafting and sketching are used in certain applications.

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UNIT 2
HOW TO USE AUTO CAD
AutoCAD and AutoCAD LT Interface Overview

The Ribbon
Maximize the area available for work using a compact interface that contains the most commonly used controls.
The ribbon can be displayed horizontally across the top of the drawing window, vertically to the left or right of
the drawing window, or as a floating palette.
The Application Menu
Click the Application button to create, save, audit, recover, or publish a file. You can also perform a real-time
search for commands available on the Quick Access toolbar, in the Application menu, or on the ribbon. The
Application menu also allows you to view, sort, and access supported files you have recently opened.
SteeringWheels
Access navigation tools such as pan, zoom, orbit, rewind, and walk from a single interface. Start the navigation
tools by clicking a wedge or by clicking and dragging the cursor over a wedge. You can access Steering Wheels
from the drawing status bar.
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InfoCenter
Search for information through keywords or phrases, display the Communication Center panel for product
updates and announcements, or display the Favorites panel to access saved topics. You can also receive
information from RSS feeds, or feeds published by your CAD manager.

Tool Palettes
Organize, share, and place tools onto a tool palette or are provided from third-party developers. Change the
properties of any tool on a tool palette and organize tool palettes into groups.

The Command Prompt

Start a command by entering either the command name or the command alias at the command prompt and
pressing Enter or Spacebar. When Dynamic Input is on and is set to display dynamic prompts, you can enter
many commands in tooltips that are displayed near the cursor.

Model Viewports
Display multiple views of the same drawing. Add or remove viewports using the VPORTS command, or from the
ribbon on the View tab in the Viewports panel.

Status Bar
View the coordinate values of your cursor, and access several buttons for turning drawing tools on and off, as
well as several display tools used to scale annotations.

ShowMotion
Access named views that are organized into animated sequences within the current drawing. You can access
ShowMotion from the drawing status bar.

ViewCube
When the cursor is positioned over the ViewCube tool, it becomes active; you can switch to one of the available
preset views, roll the current view, or change to the Home view of the model. You can access the ViewCube from
the drawing status bar.

Quick Access Toolbar

Access frequently used commands such as New, Open, Save, Plot, Undo, and Redo from the Quick Access oolbar.
Add commands to the Quick Access toolbar using the shortcut menus of all commands on the ribbon, application
menu, and toolbars.

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Action Recorder
Automate repetitive drafting and editing tasks by recording action macros. Use most of the commands and user
interface elements that are available in AutoCAD to create your action macro and then save it. You can find the
Action Recorder on the ribbon's Manage tab.

Menus, Toolbars, and Tool Palettes

You can use several menus, shortcut menus, tool palettes, and toolbars for access to frequently used commands,
settings, and modes.

Tool Palettes
Tool palettes are tabbed areas within the Tool Palettes window that provide an efficient method for
organizing, sharing, and placing blocks and hatches. Tool palettes can also contain custom tools provided
by third-party developers.
Tool palettes are tabbed areas within the Tool Palettes window that provide an efficient method for organizing,
sharing, and placing blocks and hatches. Tool palettes can also contain custom tools provided by third-party
developers.
Create and Use Tools from Objects and Images
You can create a tool by dragging objects from your drawing onto a tool palette. You can then use the
new tool to create objects with the same properties as the object you dragged onto the tool palette.

Create and Use Tools from Objects and Images

You can create a tool by dragging objects from your drawing onto a tool palette. You can then use the new tool
to create objects with the same properties as the object you dragged onto the tool palette.
Tool palettes are tabbed areas within the Tool Palettes window. The items you add to a tool palette are called
tools. You can create a tool by dragging any of the following, one at a time, onto your tool palette:
Geometric objects such as lines, circles, and polylines
Dimensions
Blocks
Hatches
Solid fills
Gradient fills
Raster images
External references (xrefs)
You can then use the new tool to create objects in your drawing with the same properties as the object you
dragged to the tool palette. For example, if you drag a red circle with a lineweight of .05 mm from your drawing
to your tool palette, the new tool creates a red circle with a lineweight of .05 mm. If you drag a block or xref to a
tool palette, the new tool inserts the block or xref with the same properties into your drawing.
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When you drag a geometric object or a dimension onto a tool palette, the new tool is automatically created with
an appropriate flyout. Dimension tool flyouts, for example, provide an assortment of dimension styles. Click the
arrow on the right side of the tool icon on the tool palette to display the flyout. When you use a tool on a flyout,
the object in the drawing will have the same properties as the original tool on the tool palette.
For block and xref tools, you can choose to be prompted at the command line for a rotation angle (starting from
0) when you click and place the block or xref. When you select this option, the angle that is specified under
Rotation in the Tool Properties dialog box is ignored. The prompt for a rotation angle is not shown if you drag the
block or xref or, if at the initial insertion command line prompt, you enter rotate.
Blocks that are placed by dragging from a tool palette must often be rotated or scaled after they are placed. You
can use object snaps when dragging blocks from a tool palette; however, grid snap is suppressed during dragging.
You can set an auxiliary scale for a block or a hatch tool to override the regular scale setting when the tool is
used. (An auxiliary scale multiplies your current scale setting by the plot scale or the dimension scale.)
Scale Blocks Automatically
When a block is dragged from a tool palette into a drawing, it is scaled automatically according to the ratio of
units defined in the block and defined in the current drawing. For example, if the current drawing uses meters as
its units and a block is defined using centimeters as its units, the ratio of the units is 1 m/100 cm. When the block
is dragged into the drawing, it is inserted at 1/100 scale.
Note In the Options dialog box, User Preferences tab, the Source Content Units and Target Drawing Units settings
are used when Drag-and-Drop Scale is set to Unitless, either in the source block or target drawing.

Create and Use Command Tools

You can create a tool on a tool palette that executes a single command or a string of commands.
You can add frequently used commands to a tool palette. When the Customize dialog box is open, you
can drag tools from a toolbar to a tool palette.
Once you add a command to a tool palette, you can click the tool to execute the command. For example,
clicking a Save tool on a tool palette saves a drawing just as the Save button on the Standard toolbar
does.
You can also create a tool that executes a string of commands or customized commands, such as an
AutoLISP routine, a VBA macro or application, or a script.

Change Tool Palette Settings

The options and settings for tool palettes are accessible from shortcut menus that are displayed when
you right-click in different areas of the Tool Palettes window.
The options and settings for tool palettes are accessible from shortcut menus that are displayed when you rightclick in different areas of the Tool Palettes window.
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These settings include

Auto-hide. The Tool Palettes window can automatically roll open or roll away (called rollover behavior)
when your cursor moves over the title bar on the Tool Palettes window.
Transparency. The Tool Palettes window can be made transparent so it does not obscure objects under it.
Views. The display style and size of the icons in a tool palette can be changed.
You can dock the Tool Palettes window on the right or left edge of the application window. Press the CTRL key if
you want to prevent docking as you move the Tool Palettes window.
Tool palette settings are saved with your profile.

Control Tool Properties

You can change the properties of any tool on a tool palette.
Once a tool is on a tool palette, you can change its properties. For example, you can change the insertion scale of
a block or the angle of a hatch pattern.

To change tool properties, right-click on a tool, and then click Properties on the shortcut menu to display the
Tool Properties dialog box. The Tool Properties dialog box has the following two categories of properties:
Insert or Pattern properties. Control object-specific properties such as scale, rotation, and angle.
General properties. Override the current drawing property settings such as layer, color, and linetype.

You can expand and collapse the property categories by clicking the arrow buttons.
Update the Icon for a Tool

The icon for a block, xref, or raster image in a tool palette is not automatically updated if its definition changes. If
you change the definition for a block, xref, or raster image, you can update the icon by right-clicking the tool in
the palette and selecting Update Tool Image. You must save the drawing before you can update the tool image.
Alternatively, you can delete the tool, and then replace it using DesignCenter.
Specify Overrides for Tool Properties

In some cases, you may want to assign specific property overrides to a tool. For example, you may want a hatch
to be placed automatically on a pre-specified layer, regardless of the current layer setting. This feature can save
you time and reduce errors by setting properties automatically when creating certain objects.
The Tool Properties dialog box provides areas for each possible property override.

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Layer property overrides affect color, linetype, lineweight, plot style, and plot. Layer property overrides are
resolved as follows:
If a layer is missing from the drawing, that layer is created automatically.
If a layer to which you are adding content is currently turned off or frozen, the layer is temporarily turned on or
thawed.

Customize Tool Palettes

You can add tools to a tool palette with several methods.
You can add tools to a tool palette with several methods.
You can create new tool palettes using the Properties button on the title bar of the Tool Palettes window. Add
tools to a tool palette with the following methods:
Drag any of the following onto your tool palette: geometric objects such as lines, circles, and polylines; dimensions;
hatches; gradient fills; blocks; xrefs; raster images.
Drag drawings, blocks, and hatches from DesignCenter to the tool palette. Drawings that are added to a tool
palette are inserted as blocks when dragged into the drawing.
Using the Customize dialog box, drag commands to a tool palette just as you might add them to a toolbar.
Use Cut, Copy, and Paste to move or copy tools from one tool palette to another.
Create a tool palette tab with predetermined content by right-clicking a folder, a drawing file, or a block in the
DesignCenter tree view, and then clicking Create Tool Palette on the shortcut menu.

Note If the source drawing file for a block, xref, or raster image tool is moved to a different folder, you must
modify the tool that references it by right-clicking the tool and, in the Tool Properties dialog box, specifying the
new source file folder.
Once tools are placed on a tool palette, you can rearrange them by dragging them around or by sorting them.
You can also add text and separator lines to tool palettes.
You can move a tool palette tab up and down the list of tabs by using the tool palette shortcut menu or the Tool
Palettes tab of the Customize dialog box. Similarly, you can delete tool palettes that you no longer need. Tool
palettes that are deleted are lost unless they are first saved by exporting them to a file. You can control the path
to your tool palettes on the Files tab in the Options dialog box. This path can be to a shared network location.
Read-Only Tool Palettes

If a tool palette file is set with a read-only attribute, a lock icon is displayed in a lower corner of the tool palette.
This indicates that you cannot modify the tool palette beyond changing its display settings and rearranging the
icons.

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To apply a read-only attribute to a tool palette, right-click the tool palette (ATC) files in the following location:
C:\documents and settings\<user name>\application data\Autodesk\AutoCAD 2006\r16.2\menu\support\Tool
Palette\Palettes. On the shortcut menu, click Properties. On the General tab, select Read-only, and click OK.

Organize Tool Palettes

You can organize tool palettes into groups and specify which group of tool palettes is displayed.
For example, if you have several tool palettes that contain hatch patterns, you can create a group called
Hatch Patterns. You can then add all your tool palettes that contain hatch patterns to the Hatch Pattern
group. When you set the Hatch Pattern group as the current group, only those tool palettes youve added
to the group are displayed.

Save and Share Tool Palettes

Save and share a tool palette by exporting it or importing it as a tool palette file.
Save and share a tool palette by exporting it or importing it as a tool palette file.
You can save and share a tool palette by exporting it or importing it as a tool palette file. You import and export a
tool palette from the Tool Palettes tab of the Customize dialog box. Tool palette files have an .xtp file extension.
Tool palettes can be used only in the version of AutoCAD in which they were created. For example, you cannot
use a tool palette that was created in AutoCAD 2006 in AutoCAD 2005.
The default path for tool palette files is set on the Files tab of the Options dialog box under Tool Palettes File
Locations.
Tool palette groups are saved in profiles.
If you send tool palettes to someone who uses AutoCAD LT, note that some tools created in AutoCAD do not
behave the same way or work in AutoCAD LT. Note the following limitations:
The color property of tools that use a color other than an AutoCAD Color Index (ACI) color convert to
ByLayer in AutoCAD LT.
Gradient fill tools switch to hatch tools in AutoCAD LT.
Raster image tools do not work in AutoCAD LT.
Note if a tool palette file is set with a read-only attribute, a lock icon is displayed in a lower corner of the tool
palette. This indicates that you cannot modify the tool palette beyond changing its display settings and
rearranging the icons.

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Toolbars
Use buttons on toolbars to start commands, display flyout toolbars, and display tooltips. You can display
or hide, dock, and resize toolbars.
Toolbars contain buttons that start commands. When you move your mouse or pointing device over a toolbar
button, the tooltip displays the name of the button. Buttons with a small black triangle in the lower-right corner
are flyout toolbars that contain related commands. With the cursor over the icon, hold down the left button on
your mouse until the flyout toolbar is displayed.
The Standard toolbar at the top of the drawing area is displayed by default. This toolbar is similar to those found
in Microsoft Office programs. It contains frequently used AutoCAD commands such as PROPERTIES, PAN, and
ZOOM, as well as Microsoft Office standard commands such as New, Open, and Save.
Display or Hide, Dock, and Resize Toolbars

AutoCAD initially displays several toolbars:

Standard toolbar
Styles toolbar
Layers toolbar
Properties toolbar
Draw toolbar
Modify toolbar

You can display or hide these toolbars and additional ones. You can also create your own toolbars.
A toolbar can be floating or docked. A floating toolbar is located anywhere in the drawing area, and you can drag
a floating toolbar to a new location, resize it, or dock it. A docked toolbar is attached to any edge of the drawing
area. You can move a docked toolbar by dragging it to a new docking location.

The Menu Bar

Display pull-down menus from the menu bar using one of several methods. You can also specify alternate
menus.
Menus are available from the menu bar at the top of the AutoCAD drawing area.
You can specify menus to display in the program by customizing a CUI file and loading it into the program.

Shortcut Menus
Display a shortcut menu for quick access to commands that are relevant to your current activity.
Display a shortcut menu for quick access to commands that are relevant to your current activity.
You can display different shortcut menus when you right-click different areas of the screen, including
Within the drawing area with or without any objects selected
Within the drawing area during a command
Within the text and command windows
19

Within areas and on icons in DesignCenter

Within areas and on text in the In-Place Text Editor
On a toolbar or tool palette
On the Model or layout tabs
On the status bar or the status bar buttons
In certain dialog boxes
Shortcut menus typically include options to
Repeat the last command entered
Cancel the current command
Display a list of recent user input
Cut, copy, and paste from the Clipboard
Select a different command option
Display a dialog box, such as Options or Customize
Undo the last command entered
You can customize right-click behavior to be time-sensitive, so that a quick right-click acts the same as pressing
ENTER, and a longer right-click displays a shortcut menu.
Shortcut menus can be customized using a customization (CUI) file. The main CUI file is called acad.cui by default.

The Object Snap Menu

Specify an object snap quickly and conveniently from a shortcut menu.
The object snap menu is displayed at your cursor location when you hold down SHIFT and click the right
mouse button or the equivalent button on another pointing device.
The default object snap menu lists object snaps and tracking options. If you want to change the options,
you can modify a customization file. The main customization file thats shipped with the product is
acad.cui.

Create Your Own Menu and Toolbar Groups

Create your own menu and toolbar groups in a workspace.

You can identify task specific toolbars and menus for each workspace that you create or use.
For more information about how toolbars and menus interact with workspaces, see Use Workspaces and
Customize Workspaces in the Customization Guide.
Commands
COPYCLIP
COPYHIST
CUSTOMIZE
CUTCLIP
MENULOAD
MENUUNLOAD

Copies objects or command line text to the Clipboard

Copies the text in the command line history to the Clipboard
Customizes tool palettes
Copies objects to the Clipboard and removes the objects from the drawing
Loads partial menu files
Unloads partial customizaiton files
20

OPTIONS
OSNAP
PAN
PASTECLIP
PROPERTIES
TOOLPALETTES
TOOLPALETTESCLOSE
TRAYSETTINGS
U
UNITS
WORKSPACE
ZOOM
System Variables
CMDINPUTHISTORYMAX
INPUTHISTORYMODE
INSUNITSDEFSOURCE
INSUNITSDEFTARGET
PALETTEOPAQUE
PICKFIRST
SHORTCUTMENU
TOOLTIPS
TPSTATE
TRAYICONS
TRAYNOTIFY
TRAYTIMEOUT

Customizes the program settings

Sets running object snap modes
Moves the view in the current viewport
Inserts data from the Clipboard
Controls properties of existing objects
Opens the Tool Palettes window
Closes the Tool Palettes window
Controls the display of icons and notifications in the status bar tray
Reverses the most recent operation
Controls coordinate and angle display formats and precision
Creates, modifies, and saves workspaces and makes a workspace current
Increases or decreases the apparent size of objects in the current viewport
Sets the maximum number of previous input values that are stored for a prompt in a
command
Controls the content and location of the display of a history of user input
Sets source content units value when INSUNITS is set to 0
Sets target drawing units value when INSUNITS is set to 0
Controls whether windows can be made transparent
Controls whether you select objects before (noun-verb selection) or after you issue a
command
Controls whether Default, Edit, and Command mode shortcut menus are available in the
drawing area
Controls the display of tooltips
Determines whether the Tool Palettes window is active or not
Controls whether a tray is displayed on the status bar
Controls whether service notifications are displayed in the status bar tray
Controls the length of time (in seconds) that service notifications are displayed

Commands
CUSTOMIZE
Customizes tool palettes
TOOLPALETTES
Opens the Tool Palettes window
TOOLPALETTESCLOSE Closes the Tool Palettes window
UNITS
Controls coordinate and angle display formats and precision
System Variables
INSUNITSDEFSOURCE Sets source content units value when INSUNITS is set to 0
INSUNITSDEFTARGET Sets target drawing units value when INSUNITS is set to 0
PALETTEOPAQUE
Controls whether windows can be made transparent
TPSTATE
Determines whether the Tool Palettes window is active or not

21

UNIT 3
DESIGN
An Overview of the Design Process
Design
Design is the process by which the needs of the customer or the marketplace are transformed into a product satisfying
these needs. It is usually carried out a designer or engineer but requires help from other people in the company.

Design essentially is an exercise in problem solving. Typically, the design of a new product consists of the
following stages:

The development of a new product may also require the development of a prototype to prove that new
technologies work before committing resources to full-scale manufacture.
The traditional view of the design to manufacture process is that it is a sequential process; the outcome of one
stage is passed on to the next stage. This tends to lead to iteration in the design. I.e. having to go back to an
earlier stage to correct mistakes. This can make products more expensive and delivered to the marketplace late.
A better approach is for the designer to consider the stages following design to try and eliminate any potential
problems. This means that the designer requires help from the other experts in the company for example the
manufacturing expert to help ensure that any designs the designer comes up with can be made.
So what factors might a designer have to consider in order eliminating iteration?
Manufacture - Can the product be made with our facilities?
Sales - Are we producing a product that the customer wants?
Purchasing - Are the parts specified in stock, or do why have to order them?
Cost - Is the design going to cost too much to make?
Transport - Is the product the right size for the method of transporting?
Disposal - How will the product be disposed at the end of its life?
22

Design Brief
The design brief is typically a statement of intent. I.e. "We will design and make a Formula One racing car". Although it
states the problem, it isn't enough information with which to start designing.
Product Design Specification (PDS)
This is possibly the most important stage of the design process and yet one of the least understood stage. It is important
that before you produce a 'solution' there is a true understanding of the actual problem. The PDS is a document listing the
problem in detail. It is important to work with the customer and analyse the marketplace to produce a list of requirements
necessary to produce a successful product. The designer should constantly refer back to this document to ensure designs
are appropriate.

To produce the PDS it is likely that you will have to research the problem and analyse competing products and all
important points and discoveries should be included in your PDS.
Concept Design
Using the PDS as the basis, the designer attempts to produce an outline of a solution. A conceptual design is a usually an
outline of key components and their arrangement with the details of the design left for a later stage. For example, a
concept design for a car might consist of a sketch showing a car with four wheels and the engine mounted at the front of
the car. The exact details of the components such as the diameter of the wheels or the size of the engine are determined at
the detail design stage. However, the degree of detail generated at the conceptual design stage will vary depending on the
product being designed.

It is important when designing a product that you not only consider the product design specification but you also
consider the activities downstream of the design stage. Downstream activities typically are manufacture, sales,
transportation etc. By considering these stages early, you can eliminate problems that may occur at these stages.
This stage of the design involves drawing up a number of different viable concept designs which satisfy the
requirements of the product outlined in the PDS and then evaluating them to decide on the most suitable to
develop further. Hence, concept design can be seen as a two-stage process of concept generation and concept
evaluation
Concept generation
Typically, designers capture their ideas by sketching them on paper. Annotation helps identify key points so that their ideas
can be communicated with other members of the company.

There are a number of techniques available to the designer to aid the development of new concepts. One of the
most popular is brainstorming.
This technique involves generating ideas, typically in small groups, by saying any idea that comes into your head
no matter how silly it may seem. This usually sparks ideas from other team members. By the end of a
brainstorming session there will be a list of ideas, most useless, but some may have the potential to be
developed into a concept. Brainstorming works better if the members of the team have different areas of
expertise.
Concept evaluation
Once a suitable number of concepts have been generated, it is necessary to choose the design most suitable for to fulfil the
requirements set out in the PDS. The product design specification should be used as the basis of any decision being made.
Ideally a multifunction design team should perform this task so that each concept can be evaluated from a number of
angles or perspectives. The chosen concept will be developed in detail.
23

One useful technique for evaluating concepts to decide on which one is the best is to use a technique called
'matrix evaluation'
With matrix evaluation a table is produced listing important the features required from a product - usually this
list is drawn up from the important features described in the product design specification. The products are listed
across the table. The first concept is the benchmark concept. The quality of the other concepts are compared
against the benchmark concept for the required features, to help identify if the concept is better, worse than, or
is the same as the benchmark concept. The design with the most 'better than' is likely to be the best concept to
develop further.
Most people who use the matrix technique will assign points, rather than simple, better, worse, same, so that it
is easier to identify which concepts are the best. It is also likely that some features of the design will be more
important than others so a weighting is used.
Detail design
In this stage of the design process, the chosen concept design is designed in detailed with all the dimensions and
specifications necessary to make the design specified on a detailed drawing of the design.

It may be necessary to produce prototypes to test ideas at this stage. The designer should also work closely with
manufacture to ensure that the product can be made.

The function of the PDS

Before we consider exactly what a Product Design Specification (PDS) is, let's spend five minutes on a short
design project.
Design Brief

A customer has approached us and asked us to produce a design for a chair for their
son.
Read the design brief above and spend five minutes producing a design that you feels fulfils the brief. When you
are happy click on the forward arrow.

Function of the PDS

As we have just seen, it is very easy to misinterpret a design brief and design a product the customer doesn't
want. The aim of the product design specification or PDS as it is also known, is to help you to gain an
understanding of the nature of the problem so that you can design a better solution to the problem.
Going back to our example, it was important for instance to find out the type of chair the customer wanted
before we produced a design. But there are other factors to be considered such as materials available, the size of
the user, or even the colour they customer wants the product to be. The more we know about the problem the
easier it will be to produce a final design that works first time and doesn't require alterations at a later stage.
The product design specification will help you understand the problem before you start your design.
24

How to write a PDS

The product design specification (PDS) is a very important document in the design process as it contains all the
information necessary for a design team to successfully produce a solution to the design problem. A PDS splits
the problem up into smaller categories to make it easier to consider the problem. The final document should
fully document as unambiguously as possible all the requirements that a product must fulfil together with any
constraints that may affect the product. The actual or intended customer should be consulted as fully as possible
while the PDS is being drawn up as their requirements are of paramount importance.
Any numeric properties in the PDS should be specified as exactly as possible together with any tolerances
allowed on their value.

Common categories
Various aspects relating to the product must be considered. The actual categories can vary, but a typical PDS may
consist of the following categories:
Appearance

Competition

Customer

Documentation

Ergonomics

Environment

Installation

Product disposal

Lead times

Legal and safety

implications

Legislation, patents and

copyright

Maintenance

Materials

Packaging and transport

Performance

Processes

Product cost

Product dimensions

Product life

Quality

Quantity

Standards

Testing

Click on a category to find out more

information.

The final document will be agreed by the customer.

Example Product Design Specification

Design Specification for a Portable Winch

The following example PDS, although longer than the PDS's you will produce for your projects, contains many
aspects of a commercial PDS and was written with advice from a winch design company. A real design brief for a
winch would contain many more aspects than outlined here. A PDS for family motor car for example, would have
many more categories specific to the product and would require several large manuals to list the 'problem' in
detail.
25

Portable Winch
Design Brief

From internal market research, it has been decided that IWC need to design a general purpose winch to sell to
the cable and pipe laying market sector. The winch should be portable but have mounting points for the end
user. It is important that the winch sits within out current range of 'Excel General Purpose winches'.
Performance

1.1 Lift / lower a load of 2.5 tones (+/- 10%).

1.2 Draw in cable in at a rate of 0.2 m/s.
1.3 The winch drive should cut out when the load exceeds 10% of the specified load.
1.4 Drive to stop lowering load when only 1.5 metres of cable remains on winch drum.
1.5 Winch should operate with forward, reverse, stop and inch facility.
1.6 Any braking system employed, should produce a braking torque of 150% the full load torque.
1.7 Winch should have a manual device to control the brake release and load descent in the event of a power
failure.
1.8 In the event of the winch 'overrunning', manual safeties relay/braking device should operate within 1 second
or before the load exceeds a speed of 3m/s.
1.9 The product should be portable but with the option for permanent mounting.
1.10 The product must use a portable power source, preferably a diesel engine.
1.11 The weight of the product must be sufficient to aid the stability of the product.
1.12 Efficiency of the unit should be high, preferably in the area of 20 - 30%.
1.13 The drum should hold 50m of cable.
2.0 Environment

2.1 The winch drive and power unit should be power unit.
2.2 The unit will be mainly used in European weather conditions. But we could expect sales of about 2% unit
volume to the Far East.
26

2.3 Temperature ranges:

-28 degree C - European
12 - 44 degree C - Far East
2.4 The product may experience humid conditions.
2.5 Corrosion resistance may be considered by the use of special materials or surface protection methods.
2.6 Any noise from the equipment should not exceed 95 dB at a distance of 1.0m.
2.7 The winch will be stored in suppliers warehouses before sales.
3.0 Product Life Span

3.1 Product will be on the market for 10 years.

3.2 Spare parts will be available for a further 5 years after that.
4.0 Life in Service

4.1 Should withstand an operating period of 1 hr uninterrupted use per day for 5 years.
4.2 Life in service should be assessed against the criteria outlined in the Performance and Environment
categories.
5.0 Shelf Life

5.1 The product will be stored on-site for up to 1 month before dispatched.
5.2 Our Far East distributor may store the product for several months.
6.0 Target Costs

6.1 The product should have an end-user cost of 5500 within Britain.
6.2 The cost of manufacture should be less than 2750.
6.3 The cost of packaging and shipping should be no more than 15% of the manufacturing cost.
7.0 Quantity

7.1 150 units in the first year, increasing to 800 within four years.

27

8.0 Maintenance

8.1 To be maintenance free except for light lubrication once a month and a recommended service every two
years.
8.2 Parts requiring lubrication should be accessible within 15 minutes without the use of special tools or
equipment.
8.3 All fasteners used should comply with BS6105.
8.4 Spares should be available for 5 years after the product is replaced with a new model.
8.5 No special tools should be required for maintenance.
9.0 Marketing

9.1 Initially to be manufactured for the European market but our Far Eastern distributors in Singapore, Hong
Kong and Australia will be able to find a market for the product.
9.2 The winch should be operating against equivalent models which include the following companies:
Swansom - England
Oholom - Sweden
Winderhock - Germany

9.3 Applicable markets:

Telecom - Cable laying
Gas and Electricity operators
Pipe laying services
Civil Engineering Operations

9.4 Summary of market requirements:

Portable winch which can be attached to vans and low loaders
Use portable power source
To be used in all weather
To allow one man operation
To have at least 40m of cable
To pull 2000kg
10.0 Packaging

10.1 Packaging / transport cost should be kept to a minimum and preferably below 5% of the unit cost.
11.0 Size and Weight Restrictions

11.1 Weight should not exceed 500 kg.

28

11.2 Length not to exceed 2500 mm.

11.3 Width not to exceed 2000mm.
11.4 Height not to exceed 2000mm.
12.0 Shipping

12.1 Product will be shipped by road within Europe.

12.2 Product will be shipped by sea to Far Eastern markets.
13.0 Manufacturing Processes

13.1 Capacity is available for current market demand within scope to increase production to 200 per year
without investment / expansion.
13.2 Motors, transmissions, bearing and ropes are bought in from the following suppliers:
Drives:
Electric Motors - Brook Compton
Diesel Engines - Gardener
Hydraulic Motors - Hydrostatic Transmission Ltd

Bearings:
RHP Bearings

Transmissions:
Couplings - Wellman Bibby
Worm Gears - Reynold
Planetary Gears - David Brown (PPG Divisions)
In-Line Gears - David Brown Radicon Ltd
V-belts - Fenner

Ropes:
Bridon

13.3 Castings and injection moulds produced by external suppliers.

14.0 Aesthetics

14.1 The form can follow function.

14.2 If cost dictates, the winch should look attractive to improve our perception within the market.
29

15.0 Ergonomics

15.1 Controls to be mounted in an accessible position, relative to the operator i.e. waist height - around 1m, to
accommodate 95% of the working population.
15.2 All controls should be hand operated, requiring one-hand operation with a maximum force of 1.5 N/m2
15.3 One man should be able to operate the product.
16.0 Customer Requirements

See Marketing
17.0 Competition

17.1 The winch will be operating against equivalent models which include the following companies:
Swansom - England
Oholom - Sweden
Winderhock - Germany
18.0 Quality and Reliability

18.1 Quality should be such that winches should not generally fail within a period of three years and only 1 in 50
should fail within the first year.
18.2 No winch should fail in the area of the safety overload device.
19.0 Standards and Specifications

19.1 Standards to be adhered to:

BS 5000 part 99 Motor Performance
BS 6105 and BSEN 20898(1) Bolts
BS 6322(2) & BS 4320 Nuts and washers
BS 7676 and BS 4517 Gears
BS 3019 Welding
BS 5989 Bearings
BS 2754 Electrical Insulation
BS 5646 pt4 Bearing Housing
BS 4235 Keys and Keyways
BS 7664 Painting
BS 1399 Seals
20.0 Company Constraints

20.1 None - except those outlines in Manufacturing and Processes.

30

21.0 Processes

21.1 All components to be of metric form and comply with ISO 4900 for limits and fits.
22.0 Safety

22.1 No winch should fail in the area of the safety overload device.
22.2 Winch should not operate when maintenance is being carried out.
23.0 Testing

23.1 Testing is to be carried out on 5% of units.

23.2 All cables should be tested to BS3621.
24.0 Legal

24.0 Possible litigation lies in the user injuring themselves by having access to moving parts during winch
operation.
25.0 Installation

N/A
26.0 Documentation

26.1 Product should be supplied with a user manual covering winch operation and maintenance.
26.2 Suppliers require maintenance and repair manual.
27.0 Disposal

27.1 Plastic parts should be separable and marked to aid disposal.

31

UNIT 4
DRAWING SKILLS
Graphics Skills
Drawing in 3D
Covers some of the more common 3D systems which can be used to make your drawings look more realistic

Improving your sketching skills

Engineering Drawing
Covers some of the basic rules for engineering drawing such as: dimensioning, sectioning, etc.

Introduction to 3 Dimensional graphics

Representing 3 dimensions on a flat piece of paper is a very important skill for designers
enabling them to communicate their ideas to other people. This is especially useful when
showing your design to non designers such as managers and marketing personnel.
There are several tried and tested 3 Dimensional drawing systems used to produce a
realistic representation of an object. Some techniques such as isometric are based on
mathematical systems, others a try to convey a larger degree of realism by applying
perspective to the drawing. Amongst the methods covered in this tutorial are oblique,
isometric, axonometric, and perspective drawing techniques.

32

Oblique
Isometric
Drawing a box in isometric.
Drawing shapes other than cubes
Drawing circles in isometric

Axonometric
Drawing 'holes' and cavities in
objects

Perspective
One Point Perspective
Constructing a box in one point perspective
Two point perspective
Constructing circles in perspective
Drawing Cylinders in perspective
Constructing a grid (1)
Constructing a grid (2)
Using a grid
Three point perspective

Oblique
Oblique drawing is the
crudest '3D' drawing method
but the easiest to master.
Oblique is not really a '3D'
system but a 2 dimensional
view of an object with
'forced depth'.
When using oblique the side
of the object you are looking
at is drawn in two
dimensions, i.e. flat. The
other sides are drawn in at
45 degrees but instead of
drawing the sides full size
they are only drawn with
half the depth creating
'forced depth' adding an
element of realism to the
object.
Even with this 'forced
depth', oblique drawings
look very unconvincing to
the eye. For this reason
oblique is rarely used by
professional designer and
engineers.

33

How to draw an object using oblique

When drawing an object in

oblique, the front view of the
object is drawn flat

Oblique with 'foreshortening'

The side views are drawn in

at a 45 degree angle.
Standard practice is to
'foreshorten' the side views
to provide a more convincing
view of an object. To
foreshorten the side views,
the objects side
measurements are halved. In
this case, the sides are 50
mm long, but they have
been drawn in at 25 mm.

34

Oblique with no
'foreshortening

This view is drawn at full

size. Notice how circle looks
elongated

Isometric
Isometric is a mathematical method of constructing a 3
dimensional object without using perspective. Isometric
was an attempt to make drawings more realistic.
The mathematics involved mean that all lengths when
drawn at 30 degrees can be drawn using their true length
(in other words lines aren't shortened as with oblique
drawings).
An isometric drawing shows two sides of the object and the
top or bottom of the object. All vertical lines are drawn
vertically, but all horizontal lines are drawn at 30 degrees to
the horizontal. Isometric is an easy method of constructing
a reasonable '3 dimensional' images.

Drawing a box in isometric

To draw in isometric you will need a 30
/ 60 degree set square (As illustrated).
These can be purchased from all major
stationary stores.
The steps below demonstrate how to
draw a 5cm3 box in isometric.

35

Drawing a box in isometric

1. Draw the front vertical edge of the cube.

2. The sides of the box are drawn at 30

degrees to the horizontal to the required
length.
Note: All lengths are drawn as actual
lengths in standard isometric.

3. Draw in the back verticals.

4. Drawn in top view with all lines drawn 30

degrees to the horizontal.

Drawing more complicated shapes

Initially when you first start using isometric it can be useful to use a simple box as
a basic building block a guide to help you draw more complicated shapes.

36

This simple example shows

you how you can use a box
to help you accurately draw
a more complicated shape.
The object we are going to
draw is L-shaped as
illustrated by the
engineering drawing (left).

The first step is to draw our

guide box. This box is the
size of the maximum
dimensions. In this case, 50
mm long, 25 mm wide and
50 mm high.
Draw the box in very lightly.
When we have the final
shape we can darken the
lines.
Outline of 'guide box'

To get the L-shape we need

remove an area from this
box.
Draw a box 40 x 10 x 50 mm,
the shape that needs to be
removed from the box to
create the shape we require.

37

Draw in the outline of the

object using a heavier line.
Using this technique you can
draw complex shapes
accurately because you can
use the guide box as a
means to measure your
engineering drawing views.

The finished shape

Drawing circles in isometric

Circles in isometric don't appear circular. Instead they are skewed and are actually elliptical. There are several
methods of constructing circles in isometric. By far the easiest method is to use an isometric circle template
which can be bought from most good art shops. These templates contain a number of isometric circles of various
sizes.
If you decide not to buy a template then you must construct a circle.
Constructing an isometric circle

1. First draw an isometric square. Draw in the

diagonals, a vertical and a line at 30 degrees
from the midpoint of the sides as illustrated.

2. Place your compass point on the

intersection of the horizontal line and the
vertical line. Draw in a circle which touches
the edges of the box

38

3. To draw the next section of the isometric

circle place your compass point on the corner
of the isometric 'square' and draw in the arc
as illustrated.

4. Complete the circle using the appropriate

techniques.

Axonometric
Axonometric or planometric as it is
sometimes known is a method of
drawing a plan view with a third
dimension. It is used by interior
designers, architects and landscape
gardeners.
Axonometric works by drawing a plan
view at a 45 degree angle with the
depth added vertically. All lengths are
drawn as their true lengths unlike
when you use oblique. This gives the
impression that you are viewing the
objects from above. One advantage of
axonometric is that circles drawn on
the top faces of objects can be drawn
as a normal circle.

Perspective
All objects we look at have perspective. Objects closer to us are bigger than objects further
away. In other words as objects get further away they seem to 'vanish into the distance'.
The ability to produce good sketches with convincing perspective is an important skill to
39

master helping you to visualise your ideas. There are many ways to gain these skills.
Practicing drawing objects can help you see how perspective works and will help you with
freehand sketches. But this will take time.
What we need are methods of constructing objects in using a reliable system. There are
three main perspective systems which allow you to construct an object using a ruler.
One point perspective
Two point perspective
Three point perspective

One Point Perspective

Using one perspective, parallel lines converge to one point somewhere in the distance. This
point is called the vanishing point (VP). This gives objects an impression of depth.
When drawing using one point perspective all objects vanish to one common point
somewhere on the horizon.

The sides of an object diminish towards the vanishing point. All vertical and horizontal lines
though are drawn with no perspective. i.e. face on.
One point perspective though is of only limited use, the main problem being that the
perspective is too pronounced for small products making them looking bigger than they
actually are.
So when would you use one point perspective?

40

One area where one point perspective can be quite useful is for sketching room layouts.

Although it is possible to sketch products in one point perspective, the perspective is too
aggressive on the eye making products look bigger than they actually are.

Constructing a box in one point perspective

1. Draw a horizon and place a vanishing point 2. Draw a square somewhere beneath the
(VP) somewhere on this line.
horizon. This will be the front of your box
41

3. Draw four lines, one from each corner of

the square which also pass through the
vanishing point.

4. To complete the box, draw in the back

vertical and an horizontal

The final box in all its glory!

Two Point Perspective

Two Point Perspective is a much more useful
drawing system than the simpler One Point
Perspective. Objects drawn in two point
perspective have a more natural look.
In two point perspective the sides of the
object vanish to one of two vanishing points
on the horizon. Vertical lines in the object
have no perspective applied to them.
The illustration to the right demonstrates the
how to draw a box in two point perspective.
1. Put two vanishing points at opposite ends
of the horizontal line.
2. Draw in the front vertical of the box.
42

Drawing the line below the horizontal will

create a view which we are looking down
on. To look at the object from below,
draw the front vertical above the
horizontal.
3. Draw lines from the top of the vertical
which disappear back to both of the
vanishing points. Repeat the process for
the bottom of the line.
4. To complete both of the sides by drawing
in the back verticals.
5. To draw the top of the box, draw lines
from the back verticals to the opposite
vanishing points.

By altering the proximity of the vanishing points to the object, you can make the object look big or small.

Vanishing Points close to the object

Vanishing Points far away from product

Constructing circles in perspective

A circle when viewed at an angle does not look circular but
elliptical. For example look at the way the red circle gradually
changes to a thinner and thinner ellipse as the disc rotates.

When a circle is drawn inside a square, the circle touches the edge
of the square at the midpoint of each side. This enables you to
create a guide for your perspective circle since you know that the
circle must touch the midpoint of a square drawn in perspective.

43

To find the midpoints of a perspective square, draw in the diagonals to find the centre of
the box and then draw a vertical line through this centre point and a line going through the
centre to the vanishing point. The ellipse can be drawn in by hand.

Perspective ellipse templates similar to isometric templates can also be bought. These
come in a variety of sizes from 5 - 250 mm at various angles. The perspective of each
template varies from fat almost circular ellipses to long thin ellipses.
Using ellipse templates is very easy; every ellipse has a minor and major axis marked on it.
So once you've drawn a perspective square, draw in the diagonals. These are the major
and minor axis. It then a simple case of finding the correct ellipse to use.

Drawing cylinders in perspective

Many students find drawing cylinders difficult. The secret to drawing a cylinder is to
construct the cylinder from a box as illustrated. First lightly sketch your box. Construct a
perspective circle at each end of the box. Then draw in the edges. Once you have the basic
shape you can ink in the shape and add shading.

Constructing a grid (1)

Once you can construct a simple box in perspective you can move on to more complex designs using the
simple box as a guide by subdividing it into smaller boxes creating a perspective grid.

44

1. Draw a box in perspective

2. Draw diagonals from corner to corner. This

point is the centre of the box tacking into account
perspective

3. Subdivide the box into four smaller boxes by

drawing in centre lines for the box. These centre
lines should go through the centre point found in
step 2.

4. Repeat step 2 for each of the four new boxes.

45

5. Subdivide these boxes into smaller boxes.

6. You now have a gird with with to work with.

Constructing a grid (2)

There is a second method of constructing a grid using a cube as the building block.
If you draw two squares side by side and split the
left hand square into four equal boxes. A line can
be drawn diagonally from a corner of the square
though the midpoint of the opposite side which
will meet the far corner of the other square. You
can extend this technique to construct adjacent
perspective cubes.

1. Start by drawing a cube in perspective.

Find the centre of one of the sides of the
cube by drawing in diagonals

2. Draw a line extending through this centre, back to

the vanishing point.

3. Extend the top of the cube back towards

4. Draw a line from the corner of the cube through

46

the vanishing point.

the midpoint so that it bisects the line we have just

drawn.

5. This point coincides with the back of the

next cube. Draw in the back vertical and top
of the cube.

6. By using steps 1-5 one cube can be extended so

that it forms a grid.

Using the grid

Split your object into squares, corresponding to your perspective grid. Draw onto the perspective grid the detail
by finding the position on the flat view and using the grid as a guide. The example below shows how you can
create a cassette in perspective.

Three Point Perspective

Three point perspectives is a development of two point perspective. Like two point it has
two vanishing points somewhere on the horizon. But three point perspectives also have a
vanishing point somewhere above or below the horizon which the vertical vanish to.

47

The nearer the vanishing point is to the object, the bigger

the object looks.
Look at these buildings. All the vanishing points are too
close. This has caused an excessive amount of vertical
perspective. Learning how to apply vertical perspective is
the key to making your drawings realistic.

In general most designers create drawings with a vanishing point

far below the horizon so that the depth added to the verticals is
only slight. In many cases the vanishing point isn't even on the
paper. Learning how to apply vertical perspective will make your
drawings more and more realistic.

Drawing cavities in objects

Some students when they first start to draw using a 3D system, whether it's isometric,
perspective or oblique, do not stick to the system due to their lack of understanding of
how to represent objects. One circumstance in which students produces incorrect
drawings is when they draw circles, this has been covered. Another circumstance where
students make mistakes, showing a lack of special awareness, is when they draw spaces in
objects (such as a cupboard space or a drawer).
Many students draw cupboards like this.

48

This is supposed to
be in one point
perspective. Note
how the cupboard
space doesn't
vanish into the
distance the rest of
the cupboard, but
instead vanishes to
its own vanishing
point.

This view could mean one of two things.

Either there is a
'pyramidal' shape
sticking out of the
cupboard or the
'pyramidal' shape
has been removed
from the cupboard
to create the
space. But the
space is definitely
not the cubic space
intended.

When you draw a space in an object you are removing a volume so you should draw that
volume and then ink in the bit you see. See the examples below

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Oblique

Isometric

1 Point Perspective

2 Point Perspective

Improving your sketching skills

As a designer the most important thing is to get your ideas on to paper as quickly as possible. Sketching is
therefore a very important skill to master. There are a few things which will help you sketch better.
Draw using your shoulder rather than your wrist.

To sketch quickly learn to sketch from your shoulder. Most people learn to sketch on small pieces of paper,
usually no bigger than A4, sketching small images. Because the images are small, people tend to learn how to
sketch from the wrist. Drawing a long line tends to consist of lots of small movements from your wrist, as you
move your arm along. If you look carefully at these lines they consist of lots of small arches.

50

Sketching from your shoulder means that you can draw lines in one
continuous movement. Instead of drawing by moving your wrist, keep
your wrist still and move your entire arm in one long movement from
your shoulder. It's not an easy skill to master but once you have, you
definitely will see the benefit.
A good way to learn is to practice drawing on large A2 sheets of paper
and have the paper vertical. This means that you can't rest your wrist
on the page encouraging you to use your shoulder when drawing.
There is a simple exercise that can help. Draw a series of opposing
vertical and horizontal dots at each end of a piece of paper. Practice
drawing a continuous line from one dot on one side of the paper to the
dot on the opposite side of the paper. Gaining confidence in your
drawing action is vital to improving your sketching skills.

Choosing the best type of paper

As mentioned above, sketching skills tend to improve if you use large

pieces of paper. Learning to sketch on A2 paper is a very good way of gaining confidence in your skill. But most
people find A2 an inconvenient size for project work. If you can, try to do sketches for your project on A3. Buy a
pad of layout paper. This type of paper is useful because it is slightly opaque. When drawing final ideas you can
quickly sketch your basic idea getting proportions correct and then use another sheet of layout paper placed
above to trace the original sketch without mistakes and guide lines.
Sketching in pen

When sketching, pencils are the obvious choice, but I recommend using a biro for the simple reason that you
can't rub out biro. This means that you will learn to put down only the marks that you really want to. Also you
won't be tempted to rub out ideas. Never rub out an idea it shows the examiner that you have thought about
your design and not just developed your only idea. Besides, occasionally you find that you can use some element
of discounted designs.
Drawing box guides

A simple way to get the proportions of your idea correct is to sketch boxes in perspective. See the 'Drawing in 3D'
section for more information about the various 3D sketching skills you can learn to master.

Engineering Drawing
Planning your engineering drawing
Line Styles
Dimensioning
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Types of Dimensioning
Dimensioning Circles
Dimensioning Holes
Dimensioning Radii
Tolerancing

Layout of Engineering Drawing

Orthographic Projection
Sectioning
Types of sectioning
Hatching

Drawing thread parts

Assembly Drawings

Planning your engineering drawing

Before starting your engineering drawing you should plan how you are going to make best use of the space. It is
important to think about the number of views your drawing will have and how much space you will use of the
paper.
Try to make maximum use of the available space.
If a view has lots of detail, try and make that view as large as possible. If necessary, draw that view on a separate
sheet.
If you intend to add dimensions to the drawing, remember to leave enough space around the drawing for them to
be added later.
If you are working with inks on film, plan the order in which you are drawing the lines. For example you don't want
to have to place your ruler on wet ink

Lines and line styles

In the first tutorial we learnt how to create simple shapes using the place line tool. The lines we created were all
of the same thickness and type. But lines on an engineering drawing signify more than just the geometry of the
object and it is important that you use the appropriate line types.
Line Thickness

For most engineering drawings you will require two thicknesses, a thick and thin line. The general
recommendation is that thick lines are twice as thick as thin lines.
A thick continuous line is used for visible edges and outlines.
A thin line is used for hatching, leader lines, short centre lines, dimensions and
projections.
52

Line Styles

Other line styles used to clarify important features on drawings are:

Thin chain lines are a common feature on engineering drawings used to indicate
centre lines. Centre lines are used to identify the centre of a circle, cylindrical features,
or a line of symmetry. Centre lines will be covered in a little bit more detail later in this
tutorial.
Dashed lines are used to show important hidden detail for example wall thickness and
holes..

Dimensioning - An Overview
A dimensioned drawing should provide all the information necessary for a finished product or part to be
manufactured. An example dimension is shown below.

Dimensions are always drawn using continuous thin lines. Two projection lines indicate where the dimension
starts and finishes. Projection lines do not touch the object and are drawn perpendicular to the element you are
dimensioning.
In general units can be omitted from dimensions if a statement of the units is included on your drawing. The
general convention is to dimension in mm's.
All dimensions less than 1 should have a leading zero. i.e. .35 should be written as 0.35
Lettering

All notes and dimensions should be clear and easy to read. In general all notes should be written in capital letters
to aid legibility. All lettering should be of the same size and preferably no smaller than 3mm. An example
typeface is shown below.

53

Types of dimensioning

Parallel Dimensioning

Parallel dimensioning consists of several dimensions

originating from one projection line.

Superimposed Running Dimensions

Superimposed running dimensioning simplifies

parallel dimensions in order to reduce the space used
on a drawing. The common origin for the dimension
lines is indicated by a small circle at the intersection
of the first dimension and the projection line. In
general all other dimension lines are broken.
The dimension note can appear above the dimension
line or in-line with the projection line

Chain Dimensioning

Chains of dimension should only be used if the

function of the object won't be affected by the
accumulation of the tolerances. (A tolerance is an
indication of the accuracy the product has to be made
to. Tolerance will be covered later in this chapter).

54

Combined Dimensions

A combined dimension uses both chain and parallel

dimensioning.

Dimensioning by Co-ordinates

Two sets of superimposed running dimensions

running at right angles can be used with any features
which need their centre points defined, such as holes.

Simplified dimensioning by co-ordinates

It is also possible to simplify co-ordinate dimensions

by using a table to identify features and positions.

Dimensioning Small Features

55

When dimensioning small features, placing the dimension arrow between projection lines may create a drawing
which is difficult to read. In order to clarify dimensions on small features any of the above methods can be used.

Dimensioning circles

All dimensions of circles are proceeded by this symbol; . There are several conventions used for dimensioning
circles:
(a) shows two common methods of dimensioning a circle. One method dimensions the circle between two lines
projected from two diametrically opposite points. The second method dimensions the circle internally.
(b) is used when the circle is too small for the dimension to be easily read if it was placed inside the circle. A
leader line is used to display the dimension.
(c) the final method is to dimension the circle from outside the circle using an arrow which points directly
towards the centre of the circle.
The first method using projection lines is the least used method. But the choice is up to you as to which you use.

56

Dimensioning Holes

When dimensioning holes the method of manufacture is not specified unless they necessary for the function of
the product. The word hole doesn't have to be added unless it is considered necessary. The depth of the hole is
usually indicated if it isnt indicated on another view. The depth of the hole refers to the depth of the cylindrical
portion of the hole and not the bit of the hole caused by the tip of the drip.

Dimensioning Radii
All radial dimensions are proceeded by the capital R. All
dimension arrows and lines should be drawn perpendicular to
the radius so that the line passes through the centre of the arc.
All dimensions should only have one arrowhead which should
point to the line being dimensioned. There are two methods
for dimensioning radii.
(a) shows a radius dimensioned with the centre of the radius
located on the drawing.
(b) shows how to dimension radii which do not need their
centres locating.
Spherical dimensions

The radius of a spherical surface (i.e. the top of a drawing pin) when dimensioned should have an SR before the
size to indicate the type of surface.

Tolerancing
It is not possible in practice to manufacture products to the exact figures displayed on an engineering drawing.
The accuracy depends largely on the manufacturing process used and the care taken to manufacture a product.
A tolerance value shows the manufacturing department the maximum permissible variation from the dimension.
Each dimension on a drawing must include a tolerance value. This can appear either as:
57

a general tolerance value applicable to several dimensions. i.e. a note specifying that the General Tolerance +/- 0.5
mm.
or a tolerance specific to that dimension

The method of expressing a tolerance on a dimension as recommended by the British standards is shown below:

Note the larger size limit is placed above the lower limit.
All tolerances should be expressed to the appropriate number to the decimal points for the degree of accuracy
intended from manufacturing, even if the value is limit is a zero for example.
45.25

should not be expressed as

44.80

45.25
44.8

The layout of an engineering drawing

It is important that you follow some simple rules when producing an engineering drawing which although may
not be useful now, will be useful when working in industry.
All engineering drawings should feature an information box. An example is shown below.

Common information recorded on an engineering drawing

TITLE
The title of the drawing.
NAME
The name of the person who produced the drawing. This is important for quality control so that problems with the
drawing can be traced back to their origin.
CHECKED

58

In many engineering firms, drawings are checked by a second person before they are sent to manufacture, so that
any potential problems can be identified early.
VERSION
Many drawings will get amended over the period of the parts life. Giving each drawing a version number helps
people identify if they are using the most recent version of the drawing.
DATE
The date the drawing was created or amended on.
SCALE
The scale of the drawing. Large parts won't fit on paper so the scale provides a quick guide to the final size of the
product.
PROJECTION SYSTEM
The projection system used to create the drawing should be identified to help people read the drawing. (Projection
systems will be covered later).
COMPANY NAME
Many CAD drawings may be distributed outside the company so the company name is usually added to identify the
source.

Orthographic projection
The aim of an engineering drawing is to convey all the necessary information of how to make the part to the
manufacturing department. For most parts, the information cannot be conveyed in a single view. Rather than
using several sheets of paper with different views of the part, several views can be combined on a single drawing
using one of the two available projection systems, first angle, and third angle projection.

The diagram below demonstrates how the projection systems work

59

Sectioning - Introduction
Sections and sectional views are used to show hidden detail more clearly. They are created by using a cutting
plane to cut the object.
A section is a view of no thickness and shows the outline of the object at the cutting plane. Visible outlines
beyond the cutting plane are not drawn.
A sectional view, displays the outline of the cutting plane and all visible outlines which can be seen beyond the
cutting plane. The diagram below shows a sectional view, and how a cutting plane works.

Types of sectioning
Sectional View in a single plane

The example below shows a simple single plane sectional view where object is cut in half by the cutting plane.
The cutting plane is indicated on a drawing using the line style used for centre lines, but with a thick line
indicating the end of lines and any change in the direction of the cutting plane. The direction of the view is
indicated by arrows with a reference letter. The example below shows a sectional view of the cutting plane A - A.

60

Sectional View in two planes

It is possible for the cutting plane to change directions, to minimize on the number of sectional views required to
capture the necessary detail. The example below shows a pipe being cut by two parallel planes. The sketch
shows where the object is cut.

61

Half Sectional views

Half sections are commonly used to show both the internal and outside view of symmetrical objects.
Part Sectional views

It is common practice to section a part of an object when only small areas need to be sectioned to indicate the
important details. The example above shows a part sectional view to indicate a through-hole in a plate. Notice
that the line indicating the end of the section is a thin continuous line.

Which Sectional View?

Before proceeding, consider the diagrams below and select the correct sectional view.

62

Hatching
On sections and sectional views solid area should be hatched to indicate this fact. Hatching is drawn with a thin
continuous line, equally spaced (preferably about 4mm apart, though never less than 1mm) and preferably at an
angle of 45 degrees.
Hatching a single object

When you are hatching an object, but the objects have areas that are separated, all areas of the object should be
hatched in the same direction and with the same spacing.
Hatching Adjacent objects

When hatching assembled parts, the direction of the hatching should ideally be reversed on adjacent parts. If
more than two parts are adjacent, then the hatching should be staggered to emphasize the fact that these parts
are separate.

Reverse hatching

Staggered Hatching

Hatching thin materials

Sometimes, it is difficult to hatch very thin sections. To emphasize solid wall the walls can be filled in. This should
only be used when the wall thickness size is less than 1mm

63

.
Hatching large areas

When hatching large areas in order to aid readability, the hatching can be limited to the area near the edges of
the part.

Drawing threaded parts

Drawing Conventions

Threads are drawn with thin lines as shown in this

illustration. When drawn from end-on, a threaded section is
indicated by a broken circle drawn using a thin line.
A threaded part

64

Frequently a threaded section will need to be

shown inside a part. The two illustrations to the
left demonstrate two methods of drawing a
threaded section. Note the conventions. The
hidden detail is drawn as a thin dashed line. The
sectional view uses both thick and thin line with
the hatching carrying on to the very edges of the
object.

Assembly Drawings
The previous chapters covered the general aspects of engineering drawing and how to produce a detailed
drawing of a single part with all the necessary information to make the part. The assembly of these parts is
shown in an assembly drawing also known as a general arrangement.

65

Features of an assembly drawing

Dimensions
Detailed dimensions required for manufacture are excluded
from assembly drawings. But overall dimensions of the
assembled object are usually indicated.
If the spatial relationship between parts if important for the
product to function correctly then these should also be
indicated on the drawing. For example idicating the maximum
and minimum clearance between two parts.
Internal Parts
If there are internal assemblies, sectional views should be used.
Parts list
Each part is given a unique number, indicated on the drawing by
a circle with the number in it and a leader line pointing to the
part. The leader line terminates in an arrow if the line touches
the edge of the component or in a circle if the line terminates
inside the part.
A table of parts should be added to the drawing to identify each
part, an example of a parts list is shown below:
Item No.

Description

Qty

Material

Remarks

The first three items; Item No., Description, and Quantity should
be completed for every distinct part on your drawing. (i.e. the
number of duplicate parts are recorded in the quantity). The
material is used for components that are being made within the
company. The Remarks column is useful for specifying a
manufacturers part number when using bough-in parts.

66

Energy sources
Energy cannot be created or destroyed but only converted from one form to another. That is the meaning of
Einstein's well-known theory E=mc2.
In practice though, it seems to the user that energy is lost, but this is untrue. The energy used to power, say a
motor, is converted into heat and noise. This is extremely difficult to convert back to a more practical form, so
energy seems to be lost and more energy has to be ploughed into the system to keep it going.
There are several sources of energy some of the more common are listed below

Non renewable energy sources

Fossil Fuels

Renewable Energy Sources

Solar Energy
Hydroelectric Power
Wind Energy
Geothermal Energy
Ocean Thermal Energy
Nuclear Energy

Ergonomics and Anthropometrics

Anthropometrics
Anthropometrics is the study and recording of the physical properties of the human body.
Ergonomics
Ergonomics investigates how we use our environment and the design of environments which enable users to use
the environment easily and comfortably. An example of where ergonomics is used is the design of the cockpit of
an aircraft.
Anthropometric Data
The anthropometrics of an average male and female

Materials

Materials
67

Material Types
Metals
Woods
Plastic
Adhesives
Material Structures
Atoms
Atomic Bonds
General Information
Costs of various materials relative to the cost of carbon steel.

Manufacturing
The way in which a product is made has a big effect on decisions taken by the designer during the design phase,
after-all it is important that the product can be made. It is vitally important therefore that the correct
manufacturing processes are chosen at the design stage so that your design doesn't have to be changed later.
Obviously in industry, the aim is to produce a design which requires as little change as possible when being
made, because change costs time, and time cost money!. In some engineering sectors you may design something
in the morning, it will be made in the afternoon and reach the customer the next day!
This section looks at many different aspects of manufacturing a product. Although it contains many techniques
which can't be reproduced in schools and colleges, good students will demonstrate knowledge of appropriate
mass production techniques throughout their projects even though you might not be able to achieve the desired
effect in the workshop.

Manufacturing Processes and techniques

Covers techniques such as casting, fabrication, plastic moldings and welding.
Virtual Workshop
Our virtual workshop showing some of the machines you might find in your workshop.
Workshop Techniques (external link)
How to safely use common machines in your workshop.

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Costing
All manufacturing companies sell their products to make profit. The profit on each
product sold can be defined as the difference between the selling price of the
product and the total cost of making the product. Cost therefore plays a very
important role in the product design process. To be successful, a product must not
only satisfy a set of functions defined in the product design specification, but it
must also be possible to build the product within the cost criteria set out at the
start of the project. Before the development of any product begins, it is essential
to perform some form of economic analysis on the product to determine if it is
worth making. This may involve some form of market analysis to determine what
the customer is willing to pay for a product.
The costs involved in any product can be spilt into development costs and the
product cost. Interestingly, some companies do not actually know what their costs
are which leaves them open to the possibility that their actual costs may be more
than the selling price of their product! An example of this was the Mini when it
was first produced in the early 60s. Market research suggested that the car
should be sold for less than 500 so the company priced the car at 499. Later
when they analysed the cost of producing the car they found that the car cost
around 530 to build, resulting in large losses for the manufacturer.
Development Costs
Product Costs
Component Costs
Material Costs
Manufacturing Costs
Storage Costs

Marketing
Marketing can be seen as fulfilling two important roles in an organisation. Determining the market requirements
for a new (or revised product) and actually selling that product. By determining the market requirements
marketing can play a vitally important role in the product design process.
The role of marketing when you are developing your product
Selling your product

The role of marketing in product development

The requirements of a new or revised product are typically dictated by one of two sources.
1. A customer will approach a manufacturer (or a number of manufacturers) with the requirements of a product. It is
likely that the customer has a good idea of the requirements of the product so the role of marketing is likely to be
reduced to the role of advertising your companies services.
69

2. With no one particular customer to provide the requirements, an analysis of the existing marketplace and talking
with potential customers can determine what the requirements of a product should be and try and find some niche
or opening for a new product to occupy. This implies that the organization must do extensive market research in
order to determine what requirements the product must satisfy. There is no point developing a product, no matter
how well engineered, if there is no market for it. The marketing department will therefore have an important role,
both identifying if the product should be developed but also developing a plan to sell the product to the market.

Whichever ways the requirements of the product are identified, the needs of the customer have a large influence
on the decisions taken by designers. The marketing department will therefore have a major influence on the
drawing up of the product design specification (PDS). The PDS is a vitally important document in the design
process as it contains all the information necessary for a design team to successfully specify the requirements of
the final product.
Analyzing the market

One way to decide on the features your product needs to have is to analyze what your competitors products
have. There are a number of different techniques available to analyze the market to identify the requirement of
your product. These include:
Parametric analysis
Needs analysis
Matrix analysis
Finding out about what the user wants
Focus Groups
Market Surveys

70

Bibliography
References

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

What is Technical Drawing?

David L. Goetsch et al. (2005). Technical Drawing. Cengage Learning, 2005.
Gary R. Bertoline et al. (2002) Technical Graphics Communication. McGraw-Hill Professional, 2002.
James Folkestad er al. (2001). Engineering Drawing & Design. Cengage Learning, 2001.
Ken Baynes, Francis Pugh (1981) The Art of the Engineer. James Clarke & Co., 1981.
J. Diepstraten, D. Weiskopf & T. Ertl (2003). "Interactive Cutaway Illustrations".
Michael E. Brumbach, Jeffrey A. Clade (2003). Industrial Maintenance. Cengage Learning,
Ivan Viola and Meister E. Grller (2005). "Smart Visibility in Visualization". In: Computational Aesthetics in
Graphics, Visualization and Imaging. L. Neumann et al. (Ed.)
9. www.industriegrafik.com website, Last modified: Juni 15, 2002. Accessed 15 feb 2009.
10. Richard Boland and Fred Collopy (2004). Managing as designing. Stanford University Press, 2004.
11. Auto CAD tutorial
12. About.com Information provided by P E Waters, Secretary and Registrar Document last updated 7th May, 2002

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