THE HANDBOOK ON

SOLIDS CONTROL &

WASTE MANAGEMENT
4th EDITION
Published by Brandt / EPI

1st Edition 1982

2nd Edition 1985
3rd Edition 1995
4th Edition 1996

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in

any form without permission in writing from the publisher.
Printed in the U.S.A.

PREFACE
This Handbook was written by the Technical Services staff of Brandt/EPI
to provide a basic understanding of effective mechanical removal of drilled
solids and management of drilling wastes. Based on sound theoretical concepts, this Handbook is a practical working tool. It is designed for use by
anyone needing to optimize drilling efficiency: drilling engineers, supervisors, tool pushers, mud engineers, derrick hands, service personnel and
others.
This 4th edition of the Handbook provides updated sections on equipment and techniques, and includes new information on waste processing
systems, including downhole injection, solidification/ stabilization, water
clarification, and other site remediation techniques. We would appreciate
any suggestions for improving future editions of the Handbook. Please
address your comments to:
Brandt/EPI Technical Group
P.O. Box 2327
Conroe, TX 77305
TEL:
FAX:

(713) 756-4800
(713) 756-8102

Thanks,
Mike Montgomery
Manager, Technical Group
Brandt/EPI

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE

1.0

DRILLING MUD AND MUD SOLIDS .....................................................1.1

1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4

2.0

BENEFITS OF SOLIDS REMOVAL BY MECHANICAL SEPARATION .....2.1

2.1
2.2

3.0

Reduced Total Solids ....................................................................................2.1

Reduced Dilution Requirements ..................................................................2.2

MECHANICAL SOLIDS CONTROL AND RELATED EQUIPMENT .........3.1

3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
3.15

4.0

Functions of Drilling Mud ............................................................................1.1

The Nature of Drilled Solids ........................................................................1.2
Properties of Drilling Mud ...........................................................................1.4
Types of Drilling Muds.................................................................................1.8

Particle Classification and Cut Point............................................................3.3

Separation by Vibratory Screening ..............................................................3.6
Shale Shakers ..............................................................................................3.14
Mud Cleaners/Conditioners........................................................................3.21
Separation by Settling and Centrifugal Force............................................3.28
Sand Trap ....................................................................................................3.29
Hydrocyclones ............................................................................................3.30
Desanders....................................................................................................3.33
Desilters.......................................................................................................3.35
Decanting Centrifuge..................................................................................3.38
Auxiliary Equipment...................................................................................3.43
Unitized Systems.........................................................................................3.48
Rig Enhanced Systems................................................................................3.49
High Efficiency Solids Removal Systems...................................................3.50
Basic Arrangement Guidelines...................................................................3.51

BRANDT/EPI PRODUCTS AND SERVICES ........................................4.1

Company Profile..........................................................................................................4.1
4.1
Scope of Services..........................................................................................4.1
4.2
Business Relationship...................................................................................4.1
4.3
Certification...................................................................................................4.1
4.4
Personnel Resources.....................................................................................4.2
Products and Services .................................................................................................4.2
4.5
Linear Motion Shakers..................................................................................4.3
ATL-1000 .......................................................................................................4.3
ATL-1200 .......................................................................................................4.3
LCM-2D .........................................................................................................4.4
ATL-CS...........................................................................................................4.4
LCM-2D/CM2 ................................................................................................4.5
ATL Drying Shaker........................................................................................4.5
SDW-25 Drying Shaker.................................................................................4.6
ATL-16/2 Mud Conditioner...........................................................................4.6
ATL-2800 Mud Conditioner ..........................................................................4.7
LCM-2D Mud Conditioner ............................................................................4.7
4.6
Orbital Motion Screen Separators ................................................................4.7
Tandem Screen Separator ............................................................................4.7
Standard Screen Separator ...........................................................................4.8
Mud Cleaners ................................................................................................4.8

iii

4.7

4.8
4.9

4.10
4.11
4.12
4.13
4.14
4.15

4.16
4.17

Screen Panels................................................................................................4.9
BlueHexSM 3HX Screen Panels .....................................................................4.9
Pinnacle Screen Panels .............................................................................4.9
PT Screen Panels ........................................................................................4.10
Hook-Strip Screen Panels...........................................................................4.10
Hydrocyclone Units ....................................................................................4.10
Desanders....................................................................................................4.10
Desilters.......................................................................................................4.11
Centrifuges ..................................................................................................4.11
SC-1 Decanting Centrifuge .........................................................................4.11
SC-4 Decanting Centrifuge .........................................................................4.12
HS 3400 High Speed Decanting Centrifuge ..............................................4.12
SC 35HS High Speed Decanting Centrifuge..............................................4.12
HS 5200 High Speed Decanting Centrifuge ..............................................4.13
Roto-Sep Perforated Rotor Centrifuge .......................................................4.13
Dewatering Units ........................................................................................4.14
Filtration Units ............................................................................................4.14
Vacuum Degassers......................................................................................4.15
Mud Agitators..............................................................................................4.15
Portable Rig Blowers ..................................................................................4.15
Integrated Systems......................................................................................4.16
Closed Loop Processing Systems ...............................................................4.16
Coiled Tubing (CT) Processing Systems....................................................4.17
Trenchless Technology Processing Systems..............................................4.17
Live Oil Systems..........................................................................................4.17
Remediation Management Services ...........................................................4.17
Technical & Engineering Services..............................................................4.18

APPENDICES
Glossary .....................................................................................................................A.2
Mud Solids Calculations
Standard Calculations..................................................................................................B.1
Field Calculations to Determine Total Solids Discharge...........................................B.4
Field Calculations to Determine High and Low Gravity Solids Discharge ..............B.5
Solids Control Performance Evaluation .....................................................................B.6
Method for Comparison of Cyclone Efficiency .......................................................B.10
Mud Engineering Data
Conversion Constants and Formulas..........................................................................C.1
Density of Common Materials ....................................................................................C.2
Hole Capacities ...........................................................................................................C.3
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids Fast Rates ..........................................................C.4
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids Slow Rates.........................................................C.5
Solids Content Chart ...................................................................................................C.6
Equipment Selection
Pre-well Project Checklist...........................................................................................D.1
Screen Cloth Comparisons .........................................................................................D.2
Brandt/EPI Equipment Specifications........................................................................D.3
Selecting Size and Number of Agitators ....................................................................D.7
Brandt/EPI Sales & Service Locations ....................................................................D.8

iv

1.0

DRILLING MUD AND MUD SOLIDS

Mud is the common name for

drilling fluid. While it is outside the
scope of this handbook to offer a
detailed discussion of drilling fluids,
a brief outline of the general characteristics of drilling mud is
included to establish the basic relationships between drilling mud and
solids control.
Similarly, any discussion of solids
control would be incomplete without establishing an understanding
of the nature of mud solids their
size, shape and composition.

1.1 FUNCTIONS OF
DRILLING FLUID
The mud system in a drilling
operation performs many important
functions. Among these are:
1. Carry the drilled solids from
the bottom of the hole to the
surface.
2. Support the wall of the hole.
3. Control pressure within the formation being drilled.
4. Cool the bit and lubricate the
drill string.
5. Clean beneath the bit.
6. Suspend cuttings while circulation is interrupted (e.g., during
trips).
7. Secure accurate information
from the well (cuttings samples, electric logs, etc.).

8.

Help support the weight of the

drill string.
9. Transmit hydraulic horsepower to the bit.
10. Allow removal of cuttings by
the surface system.
Of the ten functions listed, the following are generally considered
most important:
1. Drilling mud moves the formations solids cut by the drill bit
from the bottom of the hole to
the surface. Removal of cuttings from the wellbore is
essential in order to continue
drilling.
2. Drilling mud must withstand
the pressure exerted by the
formations exposed in the
hole. The pressure exerted by
the mud against the formations
helps the driller control the
pressure created by the gas, oil
and water that are exposed
while drilling, thus reducing
the potential for costly
blowouts.
3. Drilling mud protects and supports the walls of the wellbore.
The mud has a plastering effect
on the walls of the hole and
helps prevent the walls from
caving in, causing an enlarged
hole or leading to stuck pipe.
1.1

4.

These problems significantly

increase drilling expense and
time.
Drilling mud cools the bit and
lubricates the drill string. This
function is important in drilling
because it increases the useful
life of bits and the drill string.

Drilling mud is obviously a major

factor in the success of any drilling
program, and the key to any effective mud system is good solids
control.

1.2 THE NATURE OF

DRILLED SOLIDS
Mud solids include particles that
are drilled from the formation,
material from the inside surface of
the hole and materials that are
added to control the chemical and
physical properties of the mud,
such as weight material. Drilled
solids particles are created by the
crushing and chipping action of
rotary drill bits. Additional solids
enter the well bore by sloughing
from the sides of the open hole.
The unit of measurement generally used to describe particle size is
the micron (). A micron is one
thousandth (0.001) of a millimeter,
or approximately 0.00003973 of an
inch. To relate this unit of measurement in more familiar terms, Figure
1-1 provides a list of common items
and their size in microns.
1.2

ITEM
Cement Dust (Portland)
Talcum Powder
Red Blood Corpuscles
Finger Tip Sensitivity
Human Sight
Human Hair
Cigarette (diameter)
One inch

DIAMETER IN MICRONS
3-100
5-50
7.5
20
35-40
30-200
7520
25,400

Figure 1-1
Micron Size Range of Common Materials

Although individual mud solids

can range in size from less than
one micron to larger than a human
fist, the average particle size is less
than 3540 microns, too small to be
seen with the human eye.
Note: The various sizes of solids
particles in a particular drilling
mud are referred to as the muds
cuttings, sand, silt or clay content.
This content is important to remember because solids control practices
will affect the average particle size
and the concentration of solids in
specific size ranges which may
greatly affect mud properties and
drilling operations.
Mud solids may be conveniently
grouped according to micron size
range, but unfortunately not without introducing some element of
confusion. The API Committee on
Standardization of Drilling Fluid
Materials, in API Bulletin 13C published in 1974, recommended
certain terminology for mud solids
particle size in an attempt to minimize this confusion. This new
terminology has not yet, however,
gained universal acceptance.

The more commonly used classifications shown in Figure 1-2,

cuttings, sand, silt and clay (or colloidal size) will be used throughout
this handbook, as they are the most
readily recognized in the field.
These terms will refer to size classification only, not to material
composition.
CLASSIFICATION

PARTICLE SIZE
(Diameter in Microns)

Cuttings

Larger than 500

Sand

74-500

Silt

2-74

Clay

Smaller than 2

Figure 1-2
Common Field Terminology of Particle Size

Note: Drilled solids can originate

from sand, limestone, shale or other
formations, but their classification
in regard to solids control usually
depends on particle size since their
specific gravity is assumed to be
approximately 2.6.
It is important to note that commercial solids (such as barite or
bentonite added for weight and viscosity) are also affected by solids
control equipment, according to
size. Most barite particles are in the
same size group as silt (274
microns); bentonite particles are
grouped with clay (smaller than 2
microns).
From the time they enter the well
until they reach the surface, drilled
solids particles are continuously
reduced in size by abrasion with
other particles and by the grinding
action of the drill pipe.

Abrasiveness of mud solids is

determined by particle shape and
hardness. Drilled solids come in
various shapes such as round, needle shaped, platelets, cubic, etc. To
be destructive, particles must be
sharper and harder than the material they are to abrade. Figure 1-3
illustrates the degradation of drilled
solids in a mud system. The main
body of the particle becomes less
abrasive with wear as the most
abrasive corners continue to
degrade down through the silt size
to approximately 1520 microns.

Figure 1-3
Mechanical Degradation of Drilled Solids

Particles smaller than 1520

microns have much less abrasive
effect on drilling equipment. Barite
particles, which are not as hard as
most drilled solids, are generally
less abrasive than similarly-sized
drilled solids. Other weighting
materials, such as hematite, are
generally harder and more abrasive
than barite.
Specific surface area, as it relates
1.3

to various shapes and sizes of

solids, is another important concept. Specific surface area refers to
the surface area per unit of weight
or volume. Figure 1-4 lists examples
that show surface area greatly
increases per unit of mass: 1) as
particle size decreases, and 2) as
particles become less spherical in
shape.
EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL
PARTICLE DIAMETER
TYPE
(Microns)
PARTICLES

SQUARE FEET
PER POUND

5.0

Glass Spheres

5.0

Crushed Quartz

2,345
3,435

1.0

Glass Spheres

11,725

1.0

Crushed Quartz

17, 160

0.1

Glass Spheres

117,250

0.1

Crushed Quartz

171,500

Figure 1-4
Effect of Particle Size and Shape on Surface Area

Surface area adsorbs or ties-up

water. The more surface area, the
more water adsorbed. As the particle size decreases toward the
colloidal size, the relative effect of
the water coating increases. The
specific surface area has a pronounced effect on viscosity, as
Figure 1-5 illustrates. The higher the
relative specific surface area, the
greater is the viscosity. Formations

Figure 1-5
Effect of Specific Surface Area on Viscosity

1.4

composed of clays that easily disperses into the mud produce

relatively more viscosity increase and
will have wetter separations in
removal by equipment than formations that produce larger sized solids.
Bentonite disperses easily into colloidal solids and also absorbs much
more water than most solids types.
Hence bentonite builds viscosity at
relatively low concentrations.
Viscosity and other mud properties
are discussed in Section 1.3 of this
Handbook.

1.3 PROPERTIES OF
DRILLING MUD
The ability of a drilling fluid to
perform its functions depends on
various properties of the mud, most
of which are measurable and are
affected by solids control.

DENSITY (MUD WEIGHT)

Density is a measure of the weight
of the mud in a given volume, and
is frequently referred to as mud
weight. The instrument used to
measure density is the mud balance
(see Figure 1-6). The instrument
consists of a constant volume cup
with a lever arm and rider calibrated to read directly the density of
the fluid in lbs/gal (water = 8.33
lbs/gal) and pressure gradient in
psi/1000 ft (water = 433 psi/1000 ft)
or pounds per cubic foot (water =
62.4 lbs/ft).

Figure 1-6 Mud Balance

The density of the mud is related

to the specific gravity of the fluid.
Specific gravity is the ratio of a
materials density to the density of
water. Pure water has a specific
gravity of 1.0. A material twice as
dense as water would have a specific gravity of 2.0. A material half
as dense as water would have a
specific gravity of 0.5. Low gravity
solids have an average specific
gravity of 2.6. The solids are 2.6
times the weight of the same volume of water.

its viscosity. Viscosity is routinely

measured with a Marsh Funnel and
Mud Cup at the drilling site (see
Figure 1-7). The person measuring
the viscosity fills the funnel with a
sample of mud and allows it to

VISCOSITY
Viscosity measures the muds
resistance to flow as a liquid and is
one of the key physical properties
of mud. Increasing the amount of
solids or exposed surface area in a
mud increases its resistance to flow
as a liquid and therefore increases

Figure 1-7 Marsh Funnel and Cup

1.5

rotational viscometer (Figure 1-8)

and is expressed in centipoise
(grams per centimeter-second).

YIELD POINT

Figure 1-8 Rotational Viscometer (VG Meter)

flow through the tip of the funnel

container while measuring the time
in seconds that it takes to fill the
mud cup to the one quart level.
The funnel viscosity recorded is in
seconds per quart. Internationally,
funnel viscosity is recorded in seconds per thousand ccs or seconds
per liter.

PLASTIC VISCOSITY
A muds Plastic Viscosity is the portion of a muds flow resistance
caused by the mechanical friction
between the suspended particles
and by the viscosity of the continuous liquid phase. In practical terms,
plastic viscosity depends on the
size, shape, and number of particles. For example, as the amount of
drilled solids in a mud increases,
the plastic viscosity also increases.
Plastic viscosity is measured with a

1.6

Yield point is the part of flow resistance that measures the positive
and negative inter-particle, or
attractive, forces within a mud.
Yield point is measured with a
viscometer and expressed in
lbs/100 ft 2. Internationally, yield
point is sometimes measured in
dynes/cm2.

GEL STRENGTH
Gel Str ength is a function of a
muds inter particle forces and gives
an indication of the amount of gelation that will occur after circulation
ceases and the mud remains static
for a period of time. Typically, gel
strengths are reported for initial and
10-second gel strength. A large
deviation of these two figures may
indicate progressive gels, that is,
gelation structures that gain
strength over time. Gel strength is
also measured with a viscometer
and expressed in lbs/100 ft 2 .
Internationally, gel strength is
sometimes measured in dynes/cm2.

SOLIDS CONTENT
The solids content is the volume
percentage of the total solids in the

Figure 1-9 Retort (Mud Still)

mud. To determine the solids content of a mud containing weight

material, a mud container in the
retort is filled with a measured volume of mud (see Figure 1-9). The
mud is then heated to boil off the
liquid. The percentage of the liquid
distilled off is measured in a glass
cylinder and subtracted from 100%.
The difference is the percentage of
solids by volume contained in the
drilling mud and is recorded as percentage solids. The total solids from
the retort and mud weight are used
to calculate the low and high gravity solids content.
If the mud does not contain oil or
weight material, such as barite or
hematite, the low gravity solids can
be determined without a retort by
weighing the mud and referring to
a solids content chart.

SAND
Sand is any particle larger than 74

microns when referring to solids

control separation. Therefore, the
sand content of a mud is simply the
amount of solids too large to pass
through a US Test Sieve 200-mesh
screen. This is determined with a
sand content set (see Figure 1-10)
by washing a measured amount of
mud through the
200-mesh screen in
the
kit.
The
amount of solids
that does not pass
through the screen
is measured as
percentage by volume
and
is
recorded as perFigure 1-10
cent sand.
Sand Content Set

FILTRATION
Filtration and wall-cake building
are actions that the drilling mud
carries out through and on the
walls of the hole. Some formations
allow the liquid in the mud to seep
into them, leaving a layer of mud
solids on the wall of the hole. This
layer of mud solids is called filter
cake or wall-cake. The filter cake
builds up a barrier and reduces the
amount of the liquid that enters the
formation and is lost from the mud.
This process is referred to as filtration, or fluid loss. The instrument
used to measure the fluid loss due
to filtration is a filter press (see
Figure 1-11).
1.7

Figure 1-11 Filter Press

The person using the filter press

places a mud sample in the instrument on top of a piece of filter
paper and brings the pressure up to
100 pounds per square inch. The
amount of fluid flowing from the
sample in 30 minutes is measured
in milliliters. The mud filtration
property is recorded in units of
cubic centimeters (ccs) or milliliters
(ml) per 30 minutes. Examination of
the filter paper will indicate how
the solids will plaster the wall of
the hole and affect fluid loss. The
cake thickness is recorded in units
of 1/32s of an inch.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Chemical Properties is a broad
category, including measurements
of pH, alkalinity, chlorides, calcium
1.8

content, salt content, and other

properties that affect drilling mud
performance. Some of these chemical properties can be controlled
through various mud additives that
thicken, thin, precipitate, disperse,
emulsify, lubricate or otherwise
adjust the mud depending on specific drilling needs. For example,
caustic soda can be added to some
saltwater mud in order to maintain
a high pH level; it makes dispersants more effective and reduces
corrosion. Chemical changes such
as these are used to fine tune
drilling muds.

1.4 TYPES OF
DRILLING MUDS
Drilling fluids are generally categorized as water-base or oilbase, and as weighted or
unweighted muds.
Water-base Muds contain water as
the liquid phase and are used to
drill most of the wells in the world
because they are relatively simple,
expense is usually reasonable, and
water is commonly available in
most places.
Oil-base Mud contains either natural oil or synthetic oil as the
continuous liquid phase and is used
for maximum hole protection. Oilbase mud and synthetic oil mud are
usually much more expensive than
water-base mud and therefore are
only used when there is a specific

need, such as to keep the hole

from swelling or caving in, or to
reduce friction and prevent stuck
pipe in very crooked or high angle
holes. Either water-base or oil-base
mud can be used as weighted
mud.
Weighted Mud refers to any mud
which has barite or barite substitutes added to increase density.
These muds normally have a density greater than 10.0 lbs/gal. The
solids in weighted mud consist of
drilled solids from the hole, plus
barite, plus commercial clays added
to control fluid loss and viscosity.
Unweighted Mud refers to any
mud which has not had barite
added. This mud type normally has
a density of less than 10.0 lbs/gal.
The solids in unweighted mud consist of drilled solids from the hole,
plus commercial clays.
Solids control techniques will vary
considerably depending on the type
of mud being used. For example,
with many unweighted water-base
muds, the loss of fluids along with
the drilled solids may be economically insignificant, allowing simple
solids control techniques. In the
case of mud that contains expensive chemical additives and/or
barite, especially oil-base mud,
sophisticated solids control techniques must be utilized to minimize
overall costs. In addition, environmental costs of haul-off and

disposal may require sophisticated

solids control techniques. System
recommendations for specific applications are covered in detail in
Chapter 4.
Here is a list of the most common
mud types, followed by a brief
description of each type:
I. Water-Base Mud (WBM)
A. Spud Mud
B. Natural mud
C. Chemically-Treated Mud
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

D.

Lightly Treated Chemical

Mud
Highly Treated Chemical
Mud
Low Solids Mud
Polymer Mud
Calcium Treated Mud

Saltwater Mud
1.
2.

Sea Water Mud

Saturated Salt Mud

II. Oil-Base Mud (OBM)

A. True Oil Base
B. Invert Emulsion
C. Synthetic (SBM)

SPUD MUD
Spud Mud is used to start the
drilling of a well and continues to
be used while drilling the first few
hundred feet of hole. Spud mud is
usually an unweighted water-base
mud, made up of water and natural
solids from the formation being
drilled. It may contain some commercial clay, added to increase
viscosity and improve wall-cake
building properties.
1.9

NATURAL MUD
Natural Mud (sometimes called
native mud) is usually unweighted water-base mud which contains
mostly drilled solids. Some bentonite and small amounts of
chemicals may be used to improve
filter cake quality and help prevent
hole problems. This mud is often
the next mud type used after spud
mud. Often, natural mud is used to
drill the first few thousand feet of
hole, where only minor hole problems are expected.

CHEMICALLY TREATED MUD

Chemically Treated Mud is waterbase mud which contains chemicals
to control physical and chemical
properties. Bentonite is usually
added to help control viscosity and
fluid loss. Barite (weight material)
may be added to increase density.
This mud is used where more
severe hole problems are expected,
in order to prevent these problems.
Lightly Treated Chemical Mud is
usually unweighted water-base
mud. It is used where minor hole
problems are expected, such as
sloughing or caving of the walls of
the hole.
Highly Treated Chemical Mud is
usually weighted, water-base mud
that contains larger amounts of
chemicals, bentonite, additives, and
barite to maintain strict control of
viscosity, fluid loss, chemical prop1.10

erties, and density. Chemical muds

are often treated with lignosulfonates or lignite and are therefore
commonly called lignosulfonate
mud or lignite mud.
These muds are used where moderate to severe hole problems are
expected or high down-hole pressures occur. Of all the water-base
mud types, these are the most
expensive to maintain. As mud density is increased and potential hole
problems (such as stuck drill pipe)
become more of a risk, the removal
of drilled solids by mechanical
solids control equipment becomes
increasingly important.
Low Solids Muds are water-base
mud containing less than ten percent (10%) drilled solids; 15% is a
normal range. Generally speaking,
the lower the solids content in the
mud, the faster the bit will drill.
Low solids muds are usually
expensive to maintain because the
solids, chemical, and fluid loss
properties have to be kept very
close to prescribed levels. It is
absolutely essential that all solids
removal equipment operate at maximum effectiveness in order to
maintain the desired low level of
solids at a reasonable cost.
Polymer Muds are special types of
low solids mud which contain synthetic materials, polymers, designed
to control viscosity and fluid loss.
Polymers are very expensive and

often difficult to screen when a

high viscosity fluid is used.
Calcium Treated Muds are special
water-base muds, usually weighted,
which have lime or gypsum added.
Calcium Treated Muds are normally
used to prevent shale type formations from swelling or sloughing
problems which could lead to stuck
pipe or a ruined hole.

SALTWATER MUD
Saltwater Muds contain a high
concentration of salt. They may be
weighted or unweighted.
Sea Water Muds contain sea water
as the continuous phase and, usually, only sea water is used for
dilution. They may be weighted or
unweighted. These muds are used
offshore and in bay areas where
fresh water is not readily available.
When sea water mud is being
used, only sea water should be
used to rinse or wash the screens in
solids control equipment.
Saturated Salt Muds (sometimes
called brine fluids) contain as much
salt as can be dissolved in the water
phase. This mud type is often used
to drill through salt formations so
the fluid will not dissolve the salt
formation. If fresh water mud is
used, greatly enlarged holes would
result, usually leading to hole trouble.
It is important to be aware of the
use of salt mud because screen

blinding can occur when salt dries

and cakes on the solids control
equipment. Fresh water may be
used to clean the screens, but it
must be used very carefully
because too much fresh water can
upset the chemical balance of this
mud.

TRUE OIL-BASE MUD

True Oil-base Mud contains a
liquid phase with ninety to ninetyfive percent (9095%) diesel oil and
five to ten percent (510%) water
emulsified within the oil. These
muds often use asphaltic type materials suspended in the liquid for
controlling viscosity and fluid loss.
True oil-base muds provide good
hole protection, especially in shale
type formations, and also increase
drill string lubrication.

INVERT EMULSION MUD

Invert Emulsion Mud is oil-base
mud in which the liquid phase is
sixty to ninety percent (6090%)
diesel oil with ten to forty percent
(1040%) water emulsified within
the oil. An invert mud can be formulated with mineral oil or other
low environmental risk oil substitutes when needed. In this mud,
water and chemicals are used together to control viscosity and fluid
loss. Invert emulsion muds provide
good hole protection and are the
most commonly used oil mud.
1.11

SYNTHETIC OIL MUDS

The term Synthetic-Based Mud,
or SBM, describes any oil-base mud
that has a synthesized liquid base.
Some common synthetic base fluids
include linear alphaolefins (LAO),
straight internal olefins (IO), polyalphaolefins (PAO), vegetable oils,
esters, and ethers. This base fluid is
then combined with viscosifiers,
weighting material, and other additives to produce a stable, useful
drilling fluid.
SBMs share several advantages
with traditional oil-base muds,
including excellent wellbore stability, improved drilling rates, good
hole cleaning, excellent cuttings
integrity, and reduced torque.
SBMs also provide additional health
and safety benefits higher flash
points, lower vapor production, and

1.12

reduced eye and respiratory irritation. The major benefit of SBMs

over traditional OBMs is the
reduced environmental impact of
cuttings and liquid mud. Currently,
SBMs and cuttings meet U.S. offshore environmental requirements
and may be discharged under
WBM protocols.
SBMs are expensive, $200400
/bbl., depending on the oil/water
ratio. Proper solids removal and liquid recovery techniques must be
used to maintain desired fluid properties and drilling rate, and to
control mud maintenance costs.
The alternatives to mechanical
solids control dilution and whole
SBM additions are prohibitively
expensive when compared to the
cost of proper solids control equipment.

2.0

BENEFITS OF SOLIDS REMOVAL BY

MECHANICAL SEPARATION

INTRODUCTION
Of all the problems that could
conceivably occur during the
drilling of a well, mud contamination from drilled solids is a
certainty. The volume and type of
solids present in drilling mud exert
a considerable influence over mud
treating costs, drilling rates,
hydraulics, and the possibility of
differential sticking, kicks, and lost
returns. Solids control is one of the
most important phases of mud control it is a constant issue, every
day, on every well. If drilled solids
can be removed mechanically, it is
almost always less expensive than
trying to combat them with chemicals and dilution.
The primary reason for using
mechanical solids control equipment is to remove unwanted drilled
solids particles from the mud in
order to prevent drilling problems
and reduce mud and waste costs,
thereby reducing overall drilling
costs. The benefits of solids
removal by mechanical separation
can best be seen in terms of two
outcomes: 1) reduced total mud
solids and 2) reduced dilution
requirements.

2.1 REDUCED TOTAL

SOLIDS
The presence of large amounts of
drilled solids in a drilling mud usually spells trouble for the drilling
operation. These solids adversely
affect the performance characteristics of the mud and can lead to a
multitude of costly hole problems.
Drilled solids decrease the life of
a mud pumps parts and thus, can
decrease drilling efficiency due to
lost time for pump repairs.
Continued recirculation of drilled
solids produces serious mud problems because recirculated solids
will gradually be reduced in size.
The smaller the solids become, the
more they negatively influence mud
properties and hydraulic performance. The greatest impact of the
solids is seen in reduced ROP. The
higher the drilled solids content,
the lower the penetration rate.
If mud solids are not properly
controlled, the muds density can
increase above its desired weight
and the mud can get so thick that it
becomes extremely difficult or even
impossible to pump.
Since the earliest days of the oilfield, drillers have been trying to
combat high solids content through
the use of settling pits. However,
2.1

some drilled solids are so finely

ground that they tend to remain in
suspension. This results in
increased mud viscosity and gel
strength which, in turn results in
larger particles also remaining in
suspension. Thus, the approach of
removing cuttings through settling
alone is of limited practical value.
Solids control equipment was
developed in order to more effectively remove unwanted solids from
drilling mud. A variety of devices
(which will be discussed in detail in
Chapter 3 of this handbook) are
available which mechanically separate the solids particles from the
liquid phase of the mud. Thus the
driller, depending on the particular
situation and equipment used, can
regulate to a fine degree the
amount and size of solids particles
that are removed or maintained in
any given drilling mud.
Such control of mud solids through
mechanical separation allows the
mud to perform its drilling-related
functions and avoids the downhole
problems caused by excessive solids
contamination. Effective solids control permits viscosity and density to be
kept within desired levels, dramatically increases the life of pump parts
and drill bits, and promotes faster
penetration all of which decrease
the time and expense of drilling.
2.2

2.2 REDUCED DILUTION

REQUIREMENTS
A common method of trying to
offset the build-up of drilled solids
is the addition of more liquid. This
is known as dilution and does not
remove cuttings but reduces (or
dilutes) their concentration in a
drilling mud, thereby reducing the
percent of total solids in the mud.
However, it is important to note
that dilution is expensive. Every
barrel of dilution water (or oil)
added requires an additional
amount of chemicals, barite or
other materials in order to maintain
desired mud properties. The lower
the drilled solids content to be
maintained, the greater the dilution
required. In the case of an oil-base
mud, oil must be used for dilution
which can become extremely
expensive.
It should be noted that chemical
treatment alone will ultimately
result in high solids content and
uncontrollable mud properties. The
most effective approach is to use
mechanical solids control equipment to remove as much of the
drilled solids as possible before
they are incorporated into the mud
system and then treat what is left
with appropriate amounts of chemicals and dilution.
Effective solids removal by
mechanical separation can maintain
a minimum solids level in drilling

mud and greatly reduce the need

for dilution. Reducing the need to
dilute the mud can drastically
decrease the cost of having to purchase mud products such as weight
material (barite) and chemicals.
These materials are expensive
mud costs can be 10% of the total
cost of drilling a well.
The Dilution Ratio Chart (Figure
2-1) can be used indirectly to
approximate the amount of dilution
that can be eliminated by use of
solids removal equipment. For
example, suppose a drilling engineer required that no more than 5%
solids were to be maintained in an
unweighted mud. The chart shows
that at 5%, each barrel of mud
would contain about 45 pounds of
drilled solids. If solids control
equipment were removing 1 ton
(2000 lbs) of solids per hour, then
the equipment would save 2000
MUD WEIGHT
(LBS/GAL)
TO BE
MAINTAINED

DRILLED
SOLIDS
PERCENT BY
VOLUME

8.5
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
9.0
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
10.0

1.2
2.0
2.7
3.5
4.2
5.0
5.7
6.4
7.2
8.0
8.7
9.4
10.2
11.0
11.7
12.4

45 = 44 barrels of dilution per hour.

If the chemicals and additives were
worth only $10 per barrel, the mud
treating costs would be reduced by
approximately $440 per hour! Over
the life of a drilling operation, $440
per hour adds up to a very significant cost savings.
The same procedure can be used
to show reduced dilution requirement in weighted mud. When
heavily weighted muds (1618
lbs/gal) are being used, drilling
usually proceeds more slowly and
less drilled solids are removed per
hour. However, if approximately 5%
drilled solids are allowed in the
mud, then each barrel of mud still
contains roughly 44 pounds of
drilled solids.
Therefore, if the solids control
equipment were removing even a
pencil-sized stream of solids which
would amount to 44 pounds per
POUNDS OF
2.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY
SOLIDS PER
BARREL OF MUD
11
18
25
32
38
45
52
59
66
73
79
86
93
100
107
114

BBLS OF WATER
REQUIRED TO DILUTE
1 TON SOLIDS AND
MAINTAIN MUD WEIGHT
182
111
80
63
53
44
38
34
30
27
25
23
22
20
19
18

Figure 2-1 Dilution Ratio Chart

2.3

hour, then 44 44 = 1 barrel of

dilution saved per hour. With the
high cost weighted mud (usually a
minimum of $30 per barrel), the
solids removal equipment would be
saving at least $30 per hour. Over
an average operation of 20 hours
per day, this represents a savings of
approximately $600 per day. If the
maximum amount of drilled solids
were reduced to 3%, the cost savings
would double to approximately
$1200 per day.
The expense of the dilution liquid
is a major factor in considering the
advantages of reduced dilution
requirements. Oil is obviously
much more costly than water, but
water also can be expensive if it
has to be trucked into a remote
drilling location.
The disposal of waste mud can
also be a significant factor in overall
dilution costs. Heavy reliance on
dilution to control solids content
can result in the addition of so
much extra liquid that the volume
of mud exceeds the capacity of the active mud pits.
When this happens, whole
mud (including all of the
expensive additives) must
be discarded into waste or
reserve pits.
Appropriate use of solids
control equipment in place
of dilution lessens the volume of the mud system and
can usually eliminate the
2.4

discarding of excess mud. The size

of the active and waste pits themselves can be reduced due to
smaller capacity requirements.
Instead of throwing away valuable
mud additives, these can be salvaged and returned to the active
mud system.
If properly used, solids control
equipment can virtually eliminate
waste liquid mud through a closed
mud system. In such a system the
liquid phase can be recycled
which can be critical in special
applications such as when using
oil-base or polymer muds, especially offshore, or where environmental
concerns prohibit disposal of liquid
waste materials. In these cases the
cost of hauling the liquid waste
away for disposal is also avoided.
Solids removal by mechanical separation can achieve the benefits of
low solids content and at the same
time significantly reduce the many
costs associated with dilution.

DRILLED SOLIDS

3.0

MECHANICAL SOLIDS CONTROL AND

RELATED EQUIPMENT

INTRODUCTION
The goal of modern solids control
systems is to reduce overall well
costs by prompt, efficient removal
of drilled solids while minimizing
the loss of liquids. Since the size of
drilled solids varies greatly from
cuttings larger than one inch in
diameter to sub-micron size several types of equipment may be
used depending upon the specific
situation. The fundamental purpose
for solids removal equipment is just
that remove drilled solids. The
end result is reduced mud and
waste disposal costs.
To reach this goal, each piece of
equipment will remove a portion of
the solids, either by screening or
centrifugal force. Each type of
equipment is designed to economically separate particles of a
particular size range from the liquid. Also to operate effectively,
each type of equipment must be
sized, installed, operated, and maintained properly.
The efficiency of the solids control system can be evaluated by
comparing the final volume of mud
accumulated while using the equipment to the volume of mud that
would result if drilled solids were
controlled only by dilution. The

overall results of solids removal can

be monitored by the use of flow
meters to determine the actual mud
volume built.
The efficiency of solids removal
equipment and/or systems used can
be evaluated in two ways:
1) Efficiency of drilled solids
removal,
2) Efficiency of liquid conservation.
The greater percentage of drilled
solids removed, the higher the
removal efficiency. The higher the
solids fraction of the waste stream,
the better. Both aspects should be
considered.
For example, a desilter usually
does well at removing solids but at
the cost of significant losses of liquid; sometimes 80% of the volume
of the waste stream will be liquid.
By contrast, a properly operating
shale shaker or centrifuge typically
removes 1 barrel or less of mud
with each barrel of solids. Most
remaining equipment delivers a
lesser degree of dryness than do
the shakers or centrifuges.
Most solids control systems
include several pieces of equipment
connected in series. Each stage of
processing is partly dependent
upon the previous equipment functioning correctly so as to allow the
next stage to perform its role.
3.1

Should one piece of equipment fail,

the equipment downstream will
soon lose efficiency or fail completely.
The first piece of equipment used
to separate the solids from the mud
is usually a vibrating screen or
series of screens. The cuttings that
are larger than the mesh openings
are removed by the screen but
carry an adhered film of mud. The
screen mesh should be sized to
prevent excessive losses of whole
mud over the end screen.
The second step is to remove the
sand-sized, silt sized and larger clay
particles that were not removed in
the shakers by using hydrocyclones. Hydrocyclones with a cone
diameter of 6 to 12 inches are
called desanders, and hydrocyclones with a cone diameter of less
than 6 inches are called desilters.
These units should normally be
sized to process 125% of the maximum flow rate used to drill.
Sometimes a screen is used below
a hydrocyclone to dry-out the

3.2

cones discharge to minimize the

loss of fluid. The hydrocyclone and
vibrating screen device is called a
mud cleaner or mud conditioner. If
a location must be pitless, then
the screens are essential to minimize the liquid waste volume.
The final step may be to remove
the ultrafine silt and clay-sized
solids with the use of a decanting
centrifuge. On a weighted mud,
two centrifuges may be used in
series: the first to salvage barite, the
second to remove fine solids and
reclaim the valuable liquid phase.

3.1 PARTICLE SIZE

AND CUT POINT
Modern drilling rigs may be
equipped with many different types
of mechanical solids removal
devices depending on the application and requirements of a particular
project. Each device has a specific
function in the solids control
process. Equipment commonly utilized and the effective removal range
for each are listed in Figure 3-1.

Figure 3-1 Particle Diameter and Ideal Equipment Placement

CUT POINT
Notice the removal range, or Cut
Point, is given as a range of the
particle size removed. Mechanical
solids control equipment classifies
particles based on size, shape, and
density. It is typical to refer to particles as being either larger than the
cut point of a device (oversize) or

smaller than the cut point (undersize).

Figure 3-2 shows a typical cut
point curve. The cut point curve
represents the amount of solids of a
given size that will be classified as
either oversize or undersize.
Particles to the right of the cut point
curve, in the area labeled A, rep3.3

Figure 3-2 Typical Cut Point Curve

resent the removed, oversize solids.

Particles to the left of the curve, in
the area labeled B, represent the
undersize solids returned with the
whole mud.
Particular interest is given to three
points along the cut point curve,
the D50, the D16, and the D84. Given
these three points, the removal
characteristics of screens, hydrocyclones, or other devices can be
compared.
The D50, or median cut point, is
the point where 50% of a certain
size of solids in the feed stream will
be classified as oversize and 50% as
undersize. The D16 and D84 are the

3.4

points where 16% and 84%, respectively, of the solids in the feed
stream will be classified as oversize.
These two points are statistically
significant because they are one
standard deviation from the D50 in a
normal distribution. An ideal classifier (the dashed line) would show
very little difference between the
D50, D16 and D84.
Separation Efficiency is a measure
of the D50 size relative to the number of undersize particles that are
removed or oversize particles that
are not removed. The higher the
separation efficiency, the lower the

Figure 3-3 Separation Curve

false classification. An example will

assist in understanding this concept.
Figure 3-3 shows the cut point
curves for two screens, each with
the same D50. Curve No.1 is almost
vertical with a small tail at each
end. This results in a very sharp,
distinct cut point. Almost all particles larger than the cut point are
rejected, with very few undersize
solids. Almost all particles smaller
than the cut point are recovered,
with very few oversize particles
included.
Curve No. 2 is an S-shaped curve
with a large tail at each end. Even
though the D50 is the same as for
Curve No.1, the D16 and D84 are very

different. Many solids larger than

the D50 are returned with the undersize solids and many solids smaller
than the D50 are discarded with the
oversize solids.
If curves number 1 and 2 in
Figure 3-3 illustrate typical removal
gradients for two different types of
oilfield shale shakers screens, we
can draw conclusions about separation performance. The area between
the curves marked A represents
solids Screen No.1 removes and
Screen No. 2 returns. Likewise, the
area marked B represents solids
recovered by Screen No.1, but discarded by Screen No. 2.
This is not to say that Screen No.1
3.5

is better than Screen No. 2, or

vice versa; it simply illustrates that
two devices with similar cut point
(as measured by the D50 alone) may
perform very differently. As an
example, consider solids removal
from a weighted drilling fluid using
vibrating screens.
An effective solids control program for weighted mud should
remove as many undesirable, sandsized solids as practical, while
retaining most of the desirable, siltsized barite particles. Referring back
to Figure 3-3, Screen No. 2 would
return all the sand in area A that
Screen No.1 would catch, and
Screen No. 2 would remove the siltsize material in area B (including
all weighting material) that Screen
No.1 would recover.
Therefore, in a weighted mud,
Screen No. 2 would not perform as
well as Screen No.1. Further, if the
area to the right of both curves
(representing total mass solids
removal) were calculated, Screen
No.1 could prove superior in terms
of mass solids removal.
As shown by this example, it is
important to view cut point as a
continuous curve, rather than a single point. This concept is equally
true with screens, hydrocyclones,
centrifuges, or any other separation
equipment the relative slope and
shape of the cut point curve are
more important than a single point
on the curve.
3.6

3.2 SEPARATION BY
SCREENING
One method of removing solids
from drilling mud is to pass the
mud onto the surface of a vibrating
screen. Particles smaller than the
openings in the screen pass
through the holes of the screen
along with the liquid phase of the
mud. Particles too large to pass
through the screen are thereby separated from the mud for disposal.
Basically, a screen acts as a gono
go gauge: Either a particle is small
enough to pass through the screen
opening or it is not.
The purpose of vibrating the
screen in solids control equipment
is to transport the cuttings off the
screen and increase the liquid handling capacity of the screen. This
vibrating action causes rapid separation of whole mud from the
oversized solids, reducing the
amount of mud lost with the solids.
For maximum efficiency, the
solids on the screen surface must
travel in a predetermined pattern
spiral, elliptical, orbital or linear
motion in order to increase particle separation efficiency and
reduce blockage of the screen
openings. The combined effect of
the vibration and the screen surfaces result in the separation and
removal of oversized particles from
drilling mud.

SCREENING SURFACES
Screening surfaces used in solids
control equipment are generally
made of woven wire screen cloth,
in many different sizes and shapes.
The following characteristics of
screen cloth are important in solids
control applications.
Screens may be constructed with
one or more Layers. Non-layered
screens have a single layer, finemesh, screen cloth (reinforced by
coarser backing cloth) mounted on
a screen panel. These screens will
have openings that are regular in
size and shape. Layered screens
have two or more fine mesh screen
cloths, usually of different mesh
(reinforced by coarser backing
cloth), mounted on a screen panel.
These screens will have openings
that vary greatly in size and shape.
To increase screen life, especially
in the 120200 mesh range, manufacturers have incorporated two
design changes:
1) A coarse backing screen to
support fine meshes, and
2) Pre-tensioned screen panels.
The most important advance has
been the development of pretensioned screen panels. Similar panels
have been used on mud cleaners
since their introduction, but earlier
shakers did not possess the engineering design to allow their use
successfully. With the advent of
modern, linear-motion shakers, pre-

tensioned screen panels have

extended screen life and justified
the use of 200-mesh screens at the
flowline. The panels consist of a
fine screen layer and a coarse backing cloth layer bonded to a support
grid (Figure 3-4). The screen cloths
are pulled tight, or tensioned, in
both directions during the fabrication process for proper tension on
every screen. The pre-tensioned
panel is then held in place in the
bed of the shaker.

Figure 3-4 Pretensioned Screen

Today, fine screens may be reinforced with one or more coarse

backing screens. The cloth may
also be bonded to a thin, perforated metal sheet. This extra backing
protects the fine screen from being
damaged and provides additional
support for heavy solids loads. The
screens equipped with a perforated
plate may be available with several
sizes options for the perforation to
allow improved performance for a
given situation.
Most manufacturers limit themselves to one support grid opening
3.7

size to reduce inventory and production costs. The opening size is

typically 1 for maximum mechanical support. Brandt / EPI provides
screen panels with a variety of
openings to allow rig personnel to
choose the desired mechanical support and total open area (translating
to more liquid flow), depending on
the application.
Mesh is defined as the number of
openings per linear inch. Mesh can
be measured by starting at the center of one wire and counting the
number of openings to a point one
inch away. Figure 3-5 shows a sample 8 mesh screen. A screen
counter is useful in determining
screen mesh (see Figure 3-6).

SCREEN CLOTH
There are several types of wire
cloth used in the manufacture of
oilfield screens. The most common
of these are Market Grade and

Figure 3-5 Eight Mesh Screen

Tensile Bolting Cloth. Both of these

are square mesh weaves, differing
in the diameter of wire used in
their construction.
Market grade cloths use larger
diameter wires and are more resistant to abrasion and premature
wear. Tensile bolting cloths use
smaller diameter wire and have a
higher Conductance. Since screen

Figure 3-6 Screen counter and Magnified View of Screen mesh

3.8

Figure 3-7 One-half Inch Opening

selection is a compromise between

screen life, liquid capacity, and particle separation, both types are in
wide use.

OPENING SIZE
Size of Opening is the distance
between wires in the screen cloth
and is usually measured in fractions
of an inch or microns. Figure 3-7
shows a screen with a 1/2 inch
opening.
Screens of the same mesh may
have different sized openings
depending on the diameter of the
wire used to weave the screen
cloth. Smaller diameter wire results

4 Mesh: .080 Wire

46.2% Open Area

in larger screen openings, with larger particles passing through the

screen. The larger the diameter of
the wire, the smaller the particles
that will pass through the screen.
Remember, its the size of the openings in a screen, not the mesh
count, that determines the size of
the particles separated by the
screen. Also, normally the larger the
diameter of the wire used in the
weaving process, the longer the
screen cloth will last.

PERCENT OPEN AREA

Percent Open Area is the amount
of the screen surface which is not
blocked by wire. The greater the
wire diameter of a given mesh
screen, the less open space
between the wires. For example, a
4 mesh screen made of thin wire
has a greater percent of open area
than a 4 mesh screen made of thick
wire (see Figure 3-8).
The higher the percent of open
area of a screen the greater its theoretical throughput. Open area can

4 Mesh: .072 Wire

50.7% Open Area

4 Mesh: .063 Wire

56.0% Open Area

Figure 3-8 Percent of Open Area

3.9

be increased for a given mesh by

using smaller diameter wire, but at
the sacrifice of screen life. The
choice of any particular screen cloth
therefore involves a compromise
between throughput and screen life.
Calculating the percent open area
for layered screens is difficult and
inaccurate. This is due to the random and wide variety of openings
present. Conductance of a screen is
an experimental measure of the
flow capacity of a screen. The higher the conductance of a screen, the
greater its flow capacity.

SHAPE OF OPENING
Shape of Opening is determined
by the screens construction.
Screens with the same number of
horizontal and vertical wires per
inch produce square-shaped openings and are referred to as Square
Mesh screens. Screens with a different number of horizontal and
vertical wires per inch produce
SQUARE MESH

oblong or rectangular shaped

openings and are referred to as
Rectangular (or Oblong) Mesh
screens. This is illustrated in Figure
3-9.
Use of a single number in reference to a screen usually implies
square mesh. For example, 20
mesh usually identifies a screen
with 20 openings per inch in either
direction. Oblong mesh screens are
generally labeled with two numbers. For example, a 60 x 20 screen
has 60 openings per inch in one
direction and 20 openings per inch
in the other direction.
It has become common industrial
practice to add the two dimensions
of an oblong mesh screen and refer
to the sum of the two numbers as
the mesh of the screen.
For example, a 60 x 20 mesh
screen is often called an oblong
80 mesh. This screen has oblong
openings measuring 1040 x 193
microns, much larger than the
OBLONG MESH

Figure 3-9 Shape of Opening

3.10

OBLONG MESH SQUARE MESH

B-20
B-40
B-60
B-80
B-100
B-120

S-16
S-30
S-40
S-50
S-60
S-80

Figure 3-10 Equivalent Screen Sizes

square openings of a square 80

mesh screen (177 x 177 microns).
The oblong 80 will allow much
larger, irregularly-shaped particles
to pass through its openings than
the 80 x 80 square mesh screen.

EQUIVALENT SCREEN MESH

Screen manufacturers now compare different types of screen
through charts, such as the one
shown in Figure 3-10. The oblongmesh screens listed in the left-hand
column remove similar sized solids
as the square-mesh screens listed in
the right-hand column. These
screens are referred to as equivalent. In actual field use, the
conductance and screen life of the
oblong mesh screens is noticeably
higher than the equivalent square
mesh screen, but the shape of the
cut point curve discussed earlier is
not as sharp or distinct.
In a similar fashion, a layered
screen will often be designated by
a single number, e.g. layered 210
mesh. This implies a screen with

openings smaller than a square

200 mesh screen (74 x 74
microns). However, the actual
opening size and shape of a layered screen is a combination of the
multiple screen layers and will produce a wide variety of opening
sizes and shapes. Therefore, the
layered 210 mesh screen will
remove some solids smaller than 74
microns, but will also allow some
particles larger than 74 microns to
pass through the screen openings.

SCREEN PLUGGING
AND BLINDING
Screen Plugging and Blinding,
while present to some degree on
rig shakers fitted with coarser
screens, is most frequently encountered on fine screen shakers. If the
mesh openings plug with near-size
particles or if the openings become
coated over, the throughput capacity of the screen can be drastically
reduced and flooding of the screen
may occur.
Plugging can often be controlled
by adjusting the vibratory motion or
deck angle, but sometimes requires
changing screens to a coarser or
finer mesh. A coarser screen should
be used only as a temporary solution until the particular formation
responsible for near-size particle
generation is passed. Changing to a
finer mesh screen often presents a
better, more permanent solution.
Screen blinding is caused by
3.11

sticky particles in viscous mud coating over the screen openings or by

the evaporation of water from dissolved solids or from grease and
requires a screen wash-down to
cure. This wash-down may simply
be a high pressure water wash, a
solvent (in the case of grease, pipe
dope or asphalt blinding), or a mild
acid soak (in the case of blinding
caused by hard water). Stiff brushes should not be used to clean
fine screens because of the fragile
nature of fine mesh screen cloth.
Screen life of fine mesh screens
varies widely from design to
design, even under the best of conditions, because of differences in
operating characteristics. Screen life
can be maximized by following
these general precautions:
Keep screens clean.
Handle screen carefully when
installing.
Keep screens properly tensioned.
Do not overload screens.
Do not operate shakers dry.

Drilling rate affects screen capacity

because increases in drilled solids
loading reduce the effective screen
area available for mud throughput.
The mesh of the screen in use is also
directly related to shaker capacity
because, in general (but not always),
the finer a screens mesh, the lower
its throughput. Increased viscosity,
usually associated with an increase
in percent solids by volume and/or
increase in mud weight, has a
markedly adverse effect on screen
capacity. As a general rule, for every
10% increase in viscosity, there is a
25% decrease in throughput capacity. Figure 3-11 shows the
relationship of mud weight, viscosity,
and screen mesh on shaker capacity.

SCREEN CAPACITY
Screen Capacity, or the volume of
mud which will pass through a
screen without flooding, varies
widely depending on shaker model
and drilling conditions. Drilling rate,
mud type, weight and viscosity, bit
type, formation type, screen mesh
all affect throughput to some degree.
3.12

Figure 3-11 Shaker Capacity v. Mud Weight,

Viscosity, and Screen Mesh

Mud type also has an effect on

screen capacity. Higher viscosities
generally associated with oil-base
and invert emulsion mud usually
result in lower screen throughput

than would be possible with a waterbase mud of the same mud weight.
Some mud components such as synthetic polymers also have an adverse
effect on screen capacity. As a result,
no fine mesh screen can offer a standard throughput for all operating
conditions.
Due to the many factors involved
in drilling conditions, mud characteristics and features of certain
models, capacities on fine screen
shakers can range from 50 to 800
GPM. Multiple units, most commonly dual or triple units, can be used
for higher throughput requirements.
Cascade shaker arrangements, with
scalping shakers installed upstream
from the fine screen shakers, can
also increase throughput.

THREE-DIMENSIONAL
SCREEN PANELS
To increase screen capacity without increasing the size or number
of shale shakers, three-dimensional
screen panels are available. The
design of these 3-D, Pinnacle
shaker screens:
Provides even distribution of
fluid across the screen surface
Eliminates unwanted fluid loss
near the screen edges
Improves dryness of solids discharge
Allows the use of finer screens
3-D screen panels increase the

usable screen area of a screen

panel by corrugating the screen surface, similar to the surface of a
pleated air filter or oil filter. 3-D
screen panels are most effective
when installed as the submerged,
feed-end screen on linear-motion
shakers to take full advantage of
the additional screen area. Past the
fluid end point, a three-dimensional
screen tends to channel the
drilled solids and increases solids
bed depth and the amount of liquid
carried off the screen surface.
Using a flat screen at the discharge
end of the shaker eliminates channeling, increases cuttings dryness,
and decreases fluid loss.

STANDARDIZATION
Standardization of screen cloth
designations has been recommended by the API committee on
Standardization of Drilling Fluid
Materials, in API RECOMMENDED
PRACTICE 13E (RP13E), THIRD
EDITION, MAY 1, 1993. The purpose for this practice is to provide
standards for screen labeling of
shale shaker screen cloths. The procedures recommended for labeling
allow a direct comparison of separation potential, the ability to pass
fluid through a screen, and the
amount area available for screening.
The API screen labeling includes
of the following:
3.13

1.
2.
3.

Manufacturers designation;
Separation Potential and
Flow Capacity.

The Manufacturers designation

contains the individual companys
procedures for naming their
screens. It may include the type of
screen panel, composition and
other data required by the manufacturer.
The API separation potential is
reported in the terms of three Cut
points. The term Cut point is not
the same as the traditional cut
point. The Cut point allows a
ranking of a screens separation
potential that can be used to compare screen performance. Three
values (D50, D16, and D84) imply the
opening sizes and variation in
opening size of the screen.
Flow capacity is the rate at which
a shaker can process mud and
solids. Under constant conditions, a
shale shaker has a flow capacity
that depends upon screen conductance and area. The area available
for screening is the net unblocked
area, in square feet, available for
fluid passage through the screen
panel. Conductance defines the
ease of passage of a fluid through a
piece of wire cloth. Conductance is
calculated from the mesh count and
wire diameters of the screen.
Transmittance is the product of
conductance times panels area.
3.14

These designations give the end

user a more accurate assessment of
solids removal capability and liquid
throughput capacities of competitive screens.

3.3 SHALE SHAKERS

The first line of defense for a properly maintained drilling fluid has
been, and will continue to be, the
shale shaker. Without proper screening of the drilling fluid during this
initial removal step, reduced efficiency and effectiveness of all
downstream solids control equipment on the rig is virtually assured.
The shale shaker, in various
forms, has played a prominent role
in oilfield solids control schemes
for several decades. Shakers have
evolved from small, relatively simple devices capable of running only
the coarsest screens to the models
of today. Modern, high-performance shakers of today are able to
use 100 mesh and finer screens at
the flowline in most applications.
This evolutionary process has
taken us through three distinct eras
of shale shaker technology and performance as shown in Figure 3-12.
These eras of oilfield screening
development may be defined by
the types of motion produced by
the machines:
Elliptical, unbalanced design
Circular, balanced design.
Linear, straight-line design

Figure 3-12 Shale Shakers

The unbalanced, elliptical motion

machines have a downward slope
as shown in Figure 3-12, A. This
slope is required to properly transport cuttings across the screen and
off the discharge end. However, the
downward slope reduces fluid
retention time and limits the capacity of this design. Optimum
screening with these types of shakers is usually in the 3040 mesh
(400600 micron) range.
The next generation of machine,
introduced into the oilfield in the
late 1960s and early 1970s, produces a balanced, or circular,
motion. The consistent, circular
vibration allows adequate solids

transport with the basket in a flat,

horizontal orientation, as shown in
Figure 3-12, B. This design often
incorporates multiple decks to split
the solids load and to allow finer
mesh screens, such as 80100
square mesh (150180 micron)
screens.
The newest technology produces
linear, or straight-line, motion,
Figure 3-12, C. This motion is
developed by a pair of eccentric
shafts rotating in opposite directions. Linear motion provides
superior cuttings conveyance and is
able to operate at an uphill slope to
provide improved liquid retention.
Better conveyance and longer fluid
retention allow the use of 200
square mesh (74 micron) screens.
Today, shale shakers are typically
separated into two categories: Rig
Shakers and Fine Screen Shakers.

RIG SHAKERS
The rig shaker is the simpler of
two types of shale shakers. A rig
shaker (also called Primary Shale
Shaker or Coarse Screen Shaker)
is the most common type of solids
control equipment found on drilling
rigs. Unless it is replaced by a fine
screen shaker, the rig shaker should
be the first piece of solids control
equipment that the mud flows
through after coming out of the
hole. It is usually inexpensive to
operate and simple to maintain.
3.15

MUD TANK
(POSSUM BELLY)
MOTOR
VIBRATOR ASSEMBLY
BELT
GUARD
SCREEN
BASKET
ASSEMBLY
LIQUID and FINE
SOLIDS
DISCHARGE
CHUTE
COARSE SOLIDS DISCHARGE
Figure 3-13 Rig Shaker components

Standard rig shakers generally

have certain characteristics in common (see Figure 3-13):
Single rectangular screening
surface usually about 4 x 5
in size. Some designs have utilized dual screens, dual decks
and dual units in parallel to
provide more efficient solids
separation
and
greater
throughput. Depending on the
particular unit and screen mesh
used, capacity of rig shakers
can vary from 1001600 GPM
or more.
A low-thrust horizontal vibrator
mechanism, using eccentric
weights mounted above, or
central to, the screen basket.
Vibration supports to isolate
the screen basket from its skid.
3.16

Skid with built-in mud box

(sometimes called a possum
belly) and a bypass mechanism.
Method of tensioning screen
sections.

Screen sizes commonly used with

rig shakers range from 10 to 40
mesh. Figure 3-14 shows the particle sizes separated by these mesh
screens. In this graph the area to
the left of each line represents
solids which are smaller than that
mesh size. These would pass
through the screen and would not
be removed. The area to the right
of each line represents solids that
are larger than the mesh size and
would be removed from the mud.
In Figure 3-14, the area to the

Figure 3-14 Particle Removal by Rig Shaker Screens

right of the 10 mesh line is confined, because it is limited by the

size of the page. In actual usage,
this area is unlimited. This means
that a 10 mesh screen will remove
all particles larger than 1910
microns it doesnt matter if they
are the size of BBs, marbles or
baseballs they will be removed
and discarded by a 10 mesh screen.
Rig shakers are generally adequate for top hole drilling and for
shallow and intermediate depth
holes when backed up by other
solids control equipment. For deeper holes and when using expensive
mud systems, fine screen shakers
are preferred.

FINE SCREEN SHAKERS

The fine screen shaker is the
more complex and versatile of the
two types of shale shakers. Fine

screen shakers remove cuttings and

other larger solids from drilling
mud, but are designed for greatly
improved vibratory efficiency over
simple rig shakers. They are constructed to vibrate in such a way
that they can use screens as fine as
150200 mesh and still give reasonable screen life.
They are versatile pieces of equipment and can operate on all types
of mud. Figure 3-15 shows the
range of particle sizes separated by
the screens commonly used with
fine screen shakers.
A fine screen shaker can be
installed on the rig in one of four
ways:
1. Instead of the conventional rig
shaker for use from top hole to
total depth, if it is of a design
capable of using coarse
screens as well as fine screens.
3.17

Figure 3-15 Fine Screen Shaker Particle Separation

2.

3.
4.

Placed in series with the rig

shaker by tapping into the flow
line with a Y, thus keeping
the rig shaker available as a
scalping shaker.
Replacing the rig shaker after
top hole is completed.
Downstream from the rig shaker to accept fluid after it passes
through the coarse screen
shaker (requires secondary
pump).

Because fine screen shakers have

a wide variety of designs, they have
few characteristics in common. The
various designs are differentiated by
screen orientation and shape,
screen tensioning mechanism,
placement and type of vibrator and
other special features.
Screen Orientation and Shape
refers to the arrangement of the
3.18

screen or screens in the unit.

Screens are usually rectangular and
may be single screens or multiple
screens placed in series or in parallel, as shown in Figure 3-16.
Single deck, single screens (Figure
3-16 A & B) are the simplest design,
with all mud passing over one
screen of uniform mesh. This type
of shaker requires efficient vibrator
mechanisms to function properly
under all possible drilling conditions and requires high throughput
(Conductance) per square foot of
screen cloth.
Units with screens placed in parallel (Figure 3-16 C, D & E) have
two or more screen sections acting
as one large screen so that no cuttings can fall between them. All
screen sections should be the same
mesh, since the coarsest mesh section determines the units screening
ability.

Shakers with screens stacked in

series (Figure 3-16 F) have a coarse
screen above a finer screen, with the
finer screen being the controlling
mesh size. The operating theory is
that the top screen will remove
some of the cuttings from the mud
to take part of the load off the bottom screen and thereby increase
overall screening efficiency.

SCREEN TENSIONING
MECHANISMS

Shakers are designed to use either

a hookstrip or a rigid panel screen.
Hook strip screens are made without a rigid frame and can
prematurely fail if installed and
allowed to operate with uneven
tension. The shaker manufacturers
instructions for screen installation
should be followed, but the following steps may apply:
Inspect the supports and ten-

sion rails to be sure they are in

good condition and clean
Position the panel on the deck
and inspect the screen to be
sure it lays flat
Install both rails loosely to the
hookstrip
Push one side of the screen
against the positioning blocks,
if present; and fully tighten the
screen against these blocks
Evenly tighten the tension bolts
on the other side
Torque to the manufacturers
recommended setting

Rigid panel screen installation

should proceed as per the manufacturers instructions. Panel screens
can usually be installed or replaced
much quicker than a hookstrip
screen since the cloth is already
pretensioned and the mechanical
devices lock the panel with much
less manual effort.

Figure 3-16 Shaker Screen Configurations

3.19

VIBRATOR MECHANISMS
Vibrator Mechanisms vary widely
in design and placement and greatly affect the throughput efficiency
of fine screen shakers. Most modern shakers utilize linear motion
vibration with the vibrator mechanism mounted above the screen
bed. One important advantage of
linear motion is positive conveyance of cuttings across the
screen surface even when the surface is at a positive angle. This
generally allows the use of an
uphill sloped screen deck, greatly
increasing throughput capacity and
cuttings dryness.
Most vibrators are electrically
operated, although a few are
hydraulically operated. In some
units the vibration-inducing eccentric weights are separated from the
drive motor, while in others the
eccentric weights and motor form
an integral assembly. In some units,
the nature of the vibratory motions
can be easily modified to take
advantage of specific solids-conveying characteristics, but most units
have a fixed vibratory motion.

MAINTENANCE
Because of their greater complexity and use of finer mesh screens,
fine screen shakers generally
require more attention than rig
shakers. Nonetheless, their more
effective screening capabilities
3.20

more than justify the higher operating cost. This is especially true
when expensive mud systems are
used.
Besides periodic lubrication, fine
screen shakers require the same
minimum maintenance as rig shakers while making a trip:
Wash down screens.
Check screen tension.
Shut down shaker when not
drilling to extend screen life.
Dump and clean possum belly.
In addition, frequent checks must
be made for screen plugging and
blinding, screen flooding and broken screens. All will occur more
frequently on fine screen shakers
than on coarse mesh rig shakers.

GENERAL GUIDELINES
General rules in operating shale
shakers whether coarse screen
rig shakers or fine screen shakers
which have not already been
mentioned, include the following:
Use the finest mesh screen
capable of handling the full
volume from the flow line
under the particular drilling
conditions. This will reduce
solids loading on downstream
hydrocyclones and screens,
improving their efficiency.
Several screen changes, normally to progressively finer
mesh screens over the course

of the hole, are quite common.

Large cuttings which settle in
the mud box (possum belly) of
the shaker should never be
dumped into the mud system.
(Dump them into the sump or
waste pit.)
Except in extenuating circumstances (such as the presence
of lost circulating material), all
mud should be screened. This
includes make-up mud hauled
in from other locations.
Unless water sprays are
absolutely necessary to control
screen blinding, water should
not be used on the screen surface while drilling. Water
sprays tend to wash smaller
cuttings through the screen
which would otherwise be
removed by their clinging to
larger particles (piggy-back
effect).

For a more complete analysis of

different types of screens and shakers, ask your local Brandt / EPI
representative for copies of the latest Product Bulletins.

3.4 MUD CLEANERS AND

MUD CONDITIONERS
In many cases, combinations of
vibratory screening and settling/
centrifugal force are used together
to provide an effective separation.
The most familiar combination sep-

arator is the Mud Cleaner or Mud

Conditioner (Figure 3-17).
Mud cleaners were developed in
the early 1970s to remove fine
drilled solids from weighted mud
without excessive loss of barite and
fluid. They have also proved valuable tools in closed systems and
other dry location applications.
These devices use a combination of
desilting hydrocyclones and very
fine mesh vibrating screens
(120400 mesh) to remove fine
drilled solids while returning valuable mud additives and liquids back
to the active mud system.
Traditional mud cleaners use multiple 4 or 5 cyclones, mounted
over a vibrating screen, and are
able to effectively process 400600
GPM. The process capacity is limited by screen capacity and its ability
to discard dry solids. With the
introduction of linear motion vibrating screens, the capacity of the
mud cleaner screen has been greatly increased. This, in turn, allows
the use of additional hydrocyclones
and higher, overall process capacities.
The combination of hydrocyclones and linear-motion vibrating
screens is called a Mud Conditioner
to differentiate these machines from
earlier mud cleaners. Mud conditioners often combine both
desander and desilter cones mounted above the screen deck to take
3.21

full advantage of the higher process

capacity, usually 10001500 GPM,
and reduce the overall size and
weight of the unit, when compared
to mud cleaners.
After removal of large cuttings
with a shaker, feed mud is pumped
into the mud cleaner/conditioners
hydrocyclones with a centrifugal
pump. The overflow from the
cyclones is returned to the mud
system. Instead of simply discarding
the underflow, the solids and liquid
exiting the bottom of the cyclones
are directed onto a fine screen.
Drilled solids larger than the screen
openings are discarded; the remaining solids, including most barite in
a weighted system, pass through
the screen and are returned to the
mud system.
The cut point and amount of mass
solids removed by a mud cleaner/
conditioner depends primarily on
the mesh of the fine screen used,
Figure 3-18. Since there are many
designs of mud cleaners/conditioners available, performance and
economics will vary with machine
and drilling variables.

APPLICATIONS

Figure 3-17 Mud Cleaners and Mud Conditioners

3.22

Mud cleaners/conditioners should

be considered in these applications:
1. Whenever the application
requires finer screens than the
existing shaker can handle
2. Unweighted OBM

Figure 3-18
Particle Removal by Mud Cleaner Screens

3.
4.
5.

6.

7.

Expensive polymer systems

When the cost of water is high
Unweighted WBM with high
disposal costs and/or environmental restrictions
When use of lost circulation
material requires bypassing the
shaker
Workover and completion fluid

Mud cleaners/conditioners are

simply a bank of hydrocyclones
mounted over a fine-mesh screen.
In many instances (even with modern fine screen shakers), a finer
separation is required than can be
provided with existing shakers. The

question to answer becomes how

to achieve the necessary level of
screening at the lowest cost. The
alternatives are:
1) Add additional similar shakers
to handle the flow rate, 2) Replace
the existing shakers with more efficient units or 3) Add a mud
cleaner/conditioner downstream
from the existing shakers.
Any of these may be correct, but
a thorough study of the capital cost
(the actual cost of new equipment,
plus transportation, rig modifications, and installation) and the
operating cost (screens and other
expendables, plus fuel) is necessary
3.23

to make the proper choice. Also,

because of the cut points produced
by some modern layered screens,
the use of mud cleaner/conditioners may be indicated downstream
of linear motion shakers.
Salvage of the liquid phase of an
unweighted drilling mud often costjustifies use of a mud cleaner/
conditioner when the fluid phase of
the mud or disposal is expensive.
Compared to desanders and desilters, whose cyclone underflow may
be as much as 15 bbl/hr or more,
mud cleaners/conditioners can
achieve efficient solids removal
while returning most liquid back to
the active mud system. Use of ultrafine screens (200 to 325 mesh)
significantly improves solids control
in any high-value fluid system.
An increasingly important application of mud cleaners/conditioners is
the removal of drilled solids from
unweighted water-base mud in
semi-dry form. This system is commonly used in areas where
environmental restrictions prohibit
the use of earthen reserve pits, and
expensive vacuum truck waste disposal from steel pits is the
alternative. The mud cleaner/conditioner is used to discard drilled
solids in semi-dry form which is
classified as legal landfill in most
areas and is subject to economical
dry-haul disposal techniques (dump
truck or portable waste containers).
3.24

When used for this purpose, the

screen underflow from the mud
cleaner/conditioner is often diverted to a separate steel waste pit for
vacuum truck disposal. This may
seem counterproductive, but since
a vacuum truck can only carry a
limited amount of sand because of
the over-the-road weight restrictions, whenever a vacuum truck
must haul normal full-flow desilter
waste, the waste must be diluted
with rig water to reduce density.
The operator is then billed for the
haulage of a vacuum truck load
comprised largely of rig water. On
the other hand, since most of the
solids are removed in semi-dry
form by the mud cleaner/conditioner screen, the remaining solids in
the screen underflow are dilute
enough to be hauled away without
watering them back. Vacuum truck
loads often can be reduced to a
small fraction of those required
with full-flow desilting.
This approach to dry-solids disposal can be carried further by
using a centrifuge with a mud
cleaner/conditioner to form a
closed system which eliminates
discarding of any fluid. These systems are being used increasingly in
areas where liquid mud waste must
be hauled a significant distance and
is subject to a high disposal fee.
In a closed system, underflow
from the mud cleaner/conditioner

screen is diverted to a holding tank

and then centrifuged, which results
in disposal of very fine, semi-dry
solids and return of liquid to the
active system. Such a system virtually eliminates the need for reserve
pits, minimizes dilution, eliminates
vacuum truck services for disposal
of liquid mud, and meets environmental constraints when drilling
within ecologically sensitive areas.
One special mud cleaner/conditioner application is the use of a
double-deck unit for salvage of
coarse lost circulation material
(LCM). Usually when running LCM,
the shale shaker is bypassed and
drilled solids build up rapidly in the
mud, necessitating a high level of
dilution and new mud. Use of a
two-deck mud cleaner/conditioner
allows salvage of the LCM while
minimizing the increase in solids
content.
Within the mud cleaner/conditioner, a coarse top screen is used
to pre-screen the mud and remove
the lost circulation material. This
material is discharged back into the
active system for recirculation
downhole. The drilled solids, mud
additives and liquid phase pass
through the top screen onto the
lower, finer mesh screen, where the
drilled solids are separated out and
discarded. The cleaned mud then
flows back into the mud system
and is re-blended with the salvaged

lost circulation materials.

Another mud cleaner/conditioner
application is the clean up of
workover and completion fluids. In
order to reduce costs associated
with this expensive task, a mud
cleaner running one or two ultrafine screens (200 over 325 mesh)
can be used to remove most of the
solids before they reach cartridge
type filters.
This application can significantly
reduce filter replacement costs,
reduce downtime in changing filters, and allow larger volumes of
fluid to be cleaned at a faster rate.

INSTALLATION
Installation of the mud
cleaner/conditioner is made downstream of the shale shaker and the
degasser. The same pump used to
feed the rigs desander or desilter is
often reconnected to feed the mud
cleaner/conditioner when weight
material is added. (Most mud cleaner/conditioners are designed to also
function as desilter on unweighted
mud by rerouting the cone underflow or by removing or blanking off
the screen portion of the unit. The
mud cleaner/conditioner may then
be used to replace or augment the
rigs desilter during top hole
drilling.)
Follow these guidelines when
installing mud cleaner/conditioners
to allow peak efficiency:
3.25

3.26

Size the mud cleaner/conditioner cyclones to process

110125% of the full circulating
flow rate.
Take the mud cleaner/conditioner suction from the
compartment receiving fluid
processed by the degasser
(Weighted Muds).
When using mud conditioners
that have both desander and
desilter cones, use a separate
feed pump for the desander
cones and another feed pump
for the desilter cones. The
desander cone suction should
be from the degasser discharge
compartment. The desilter
cone suction should be from
the desander discharge compartment.
Keep all lines as short and
straight as possible.
Install a guard screen with
approximately 1/2 openings at
the suction to prevent large
trash from entering the unit
and plugging the cones.
Position the mud cleaner/conditioner on the pit high
enough so the overflow manifold will gravity-feed fluid into
the next downstream compartment at an angle of
approximately 45.
Avoid vertical overflow discharge lines from hydrocyclones.

GENERAL GUIDELINES
To operate mud cleaner/conditioners at maximum efficiency,
remember these fundamentals:
Operate mud cleaners/conditioners continuously on the full
circulating volume to achieve
maximum drilled solids
removal.
Operate mud cleaners/conditioners within the limits of the
screen capacity. A mud cleaner/conditioner with a cyclone
throughput of 800 GPM is of
little value if the cone underflow exceeds the screen
capacity, resulting in flooding
and high mud additive losses.
Feed the cone underflow to the
screen at a single point.
Multiple feed points on the
screening surface minimize use
of the available screen area
and reduce overall capacity
and efficiency.
Screen throughput is reduced
by increased solids content and
viscosity. The cyclone underflow plays a critical role in
overall mud cleaner/conditioner efficiency. It is often
desirable to modify the performance characteristics of the
cones to decrease the amount
of ultra fines in the cone underflow. This minimizes near-size
screen plugging and barite loss
due to piggy-backing.

Do NOT judge screen efficiency simply on the basis of

cuttings dryness or color. The
total amount of drilled solids in
the discarded material, along
with the ratio of barite to
drilled solids, must be determined to correctly evaluate
economic performance.
A technique for measuring and
calculating these values is
given in Appendix B of this
handbook. (Note: This technique is also important when
using 100mesh, or finer,
screens on shakers since these
screens can also remove appreciable amounts.)
Select the number of cones to
be operated and the particular
mesh screen to be used
according to drilling conditions. As a general rule, use
the finest mesh screen possible
(to process the full circulating
rate) and size the number of
cones accordingly.

In some instances, a number of

cones will have to be blanked off in
order for the desired screen mesh to
be used. This may involve an experimental determination of the number
of cones and screen mesh to optimize performance. In some cases,
more than one mud cleaner/conditioner will be needed. The following
example illustrates the point:

Earlier mud cleaner designs with

1216 cones over a single screen
bed have not proven to be practical: the ultra-fine mesh screens
simply cannot handle the underflow volume from the cones.
One exception to this is the mud
conditioner; a linear-motion shaker
coupled with a manifold of properly designed hydrocyclones yields a
high-performance Mud Cleaner/
Conditioner with sufficient capacity
for even the largest drilling rigs.
Follow these general guidelines
for correct mud cleaner/conditioner
operation:
Run the mud cleaner/conditioner continuously while
drilling and for a short period
of time while making a trip for
catch-up cleaning.
Start up the shaker portion of the
mud cleaner/conditioner before
engaging the feed pump(s).
Shut down the feed pump(s)
before turning off the vibrating
screen portion of the mud
cleaner/conditioner. Permit the
screen to clear itself, then rinse
the screen with water or oil
sprays before shutting down
the screen portion of the unit.
For peak efficiency, operate
the cones with a spray rather
than a rope discharge. This is
just as important with a mud
cleaner/conditioner as with
desilters and desanders.
3.27

Check cones regularly for bottom plugging or flooding, since

a plugged cone allows solids
to return to the mud system. If
a cone bottom is plugged,
unplug it with a welding rod
or similar tool. If a cone is
flooding, the feed is partially
plugged or the bottom of the
cone may be worn out.
When a significant amount of
barite is added to increase mud
weight, shut down the mud
cleaner/conditioner for one or
two full circulations. This permits
the fresh barite to thoroughly
mix with the system and reduce
losses over the screen.
Use low-volume sprays on the
screen surface to reduce
piggy-backing only if 1) this
liquid addition to the mud is
permissible, and 2) the resultant reduction in barite discard
outweighs the resultant reduction in drilled solids discard.
This must be determined
experimentally on a case-bycase basis.

In some cases, adding a small

stream of cleaned mud from the
hydrocyclone overflow (reflux) provides the same reduction in
piggy-backing without reducing
the overall efficiency of the unit.
3.28

MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of mud cleaners/
conditioners generally combines the
requirements of desilters and fine
screen shakers:
Periodic lubrication
Check screen tension
Inspect the screen to ensure it
is free of tears, holes, and
dried mud before start up
Shut down unit when not circulating to extend screen life
Check feed manifold for plugging of cyclone feed inlets
Check cyclones for excessive
wear and replace parts as necessary

3.5 SEPARATION BY
SETTLING AND
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
Using vibrating screens to remove
drilled solids from mud uses only
one characteristic of solids particles
their size. Another factor which
affects separation is particle density.
Solids control devices which take
advantage of both particle size and
particle density speed up the settling process by application of
centrifugal force.
These devices utilize Stokes Law
as the basis for their operation.
Stokes Law defines the relationship
of factors governing the settling
velocity of particles in a liquid. This
relationship may be stated in its
simplest form as:

Larger particles (of the same

density) settle more rapidly
than smaller ones.
High density solids settle
more quickly than low density
ones.
High acceleration and low viscosity speed up the settling rate.

Settling pits, hydrocyclones, and

centrifuges all utilize this principle
in their operation. Settling pits simply use the force of gravity to
separate solids. The larger and/or
heavier a solid is, the faster it will
settle through fluid in a settling pit.
There is no way to speed up this
natural settling process other than
reducing the viscosity of the fluid,
or flocculating the solid particles
with the addition of chemicals.
Settling pits are often large and
require closure or remediation. The
reduction in waste mud achieved
through efficient solids control

greatly reduces the waste water

remediation treatment costs.

3.6 SAND TRAPS

A sand trap (Figure 3-19) is a settling tank, usually the first
compartment of the first pit in the
mud system. A shale shaker would
normally sit on top of the sand trap
and discharge into it.
Sand traps can serve an important
role in solids control by protecting
downstream equipment against the
results of torn shale shaker screens
or by-passed shakers by removing
large particles which could plug
cyclones or other equipment downstream. In normal operation they
also play a minor solids removal
role by settling out a portion of the
coarse drilled solids which pass
through the shaker screen.
Normally, sand traps should have
a top weir over which mud can
flow into the next compartment, a

Figure 3-19 Cutaway View of Sand Trap

3.29

slanted bottom, and a quick-opening, quick-closing dump valve or

gate so that settled solids can be discharged with minimum fluid loss. In
some highly sensitive environments,
the extra liquids lost from dumping
the sand trap cannot be allowed and
the desander suction is arranged to
allow processing of the sand without
creating a lot of liquid waste.

3.7 HYDROCYCLONES
Hydrocyclones (also referred to as
cyclones or cones) are simple
mechanical devices, without moving parts, designed to speed up the

settling process. Feed energy is

transformed into centrifugal force
inside the cyclone to accelerate particle settling in accordance with
Stokes Law. In essence, a cyclone
is a miniature settling pit which
allows very rapid settling of solids
under controlled conditions.
Hydrocyclones are important in
solids control systems because of
their ability to efficiently remove
particles smaller than the finest
mesh screens. They are also uncomplicated devices, which make them
easy to use and maintain.
A hydrocyclone (see Figure 3-20)

LIQUID DISCHARGE

CLEANED DRILLING MUD

(OVERFLOW)

FEED NOZZLE

VORTEX FINDER

DRILLING MUD

SAND AND SILT, DRIVEN

TOWARD WALL AND
DOWNWARD IN
ACCELERATING SPIRAL

DRILLING MUD MOVES

INWARD AND UPWARD
AS SPIRALLING VORTEX

SAND AND SILT

(UNDERFLOW)

Figure 3-20 Hydrocyclone

3.30

consists of a cylindrical/conical
shell with a small opening at the
bottom for underflow discharge, a
larger opening at the top for liquid
discharge through an internal vortex finder, and a feed nozzle on
the side of the body near the cylindrical (top) end of the cone.
Drilling mud enters the cyclone
using energy created by a centrifugal feed pump. The velocity of the
mud causes the particles to rotate
rapidly within the main chamber of
the cyclone. Heavy, coarse solids
and the liquid film around them
tend to spiral outward and downward for discharge through the
solids outlet. Light, fine solids and
the liquid phase of the mud tend to
spiral inward and upward for discharge through the liquid outlet.
Design features of cyclone units
vary widely from supplier to supplier, and no two manufacturers
cyclones have identical operating
efficiency, capacity or maintenance
characteristics.
In the past, cyclones were commonly made of cast iron with
replaceable liners and other wear
parts made of rubber or
polyurethane to resist abrasion.
Newer designs are made entirely of
polyurethane, and are less expensive, last longer, and weigh less.
Most well designed oilfield
cyclones operate most efficiently
when 75 feet of inlet head (5 ft) is

applied to the cone inlet.

Centrifugal pumps must be properly sized for cones to operate
efficiently. Centrifugal pumps are
constant energy (head) devices
and not constant pressure
devices. Feed head is constant
regardless of mud weight; pressure varies with mud weight.
Although centrifugal pump theory
and sizing exercises are beyond the
scope of this text, if you are not
able to properly size your centrifugal pump to create 75 feet of inlet
head to your set of cyclones, it is
highly recommended that you contact the Technical Services Staff at
Brandt / EPI for assistance.
Remember, more errors in hydrocyclone applications are made with
centrifugal pumps, rather than with
the cyclones themselves.
The size of oilfield cyclones commonly varies from 4 to 12. This
measurement refers to the inside
diameter of the largest, cylindrical
section of the cyclone. In general
but not always the larger the
cone, the coarser its cut point and
the greater its throughput. Typical
cyclone throughput capacities are
listed in Figure 3-21.
Manifolding multiple cyclones in
parallel can provide sufficient
capacity to handle the required circulating volume plus some reserve
as necessary. Manifolding may orient the cyclones in a vertical
3.31

CONE
SIZE
(I.D.)

10

12

CAPACITY
(GPM)

5075

7080

100150

150250

400500

400500

FEED
PRESSURE
(PSI)

3040

3040

3040

2535

2030

2030

Figure 3-21 Hydrocyclone Capacities

position or nearly horizontal the

choice is one of convenience, as it
does not affect cyclone performance.
The internal geometry of a
cyclone also has a great deal to do
with its operating efficiency. The
length and angle of the conical section (and the ratio of cone diameter
to cone length), the size and shape
of the feed inlet, the size of the vortex finder, and the size and
adjustment means of the underflow
opening all play important roles in
a cyclones effective separation of
solids particles.
Operating efficiencies of cyclones
may be measured in several different ways, but since the purpose of
CONE
SIZE
(I.D.)
CUT
POINT
(MICRONS)

a cyclone is to discard maximum

abrasive solids with minimum fluid
loss, both solids and liquid aspects
of removal must be considered. (A
simple technique for comparing the
efficiencies of two cyclones is given
in Appendix B of this handbook.)
In a cyclone, larger particles have
a higher probability of reporting to
the bottom underflow (apex) opening, while smaller particles are
more likely to report to the top
(overflow) opening. The most common method of illustrating particle
separation in cyclones is through a
cut point curve.
Figure 3-22 shows the approximate cut point ranges for cyclones
used with unweighted water-base

10

12

1520

2025

2530

3040

3040

4060

Figure 3-22 Hydrocyclone Capacities

3.32

mud and operated at 75 feet 5 feet

of inlet head.

HYDROCYCLONE CUT POINT

Particle separation in cyclones can
vary considerably depending on
such factors as feed head, mud
weight, percent solids, and properties of the liquid phase of the mud.
Generally speaking, increasing any
of these factors will shift the cut
point curve to the right, increasing
the size of solids actually separated
by the cyclone.
By itself, the cut point does not
determine a cyclones overall efficiency because it ignores the liquid
loss rate. The amount of fluid in the
cone underflow is important; if the
solids are too dry, they can cause
roping or dry-plugging of the
underflow.
In contrast, a cyclone operating
with a spray discharge (see Figure
3-23) gives solids a free path to
exit. A cone operating in spray discharge will remove a significantly
greater amount of solids than a
cone in rope discharge.

ROPE DISCHARGE
Hydrocyclones should not be
operated in rope discharge because
it will drastically reduce the cone
separating efficiency. In a rope discharge, the solids become crowded
at the apex, cannot exit freely from
the underflow, and become caught

feed

NO CROWDING
AT THE APEX

SPRAY DISCHARGE

CROWDING
AT THE APEX

ROPE DISCHARGE

Figure 3-23 Spray v. Rope Discharge

by the inner spiral reporting to the

overflow. Solids which otherwise
would be separated are forced into
the overflow stream and returned
to the mud system. This type of discharge can also lead to plugged
cones and much higher cyclone
wear.
While a spraying cyclone appears
to discharge more fluid, the benefits
of more efficient solids removal and
less cone wear outweigh the additional fluid loss. In cases where a
dry discharge is required, the
underflow from hydrocyclones can
be screened or centrifuged to
recover the free liquid.

3.8 DESANDERS
Desanders are hydrocyclones larger
than 5 in diameter (6, 8, 10 or 12
ID). Generally, the smaller the cone,
the smaller size particles the cone
will separate (see Figure 3-24).
Desanders are primarily used to

3.33

Figure 3-24
Particle Removal by Desander Cyclones (200 Mesh Screen Included for Comparison)

remove the high volumes of solids

associated with extremely fast
drilling of a large diameter hole.
Desanders are installed downstream from the shale shaker and
degasser. The desander removes
sand sized particles and larger
drilled solids which have passed
through the shaker screen and discards them along with some liquid
into a waste pit. The partially clean
mud is discharged into the next pit
downstream.

INSTALLATION
When installing a desander, follow
these general recommendations:
Size the desander to process
110125% of the total mud circulation rate.
3.34

Keep all lines as short and

straight as possible with a minimum of pipe fittings. This will
reduce loss of head on the
feed line and minimize backpressure on the overflow
discharge line.
Do not reduce the diameter of
the overflow line from that of
the overflow discharge manifold.
Direct the overflow line downward into the next downstream
compartment at an angle of
approximately 45. The overflow discharge line should not
be installed in a vertical position doing so may cause
excessive vacuum on the discharge header and pull solids

through the cyclone overflow,

reducing the cyclones efficiency.
Keep the end of the discharge
line above the surface of the
mud to avoid creating a vacuum in the line.
Position the underflow trough
to easily direct solids to the
waste pit.
Install a low equalizer line to
permit backflow into the
desander suction. Operating
desanders at peak efficiency is
a simple matter, since most
desanders are relatively
uncomplicated devices.

Here are a few fundamental principles to keep in mind:

Operate the desander unit at
the suppliers recommended
feed head (usually around 75
feet). Too low a feed head
decreases efficiency, while
excessive feed head shortens
the life of cyclone wear parts.
Check cones regularly to
ensure the discharge orifice is
not plugged.
Run the desander continuously
while drilling and shortly after
beginning a trip for catch-up
cleaning.
Operate the desander with a
spray rather than a rope discharge to maintain peak
efficiency.

MAINTENANCE
Maintenance of desanders normally entails no more than checking all
cone parts for excessive wear and
flushing out the feed manifold
between wells. Large trash may collect in feed manifolds which could
cause cone plugging during operation. Preventive maintenance
minimizes downtime, and repairs
are simpler between wells than during drilling.
Use of desanders is normally discontinued when expensive
materials such as barite and polymers are added to a drilling mud,
because a desander will discard a
high proportion of these materials
along with the drilled solids.
Similarly, desanders are not generally cost effective when an oil-base
mud is in use, because the cones
also discard a significant amount of
the liquid phase.

3.9 DESILTERS
A desilter uses smaller hydrocyclones (usually 4 or 5 ID) than
a desander and therefore generally
removes smaller particles. The
smaller cones enable a desilter to
make the finest particle size separation of any full flow solids control
equipment removing solids in
the range of 15 microns and larger
(Figure 3-25). This makes it an
important device for reducing average particle size and removing
3.35

Figure 3-25
Particle Removal by Desilter Cyclones (200 Mesh Screen Included for Comparison)

abrasive grit from unweighted mud.

The cyclones in desilter units
operate on the same principle as
the cyclones used on desanders.
They simply make a finer cut, and
the individual cone throughput
capacities are less than desander
cones. Multiple cones are usually
manifolded in a single desilter unit
to meet throughput requirements.
Desilters should be sized to process
110125% of the full rig flow rate.

INSTALLATION
Installation of desilters is normally
downstream from the shale shaker,
sand trap, degasser and desander,
and should allow ample space for
maintenance. Here are some fundamentals for installing desilters:
3.36

Take the desilter suction from

the compartment receiving
fluid processed by the
desander.
Do NOT use the same pump to
feed both the desander and
desilter. If both pieces of
equipment are to be operated
at the same time, they should
be installed in series and each
should have its own centrifugal
pump.
Keep all lines as short and
straight as possible.
Install a guard screen with
approximately 1/2 openings at
the suction to the desilter to
prevent large trash from entering the unit and plugging the
cones.

Position the desilter on the pit

high enough so the overflow
manifold will gravity-feed fluid
into the next downstream compartment at an angle of
approximately 45. Remember
no vertical overflow discharge lines.
Keep the end of the discharge
line above the surface of the
mud to avoid creating a vacuum in the line.
Install a low equalizer line for
backflow to the desilters suction compartment.
Position the underflow trough
to easily direct solids to the
waste pit.

Running a desander ahead of a

desilter takes a big load off the
desilter and improves its efficiency.
If the drilling rate is slow and the
amount of solids being drilled is
only a few hundred pounds per
hour, then the desander may be
turned off (to save fuel and maintenance costs) and the desilter may
be used to carry the total desanding/desilting load. Appendix C
includes a chart to calculate the
pounds per hour of solids generated for a range of hole size and rate
of penetration.
Operating efficiencies of competitive desilters vary widely according
to differences in design features.
The same technique described in

Appendix B for comparing two

desanders will work to compare the
efficiencies of competing desilters
operating on the same rig.

GUIDELINES
To operate desilters at maximum
efficiency, follow these basic guidelines:
Operate the cones with a spray
discharge. Never operate the
desilter cones with a rope discharge since a rope underflow
cuts cone efficiency in half or
worse, causes cone plugging,
and increases wear on cones.
Use enough cones and adjust
the cone underflow openings
to maintain a spray pattern.
Operate the desilter unit at the
suppliers recommended feed
head. This is generally
between 7080 feet of head.
Too much energy will result in
excessive cone wear.
Check cones regularly for bottom plugging or flooding, since
a plugged cone allows solids
to return to the mud system. If
a cone bottom is plugged,
unplug it with a welding rod
or similar tool. If a cone is
flooding, the feed is partially
plugged or the bottom of the
cone may be worn out.
Run the desilter continuously
while drilling and also for a
short while during a trip. The
3.37

extra cleaning during the trip

can reduce overload conditions
during the period of high
solids loading immediately
after a trip.

MAINTENANCE
A desilters smaller cyclones are
more likely than desander cones to
become plugged with oversized
solids, so it is important to inspect
them often for wear and plugging.
This may generally be done
between wells unless a malfunction
occurs while drilling. The feed
manifold should be flushed
between wells to remove trash.
Keep the shale shaker well maintained never bypass the shaker
or allow large pieces of material to
get into the active system.
A desilter will discard an appreSCROLL

ciable amount of barite, because

barite particles fall within the silt
size range. Desilters are therefore
not recommended for use with
weighted mud. Similarly, since
hydrocyclones discard some
absorbed liquid along with the
drilled solids, desilters are not normally used with oil-base mud,
unless another device (centrifuge or
mud cleaner/conditioner) is used to
deliquor the cone underflow.

3.10 DECANTING
CENTRIFUGE
Centrifuges for oilfield applications were first introduced in the
early 1950s. These early units were
adapted from existing industrial
decanting centrifuges. In the mid1960s, a perforated rotor type
machine was developed which
SCROLL FEED CHAMBER
BOWL
WEIRS
FEED PIPE
DRILLING
MUD

SOLIDS DISCHARGE

HOLLOW
SHAFT

LIQUID DISCHARGE

Figure 3-26 Decanting Centrifuge

3.38

does not perform like a pure

decanter. Commonly called barite
recovery centrifuges, these early
designs were limited in capacity
and application. Today, the centrifuge is even more important part
of solids control. In addition, the
increased use of low-solids mud
and environmental dewatering
applications require higher process
volumes, greater clarification and
solids capacity, and additional fine
solids removal.
Equipment selection is decided by
site specific requirements. Proper
system selection is the first step to
effective solids control.

SEPARATION PROCESS
A Decanting Centrifuge is so
named because it Decants, or
removes, free liquid from separated
solids. A decanting centrifuge consists of a conveyor screw inside a
rotating bowl, see Figure 3-26.
Decanting centrifuges operate on
the principle of exposing the
process fluid to increased Gforces, thus accelerating the
settling rate of solids in the fluid. A
rotating bowl creates high G-forces
and forms a liquid pool inside the
bowl.
The free liquid and finer solids
flow toward the larger end of the
centrifuge and are removed through
the effluent overflow weirs. The
larger solids settle against the bowl

wall, forming a layer. These solids

are pushed by a screw conveyor
across a drainage deck, or beach.
Dewatering actually takes place on
the beach, with the decanted solids
discharged through a series of
underflow ports. A gear box
changes the relative speed of the
conveyor to the bowl, causing them
to rotate at slightly different rates.
This speed differential is required
to convey and discharge solids.
The bowl and conveyor are rotated at speeds between 1500 and
4000 rpm depending on bowl diameter. This rotation develops
centrifugal force sufficient to settle
solids along the inner surface of the
bowl wall. A gearbox is used to
rotate the conveyor and bowl at
slightly different speeds (slower or
faster). This speed differential conveys and discharges solids from the
machine.
Mud, (sometimes diluted with
water), is pumped into the conveyor hub through the feed tube. As
the conveyor rotates, centrifugal
force pushes the feed mud out the
feed ports into the bowl. The
heavy, coarse particles in the mud
are forced against the inner surface
of the bowl, where the scraping
motion of the conveyor blades
moves them toward the solids discharge ports. A drainage deck,
called the beach, is where dewatering of the solids actually takes
3.39

place. The deliquified solids are

then discharged through a series of
underflow ports.
The light, fine solids tend to
remain in suspension in the pools
between the conveyor flights and
are carried out the overflow ports
along with the liquid phase of the
mud. The operating principle is
similar to that of the cyclone, but it
is mechanical rotation rather than
fluid head which induces the centrifugal force required to accelerate
the particle settling rate. Residence
time of fluid in the bowl and a
more gentle separation environment differentiate separation in a
centrifuge from that of a cyclone.
Centrifuges make the finest cut of
any separation device used on the
rig, usually 25 microns.
Bowl sizes in common oilfield
applications include diameters of
14, 15, 18, and 24. Larger 24
diameter units generally have the
highest liquid throughput and solids
tonnage capacity.
In unweighted mud applications,
feed mud capacity can range from
25250 gpm, depending on unit
capability and fluid requirements.
Solids tonnage rates range from
1.25 tons/hour to 8 tons/hour.
In weighted mud applications,
feed mud capacity rarely exceeds
25 GPM. Total liquid throughput
may be as high as 40 GPM, including dilution liquid. Dilution liquid is
3.40

required to compensate for increasing viscosity, generally associated

with increasing mud weight, in
order to maintain satisfactory separation efficiency. The raw mud feed
rate is substantially decreased as
mud weight increases.
In field operation, the decanting
centrifuge is fitted with a housing
over the bowl, liquid and solids
collection hoppers, skid, feed slurry
pump, raw mud and dilution liquid
connections, power source, meters
and controls.

WEIGHTED MUD
APPLICATIONS
The classic application of centrifuges while drilling takes
advantage of their ability to make a
very fine cut on the order of
510 microns when treating
weighted water-base mud. In this
application, centrifuges are used
intermittently to process a small
portion of the volume circulated
from the well bore to reduce the
amount of colloidal-sized and
improve the flow properties of the
mud. Viscosity can be effectively
controlled by discarding a relatively
small amount of colloidal size solids
and replacing the discarded liquid
with fresh make-up water.
To remove these colloidal solids,
the liquid fraction from the
decanter (or the lighter slurry fraction from the perforated cylinder

centrifuge) is discarded. The sandsize and silt-size semi-dry solids

fraction from the decanter (or the
heavier slurry fraction from the perforated cylinder centrifuge) is
returned to the active system.
Installation of a centrifuge is usually downstream from all other solids
control equipment. Ideally, suction
for a centrifuge mud feed would be
taken from the same pit or compartment which receives the discharge
from a mud cleaner/conditioner.
The centrifuge underflow (solids)
should be discharged to a wellstirred spot in the pit for thorough
mixing with whole mud before the
solids have a chance to settle out in
the bottom of the pit. This is especially important with a decanter,
which discharges damp solids, and
of lesser importance with a perforated cylinder centrifuge, which
discharges a pumpable slurry. With
either type of machine, the underflow discharge should not be too
close to the rig pump suction. The
overflow (liquid/colloidal solids)
gravity-feed down a constantly
sloping chute or pipe to waste.
Sufficient working space should be
provided for routine maintenance
and operating adjustments to the
centrifuge.
Operation of centrifuges in this
application is generally intermittent
rather than continuous. This again
relates to the standard purpose of

the centrifuge to control viscosity by removal of colloidal size

particles. Centrifuges should be run
when viscosity reaches the operator-established maximum, and the
machines operation should be
stopped when viscosity reaches the
established minimum.
The maximum and minimum limits should be established as part of
the overall mud program. Viscosity
will normally creep up when centrifuges are shut down due to the
size degradation of mud solids,
hence the need for restarting the
unit. Both over-centrifuging and
under-centrifuging should be avoided, as the economics of operation
are greatly reduced under these circumstances.
When centrifuging a weighted
mud, bentonite and chemicals must
be added back to the mud system.
The amount of replacement bentonite may be calculated exactly
from mass balance equations, but a
good rule of thumb is to add about
one sack of bentonite per hour of
centrifuge operation. Under-centrifuging simply will not achieve
the desired reduction in viscosity.
Other applications of decanting
centrifuges have become more
important in recent years because of
the decanters ability to remove free
liquid from the solids discharge. As
part of a closed loop, the decanting
centrifuge is used to dewater the
3.41

under-flow from hydrocyclones and

remove ultra-fine particles from the
active mud system. Multiple centrifuges are not uncommon, operated
either in parallel or in series.
Chemical enhancement (through the
use of coagulants, flocculants, and
other chemicals) is becoming more
popular as an economical way to
reduce dilution requirements and
overall waste volume for haul-off
and disposal.
The main difference of centrifuge
use in these applications versus
their use for viscosity control in
weighted mud is the continuous
use of the centrifuge and the routing of the two discharge streams.

UNWEIGHTED MUD
APPLICATIONS
In the classic weighted mud application the solids discharge
(containing the majority of the
weighting material) is returned to
the mud system. The liquid effluent
(containing the majority of the colloidal size solids) is discarded.
As part of a closed loop, larger
high capacity (75250 GPM)
decanting centrifuges (and sometimes standard centrifuges) are used
to maximize fine solids removal.
The coarser solids fraction is discarded in dry form, while the liquid
and colloidal solids fraction is
returned to the mud system.
Decanting centrifuges are becom3.42

ing more popular for processing

unweighted oil mud, especially if 1)
the mud has been brought in from
another location and may contain a
large amount of fine drilled solids,
2) slow, hard drilling with a gradual
buildup of ultra-fine solids is anticipated or 3) the liquid mud phase is
valuable.

WEIGHTED OIL-BASE
MUD APPLICATIONS
In weighted, oil-base mud applications, decanting centrifuges are
operated in series. The first unit
returns the coarse solids fraction
(weight material ) to the active system, with the light, liquid fraction
being routed to a holding tank (rather
than being discarded as in a classic
weighted mud application). A second
unit, often a higher capacity machine,
strips out the solids and discards
them, returning the effluent to the
active system.
This process is not as effective as
a single unit for viscosity control
a large portion of the colloidal size
solids are returned to the active
mud system in the effluent stream
of the second unit but the effluent stream from the first unit is too
valuable to discard, especially with
synthetic oil muds. Usually the
coarse solids fraction is discarded
and the base fluid is retained for reuse.

OPERATING PROCEDURES
Operating procedures will vary
from model to model, but a few
universal principles apply to almost
all centrifuges:
Before starting a centrifuge,
rotate the bowl or cylinder by
hand to be sure it turns freely.
Start up the centrifuge before
starting the mud feed pump
and dilution water feed.
Set the raw mud and dilution
feed rates according to the
manufacturers recommendations (usually variable with
mud weight).
Remember to turn the feed and
dilution water off before the
machine is stopped.
Centrifuges are relatively easy to
operate, but they require special
skills for repair and maintenance.
Rig maintenance of centrifuges is
limited to routine lubrication and
speed adjustment of the unit.

3.11 AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT

AGITATION/MIXING
All compartments in an active
mud system other than the sand
trap must be agitated in order to
suspend solids and maintain a consistent mixture throughout the
surface system. Suspension of the
solids prevents their settling and
keeps them in the active mud system so that they can be separated

by mechanical solids control equipment.

MUD GUNS
For many years Mud Guns (see
Figure 3-27) were used as the sole
means of agitation. These devices
usually carry mud from a downstream compartment and spray it at
high velocity into an
upstream compartment to keep solids
suspended.
However, the true
mixing effect of mud
guns tends to be
localized around the
point where the nozzle spray discharges,
leaving dead spots in
other areas of the
tank. Mud guns also
increase the load on
downstream solids
Figure 3-27
Mud Gun
control equipment,
since each nozzle may add 100
200 GPM of mud into the tank
above and beyond the normal flow
from the well.

MECHANICAL AGITATORS
Mechanical Agitators (see Figure
3-28) provide more thorough mixing of pits without the problems
associated with mud guns. Agitators
use an electric motor to drive
impeller blades which flow the
mud in a pattern throughout the
tank.
3.43

cy when pumping gas-cut mud, and

the cones will not function properly
if feed head fluctuates or if there is
gas in the incoming mud. Also,
recirculation of gas-cut mud is dangerous and could result in a
blowout, since the density of gascut mud is lighter than the mud
weight that should be maintained in
the well bore.
There are three basic methods of
degassing which can be utilized
separately or in combination. The
three degassing techniques are:
atmospheric, vacuum and cyclonic.

ATMOSPHERIC DEGASSERS
Figure 3-28 Mechanical Agitator

Given proper tank design, agitator

sizing, and impeller placement, this
method of agitation prevents settling, enhances the efficiency of
solids removal devices, and maintains a well blended mud system.

DEGASSERS
After passing through a shale
shaker and a sand trap, all drilling
mud should be directed through a
degasser, see Figure 3-29. Degassers
are often essential to the solids
removal process to ensure the
proper performance of hydrocyclones used in downstream solids
control devices. The centrifugal
pumps that feed the cyclones have
difficulty maintaining their efficien-

3.44

Atmospheric Degassers sit in the

mud tank and consist of an elevated spray chamber and a submerged
centrifugal pump. The gas-cut mud
is pumped to the spray chamber at
high velocity through a disc valve.
The mud strikes the inside wall of
the spray chamber with enough
force to drive most of the
entrapped gas out of the mud. The
removed gas is usually discharged
to atmosphere at pit level and the
degassed mud returned to the
active system. These devices are
simple to operate and maintain, but
their effectiveness is often limited
by the ability of the centrifugal
pump to handle gas-cut mud. A
second method of degassing is provided by the use of a vacuum.

Figure 3-29 Degassers

VACUUM-TYPE DEGASSERS
Vacuum-type Degassers separate
gas bubbles from drilling mud by
spreading the gas-cut mud into thin
layers and then drawing off the
gases with a vacuum pump. The
mud is usually thinned by flowing it
over a series of baffles or plates.
Vacuum degassers are normally
skid-mounted and installed on top
of the mud tanks.
Some models incorporate more
than one degassing technique within a single unit. For example, one

degasser spreads the mud into thin

sheets through centrifugal force,
sprays the mud onto an impact
shield for residual gas separation,
and draws off the gases with a vacuum pump.

INSTALLATION
Actual placement of the degasser
and related pump will vary with the
design of the degasser, but these
recommendations may be used as a
general rule:
Install a screen in the inlet pipe
to the degasser to keep large
3.45

objects from being drawn into

the degassing chamber. Locate
the screen about one foot
above the pit bottom and in a
well-agitated spot.
There should be a high equalizer line between the suction
and discharge compartment.
The equalizer should be kept
open to allow backflow of
processed mud to the suction
side of the degasser.
Route the liquid discharge pipe
to enter the next compartment
or pit below mud level to prevent aeration.
Install the gas discharge line to
safely vent the separated gas to
atmosphere or to a flare line.

Maintenance of degassers varies

considerably depending on make
and model. In general, the following guidelines apply:
Check to make sure the suction
screen is not plugged.
Routinely lubricate any pumps
and other moving parts and
check for wear.
Keep all discharge lines open
and free from restrictions, such
as caused by solids buildup
around valves.
If the degasser utilizes a vacuum, keep it at the proper
operating level, according to
the manufacturers recommended range for the mud
weight and process rate.
3.46

Check all fittings for air leaks.

If the unit uses a hydraulic system, check it for leaks, proper
oil level, and absence of air in
the system.

DRYING SHAKERS
A drying shaker, or dryer, is a
vibrating screen separator used to
remove free liquid from cuttings
prior to discharge and recover the
liquid for re-use. Drying shakers are
usually installed to process the cuttings discharged from primary
scalping and/or fine screen shakers.
A typical drying shaker is a linearmotion, multi-screen unit, with a
feed hopper in place of the traditional back tank. Drying shakers are
optimized to provide maximum
retention time and cuttings dryness.
Large hole sizes or high penetration
rates may require more than one
drying shaker to provide acceptable
cuttings dryness and liquid recovery.
Shale shakers are often the cause
of excess mud loss during drilling
operations, primarily due to screening too fine for drilling conditions
and the design of some shakers.
This mud loss can greatly increase
mud costs and site clean-up costs,
especially when oil-base muds,
OBM, or synthetic-base muds, SBM,
are used. One characteristic of SBM
is the increased amount of liquid
retained on the cuttings, compared
to WBM or conventional OBM.

The drying shaker is designed to

expose wet drilled cuttings to an
additional vibrating screen surface
and separate some of the bound
liquid coating the surface of the
solids. The liquid is then returned
to the active system or transferred
to a storage tank for future use.

DRYING SHAKER DESIGN

The first drying shakers were
high-G units, operating at 6.5 to 8
Gs. Prevalent thinking was that the
additional impact force provided by
the higher G-force would improve
cuttings dryness. Recent field studies indicate this is not necessarily
true.
Oil content on cuttings is primarily a function of retention time on
the screen surface and the exposure
of the cutting to the vibrational
force of the shaker. The G-force
greatly affects the speed at which
cuttings move from the feed end of
the screen surface to the discharge
end. At 4 Gs, the conveyance rate is
close to 1 inch per second, while at
7 Gs the conveyance rate is about 5
inches per second.
Given a screen length of 24 inches and operation at 4 Gs, a cutting
will take approximately 24 seconds
to travel from the feed end of the
screen to the discharge end.
Increasing the G-force to 7 Gs
reduces the exposure time to 6 seconds and will actually increase the

amount of oil remaining on the cuttings!

Since the amount of oil remaining
on the cutting is a function of exposure time, screen deck length and
deck angle will greatly influence
cuttings dryness. Screen deck
length determines the distance a
cutting must travel prior to discharge and deck angle influences
retention time the longer the
screen deck and the steeper the
deck angle, the greater the retention time. However, longer screen
decks may not fit the available
space and too steep a deck angle
will result in cuttings grinding and
unacceptable build-up of fine
solids.
Field tests indicate the optimum
dryer design provides about 45 Gs
of force, with a deck design that is
flat at the feed end to reduce cuttings grinding and maximize
usable screen area. The discharge
screens should be sloped uphill at
2.5 to 5 to increase retention time
and maximize cuttings dryness.

INSTALLATION

Locate the drying shaker(s) at a

lower level from the main linear shakers and other solids
control equipment. Feed to
the drying shaker should be
through open hopper sized to
eliminate solids build-up or
plugging. Cuttings should be
3.47

3.48

evenly deposited as close to

the feed end of the drying
shaker as possible to maximize
usable screen area and cuttings
dryness.
Provide slides or conveyors to
direct dry cuttings to solids
collection bins or discharge
chutes
Supply a flooded pump suction
in the liquid collection tank for
transfer by pump to the desired
storage or processing tank.
The mesh of the screens on the
drying shaker should be close
to, or finer than, the screens
on the main shakers to prevent
the re-introduction of separated solids to the active system.
Use three-dimensional, Pinnacle screen panels at the
feed end of the dryer to usable
increase screen area. The middle screen panel may be either
a 3-D or flat panel, depending
on deck angle and desired
fluid end point. The discharge
end screen should be a flat
screen panel to minimize cuttings bed depth and maximize
liquid recovery.
Adjust screen deck angle
design to properly convey
solids, reduce liquid loss, and
prevent cuttings grinding.
The liquid recovered from the
drilled cuttings will contain
base fluid, plus any solids finer

than the screen mesh of the

drying shaker. The recovered
liquid should be processed
through a decanting centrifuge
to remove ultra-fine solids
before the mud is returned to
the active system or storage
tank. In some installations, the
decanting centrifuge may be
eliminated, but only after careful consideration of cuttings
size and their effect on fluid
properties.

3.12 UNITIZED SYSTEMS

Since 1976, several solids control
manufacturers have developed
complete packages of skid-mounted
solids control devices, including all
supporting tanks, piping, pumps,
motors and accessories. These unitized systems maximize solids
control efficiency, ease transportation and installation, and often
provide a very high efficiency system for ecologically sensitive
drilling sites.
Components of unitized systems
can vary depending on manufacturer and the particular drilling
application, but most include one
or more of the basic separation
devices installed in series: fine
screen shaker, degasser, desander,
desilter, mud cleaner/conditioner,
and centrifuge. Desilting requirements are usually met by blanking
off the screens on the mud clean-

Figure 3-30 Brandt/EPI ISCS unitized System

er/conditioners and operating them

as desilters as appropriate. Sand
traps and agitators are also standard
equipment in most units (See
Figure 3-30).
In well-designed systems, all
pieces of equipment, including
pumps and motors, are properly
sized to provide the greatest degree
of efficiency in the smallest amount
of space. Piping is engineered for
optimum fluid handling with the
shortest practical suction and discharge lines.
Normally the only installation
required for these units is to feed
the flow line from the well into the
shale shaker, connect a discharge
line from the unitized system into
the rig suction pit, and make the
electrical and water connections.
The suction pit remains a necessary
part of the surface system in order
to provide mud volume capacity
and as a place for mixing-in mud
additives.

3.13 RIG ENHANCED

SYSTEMS
Recent advances in shaker design,
along with the custom requirements
of operators and increasing emphasis on environmental impact, have
created another type of system
the Rig-Enhanced System. Like the
unitized systems, Rig-Enhanced
Systems (RES) are designed so all
pieces of equipment, including
pumps and motors, are properly
sized to provide the greatest degree
of efficiency in the smallest amount
of space. However, RESs utilize as
much of the existing rig equipment
and tanks as possible to simplify
installation, reduce equipment cost,
and allow further customization of
a system for a specific application.
Suppliers of both systems commonly provide 24 hour on-site
service for all components in the
system, which greatly improves
overall efficiency and simplifies
maintenance procedures from the
drillers standpoint. Considering the
3.49

importance of solids control in

deep drilling and the growing concern over environmental impact of
mud waste disposal, these systems
will be used more often in the
future.

3.14 HIGH EFFICIENCY

SOLIDS REMOVAL
SYSTEMS
The goal of high efficiency solids
removal systems, often called
closed loop systems, is to limit
waste discharge to disposable solids
and clear water. These systems
combine the equipment found in
Section 3.12 with chemicallyenhanced solids removal and
specialized solids handling techniques. The water is often recycled
on location for building new mud,
as rig wash water, or used for irrigation. A closed loop system
often includes multiple shale shakers and centrifuges to achieve a
high efficiency of performance in
the large upper hole sections of the
well where wastes and circulating
volumes are the greatest.
Enhanced solids removal is
accomplished with chemical addition to pre-treat the fluid prior to
screening or centrifugation. Pretreatment can include pH
adjustment, flocculation/coagulation, or similar treatment.
Solids handling techniques
include washing cuttings to remove
excess chlorides or residual oil,
3.50

solidification, or cuttings discharge

into water tight containers for transport to approved waste facilities.
In addition to their primary goal,
closed loop systems minimize
drilled solids remaining in the
drilling fluid. This reduces dilution
requirements, waste volume, and
drilling problems. Therefore,
closed loop systems have many
applications other than environmental ones.
The benefit of a closed loop
system comes from increased solids
removal efficiency with unweighted
fluids, including clear brines, and
reduced discharge volume with
weighted fluids. This performance
has proven extremely effective in
environmentally sensitive areas or
whenever cuttings and liquid mud
must be hauled from the location
prior to disposal. This system provides best results when combined
with constant, on-pit attention and
supervision. Solids Removal
Efficiency of 7595% is typical, with
a 5055% Solids Discharge
Concentration.
Proper installation and operation
are equally important. Here are a
few guidelines to keep in mind:
Fines stay with the liquid; that
is, the smallest particles (colloidal sized) usually remain
with the liquid phase of the
mud, while the larger particles
sand, cuttings, etc. are
removed from the liquid.

Size each piece of full-flow

solids control equipment,
except the centrifuges, to handle 110125% of circulating
volume (in order to handle
backflow within compartments,
volume from mud guns, etc.).
Always use the finest mesh
screen possible that will meet
throughput and screen life
requirements.
Often when a solids control
device fails to perform, as it
should, the cause is improper
installation, not equipment
malfunction.
Install equipment in proper
sequence: as the mud moves
downstream, each device
removes progressively smaller
particles. Never try to make a
single device remove all particle sizes it is better to allow
each device to remove its particular size range within an
overall solids control system.
Each piece of solids control
equipment should discharge
into the next compartment
downstream from where its
suction is taken.
All compartments other than
the sand trap should be agitated, preferably by mechanical
agitators.
Keep all piping as short and
straight as possible.
Never install a 90 elbow or

valve within 5 feet of suction

of a centrifugal pump, as this
will drastically reduce the life
of the pump.
For maximum efficiency,
cyclones should emit a spray
discharge rather than a rope
discharge.
Use only as many cones on a
mud cleaner/conditioner as
required to meet flow capacity,
in order to extend screen life
and to avoid flooding the
screen.
Remember size constraints and
possible sloshing and spillage
in rough seas when designing
offshore systems.
Special winterizing measures
a shed around the pits,
drains in pumps, steam lines,
etc. may be required in
areas of extreme cold in order
to ensure proper functioning of
the solids control equipment.
Size it, install it, operate it
RIGHT!

3.15 BASIC ARRANGEMENT

RULES
Mechanical solids control is the
most cost-effective method to control drilled solids. The benefits of
proper solids control are discussed
in detail in Section 2. Proper solids
control requires:
Proper planning before the
well begins
3.51

3.52

Proper selection, installation,

and operation of available
equipment
Routine monitoring of fluid
properties to optimize performance
Sequential Treatment It follows from previous recommendations that the solids control equipment should be
arranged so that each piece of
equipment removes successively finer solids.
Compartment Mixing To provide a uniform solids load to
the equipment each compartment, except the sand trap,
should be well stirred. If mud
guns are used they should be
arranged so that no flow
bypasses the solids control
equipment. Agitators are
preferable.
Arrangement Each piece of
solids control equipment must
be arranged so that the suction
is taken from a compartment
upstream of the discharge
compartment, i.e., there must
be a wall or division with an
equalizer opening between the
suction and discharge, even if
it is boards placed in the tank
temporarily.

Upstream Flow Through

Equalizer If the flow into the
suction compartment is greater
than the rate of flow processed
by the equipment, then mud is
flowing downstream through
the equalizer. In other words,
the flow through compartment
equalizers should always be
from the discharge to the suction. If it is not then mud is
bypassing the equipment.
Dedicated Feed Pumps
Manifolding pumps and equipment so that multiple
configurations are available
depending on valve positions
is always a mistake. There
should be only one button to
push to begin the pump and
the discharge valve opened
slowly to begin operation of
the solids control unit.
Use a separate centrifugal
pump for each hydrocyclone
device (do not use the same
pump for more than one piece
of equipment).

Equipment selection is decided by

site-specific requirements. Proper
system selection is the first step to
effective solids control.

4.0

Equipment and Services for Solids Control and

Waste Management

COMPANY PROFILE
4.1 Scope of Services:
Brandt/EPI specializes in the
design, manufacture, and service of
solid/liquid separation systems,
related equipment, and site remediation services for exploration,
production, and industrial applications. We have the technical
expertise to provide engineering
services, system design and operation, and proprietary technologies
to our clients throughout the world.
For over 20 years, Brandt/EPI personnel have been providing
industry with solid solutions to separation and remediation problems.
Our diversified experience and
proven track record allow us to
offer a wide range of project capabilities including:
Equipment and Systems
Vibrating Screen Separators
Hydrocyclone Separators
Centrifugal Separators
Dewatering Units
Filtration Units
Integrated Systems
Other Products
Technical and Engineering
Services
Equipment
Recommendations

On-site Technical Support

Pilot Studies
Project Proposals
Process Recommendations
Project Installation and
Start-Up
System and Equipment
Design
Site Remediation Services
Bioremediation
Dewatering Systems
Landfarming
Pond Closures
Slurrification and Injection
Sludge Fixation
Soil/Sand washing
Waste minimization
Water Treatment

4.2 Business Relationships:

We believe in long-term partnerships with clients and vendors, and
place strict emphasis on providing
cost-effective products and services
to meet the needs of our clients,
regulatory agencies, our employees,
and the community. Emphasis on
quality and innovative solutions has
established Brandt/EPI as a performance-oriented company with
strong bottom-line focus.

4.3 Certifications:
Quality products and services are
our priority. Through its parent
4.1

company, Brandt/EPI maintains

several corporate certifications
including ISO 9001, API, ASME,
DNV, Gos-Standard and Gosgortechnadzor.

4.4 Personnel Resources:

Brandt/EPI has established a reputation for professional, consistent,
safe performance and innovative
solutions to client needs. Our professionals are experienced in
solid/liquid separations, site remediation, design engineering,
petroleum geology, chemical processing, environmental law, and
finance. This expertise provides the
ability to offer a wide variety of
products and services, a positive
working environment, and the
financial capabilities to develop
long-term relationships with clients,
suppliers, and sub-contractors.
Brandt/EPI and its affiliated companies have over 400 operations
and technical support personnel
strategically located in local service
centers throughout the world.
Many personnel hold industry certifications in HAZWOPER, Process
Safety, Offshore Operations, H2S,
and CPR. Brandt/EPI also maintains
a wide network of technical experts
through participation in industry

4.2

organizations such as the American

Petroleum Institute, Society of
Petroleum Engineers, American
Institute of Chemical Engineers,
American Association of Drilling
Engineers, International Association
of Drilling Contractors, National
Utility Contractors Association, and
others.

PRODUCTS AND SERVICES

Brandt/EPI
specializes
in
field-proven separation systems for
a variety of applications. These
include exploration and production,
petrochemical, stone dewatering,
pulp and paper, clay processing,
and municipal sludge. High-performance
screen
separators,
hydrocyclones, and centrifuges are
available as separate units or as
components of custom-designed
systems. Brandt/EPI also provides
quality replacement screen panels
with a wide range of screen cloth
for all screen units. Brandt/EPI provides a full range of site
remediation services through our
own operations and in partnership
with Remediation Management,
Services, Inc. We have successfully
closed over 1,000 surface pits to
Louisiana Rule 29-B standards or
better in over eighteen years of site
remediation.

system (-5 to +5), and screen

changes are quick with the exclusive screen latches. A singlemotor/sealed gearbox drive system
reduce downtime and maintenance
costs. The ATL-1000 is only 93
from end to end, but has a full 35.8
sq.ft. of screen area. Multiple units
can be used to increase capacity.
Figure 4-1 ATL-1000 Linear Motion Screen Separator

4.5 Linear Motion Screen

Separators
ATL-1000 Screen Separator
The ATL-1000 combines a tandem
screen arrangement and linear
motion with a ramp-slope screen
deck and flat Blue Hex SM screen
panels (38-450 mesh) to maximize
solids separation in a single, compact
unit
that
routinely
out-performs larger shakers. The
flat (no crown) screen deck reduces
liquid loss down the sides of the
screens and maximizes usable
screen area. The ramp-slope design
allows the feed end screens to be
operated downhill with the discharge end screens flat for
maximum conveyance of sticky
solids. With the feed end screens
flat, the discharge end screens tilt
uphill to improve cuttings dryness
and increase capacity without the
excessive pool depths found with
other designs. Deck angle is easily
adjusted with the pinned jacking

ATL-1200 Screen Separator

Designed for smaller drilling rigs
and workover units, the ATL-1200
combines the performance of the
ATL-1000 Separator with a lower
weir height in a single, compact
unit that routinely out-performs
larger shakers. The flat (no crown)
screen deck reduces liquid loss
down the sides of the screens and
maximizes usable screen area. The
ramp-slope design allows the feed
end screens to be operated downhill with the discharge end screens
flat for maximum conveyance of
sticky solids. With the feed end

Figure 4-2 ATL-1200 Linear Motion Screen Separator

4.3

screens flat, the discharge end

screens tilt uphill to improve cuttings dryness and increase capacity
without the excessive pool depths
found with other designs. Deck
angle is easily adjusted with the
pinned jacking system (-5 to +5),
and screen changes are quick with
the exclusive screen latches. A single-motor/sealed gearbox drive
system reduce downtime and maintenance costs. The ATL-1200
measures only 93 from end to end,
but has a full 25.0 sq.ft. of screen
area. Multiple units can be used to
increase capacity.

other designs. The adjustable angle

(+5 to -10), 33.7 sq.ft. screen deck
includes a unique dewatering
screen panel and a small-footprint
design. The dual Vibra-motor drive
system is simple, efficient, and
requires no maintenance. Multiple
units may be used to increase
capacity.

LCM-2D Screen Separator

The LCM-2D Separator (patent
pending) is designed for maximum
screening efficiency from 30 to 250
mesh, higher process volumes, and
minimum maintenance. The rampslope screen deck provides a
horizontal feed screen and an
inclined discharge screen for maximum solids separation without the
excessive pool depths found on

Figure 4-3 LCM-2D Linear Motion Screen Separator

4.4

Figure 4-4 ATL-CS Cascade Screen Separator

Linear Motion
Cascade Screen Separators
ATL-CS Cascade Separator
The ATL-CS is designed to screen
fine, sticky clays at high flowrates
in a single, modular unit. Typically
constructed from corrosion-resistant
stainless-steel, the ATL-CS combines
the fine screening ability of a single-deck ATL-1200 with the circular
motion of the proven Tandem
Screen Separator into a unit with
the lowest weir height of any highperformance cascade separator.

The ATL-CS provides a total of 65

sq.ft. of screen area and uses
rugged hook-strip screens on the
scalping decks and Blue Hex SM
screen panels on the lower deck to
improve efficiency and reduce
screen costs. Multiple units may be
used to increase capacity. If
desired, combination stainless/carbon steel or full carbon steel
construction are available.

Figure 4-5
LCM-2D Cascade Linear Motion Screen Separator

LCM-2D Cascade Separator

The LCM-2D Cascade (patent
pending) combines the fine screening ability and simplicity of the
LCM-2D with a circular motion
scalping shaker to screen fine,
sticky clays at high flowrates in a
single, modular unit. The LCM-2D
Cascade uses the same screens on
the upper scalping deck and the
lower linear unit to reduce screen
inventories and costs. Total screen

area is 56.3 sq.ft. Multiple units may

be used to increase capacity.

Linear Motion Drying Shakers

ATL Drying Shaker
The ATL Drying Shaker is a compact low-G drying shaker. The ATL
Dryer has proved to be superior to
larger, high-G designs due to
longer retention time on the screen
surface and less liquid retained on
the cuttings. The lower G forces
also cause significantly less particle
size degradation of the cuttings.
Cuttings and fluids from the primary
rig shakers are fine screened by an
adjustable linear screen deck resulting in drier solids and cleaner
reclaimed base mud. The recovered
fluid is captured in an agitated tank
and is returned to the active system
by an integral centrifugal pump.
Pump operations are automatic and
controlled by a float valve switch
mechanism. If desired, the recovered
fluid may be centrifuged before it is
returned to the active system.

Figure 4-6 ATL Drying Shaker

4.5

Conditioners may be configured as

a two-stage separator with either
desander or desilter cones only, or
as a three-stage separator with both
desander and desilter cones to provide up to 1500 GPM process
capacity in a single unit. The most
popular models are described here;
other configurations are also available.

ATL-16/2 Mud Conditioner

Figure 4-7 SDW-25 Drying Shaker

SDW-25 Drying Shaker

In cases where additional screen
area or higher G-forces are desired,
the SDW-25 Dryer provides screening to 500 mesh. The SDW-25 is a
four-panel version of the proven
family of ATL linear motion separators, and has 33.3 sq.ft. of screen
area. Deck angle is easily adjusted
with a hydraulic jacking system.
The independent dual-motor drive
system eliminates pulleys, belts, or
gearboxes to simplify operation and
maintenance.

The ATL-16/2 Mud Conditioner is

a three-stage separator rated at 1000
GPM. The ATL-16/2 has two
desander cones and sixteen desilter
cones mounted over an ATL-1200
linear motion screen deck. Two
separate feed pumps are used to
provide proper fluid processing
through the cones. The cone underflow from both the desander and
desilter may be processed through
a fine mesh, 120-325 mesh, screen
to remove fine solids and minimize

Linear Motion Mud

Conditioners
Mud Conditioners combine the
fine screening ability and small
footprint of Brandt/EPIs linear
motion separators with Brandt/EPIs
proven hydrocyclone separators to
remove fine solids from weighted
muds and to minimize waste volumes from unweighted muds. Mud
4.6

Figure 4-8 ATL-16/2 Mud Conditioner

liquid waste volume. If desired, the

cone underflow may be discarded
directly to waste. Total screen area
is 25.0 sq.ft.

ATL-2800 Mud Conditioner

The ATL-2800 Mud Conditioner is
a two-stage separator rated at 1680
GPM. The ATL-2800 has twentyeight desilter cones mounted over
an ATL-1200 linear motion screen
deck. A centrifugal feed pump is

Figure 4-9 ATL-2800 Mud Conditioner

Figure 4-10 LCM-2D Mud Conditioner

LCM-2D Mud Conditioner

The LCM-2D Mud Conditioner
combines the fine screening ability
and simplicity of the LCM-2D linear
motion separator (patent pending)
with Brandt/EPIs proven hydrocyclone separators to remove fine
solids from weighted muds and to
minimize waste volumes from
unweighted muds. The LCM-2D
Mud Conditioner may be configured with desander and/or desilter
hydrocyclones to provide either
two- or three-stage separations up
to 1680 GPM in a single unit. Total
screen area is 33.7 sq.ft.

4.6 Orbital Screen

Separators
used to provide proper fluid processing through the cones. The
cone underflow may be processed
through a fine mesh, 120-325 mesh
,screen to remove fine solids and
minimize liquid waste volume. If
desired, the cone underflow may
be discarded directly to waste. Total
screen area is 25.0 sq.ft.

Tandem Screen Separator

The dual-deck Tandem Screen
Separator is designed to process
high volumes between 20 and 120
mesh. The horizontal screen deck
and circular motion provide excellent conveyance of solids,
especially sticky clays. High capaci-

4.7

Figure 4-11 Tandem Screen Separator

ty and efficient separation are

achieved because the top screen
separates large solids from the mud
and improves the separating performance and screen life of the
bottom screen. The reliability, low
maintenance requirements and
quiet, dependable operation have
made these machines industry standards for over 20 years. Tandem
Separators are available in single,
dual, and triple units. Junior units
are available for workover and similar operations.

low to moderate capacities of materials requiring coarse screen

separations, 30 to 50 mesh or larger. A rugged, single motor design is
combined with unbalanced, elliptical motion to provide years of
trouble-free operation. The standard separator may also be used as
a scalping shaker to reduce equipment costs. Standard Separators are
available in single, dual, and triple
units.
Junior units are available for
workover and similar operations.

Mud Cleaners
Brandt/EPI Mud Cleaners are a
field-proven, two-stage separator
designed to process up to 600 GPM
over a single basket. Their horizontal screen deck and circular motion
provide excellent conveyance of
solids, especially sticky clays. The
reliability, low maintenance require-

Figure 4-12 Standard Screen Separator

Standard Screen Separator

The single-screen Standard
Separator is designed to process

4.8

Figure 4-13 Mud Cleaners

ments and quiet, dependable operation have made these machines

industry standards for over 20
years. Mud Cleaners are available in
single or dual units and with one or
two pre-tensioned (PT) screen
decks. Mud Cleaners are available
with 10, 12, 16, or 20 Desilter
Cones.

4.7 Screen Panels

Blue HexSM Screen Panels
Brandt/EPIs exclusive Blue Hex
screen panels are flat there is no
crown. This design increases usable
screen area and reduces liquid loss
along the sides of screen panels.
Blue HexSM screen panels
eliminate the leading
SM

Figure 4-14 Blue HexSM Screen Panels

causes of screen failures screen

flex, propagation of tears, improper
tensioning, blinding and contamination from process fluids. Blue HexSM
screens are available in single- and
multi-layer configurations. The
wirecloth is factory pre-tensioned
for longer screen life. These screens
use a rigid support frame and grid
to eliminate screen flex and sag.
The result is longer screen life and

more efficient solids separation.

The support grid also prevents
small tears from spreading across
the entire screen surface. When a
tear does occur, it can be easily
repaired with Brandt/EPIs exclusive screen plugs. Finally, the
bonding process results in a screen
panel that is impervious to degradation from high temperatures,
chemicals, or oils.

Pinnacle Three-dimensional
Screen Panels*
Pinnacle screen panels offer up
to 40% more screening area without
increasing the overall size of the
screen panel or adding additional
shakers. This concept, similar to the
design of a pleated air filter has
several advantages:
Provides even distribution of
fluid across the screen surface
Eliminates unwanted fluid loss
near the screen edges
Improves dryness of solids discharge
Allows the use of finer screens,
usually 23 mesh sizes finer
The increased usable screen area
of Pinnacle screens is best utilized when combined with flat
screen panels on linear motion
shaker with an uphill basket slope.
Pinnacle screens may also
improve performance on scalping
shakers and other orbital shakers
4.9

when used in offshore (floater)

applications to reduce the effects of
swell and heave. Pinnacle screen
panels are available for most popular fine screen shakers in several
combinations of screen layers and
mesh size, from 84 mesh to 250
mesh.
* Pinnacle is a trademark of Advanced Wirecloth, Inc.

PT Screen Panels
PT screen panels are used on
Brandt/EPI Mud Cleaners. This
two-panel screen consists of one or
more layers of fine-mesh screen
cloth, pretensioned and bonded to
a metal frame for strength and long
screen life. PT screens are available
from 80 mesh to 325 mesh, in market grade and tensile bolting cloths.

4.8 Hydrocyclone Units

Desanders
Available in 500 GPM, 1000 GPM,
and 1500 GPM models, Brandt/EPI
Desanders offer excellent high temperature tolerance, resistance to
abrasion, and low-cost replacement.
They incorporate superior involute
feed entry, preferred flanged design
for tight, leak-proof performance,
all-polymer construction, and standard Victaulic connections. These
features make them a popular
choice for retrofit of existing units.
Each desander cone is 12 diameter
with a 2-1/8 diameter, fixed solids
discharge apex for maximum solids
removal. 1-3/4 and 1-1/2 apex
sizes are also available. For extremely abrasive conditions, a molded-in
ceramic insert may be specified.

Hook-Strip Screen Panels

Brandt/EPI also supplies a full
line of hook-strip screens available
in single-layer or multi-layer configurations. Hook-strip screen panels
are available from 8-mesh to 500mesh, and may be manufactured
from square-mesh market grade or
tensile bolting cloths, proprietary
oblong or rectangular weaves, and
the latest, high-conductance weaves
for special applications. Urethane
screens, equivalent to 50-140 mesh
cloths are also available.
4.10

Figure 4-15 Desander

Desilters
Available to process 60 gpm to
1440 gpm, Brandt/EPI Desilters
offer excellent high temperature tolerance, resistance to abrasion, and
low-cost replacement. They incorporate involute feed entry,
preferred flanged designs for tight,
leak-proof performance, all-polymer construction, and standard
Victaulic connections. These features make them the preferred
choice for both contractors and
operators. Each desilter cone is 4
diameter with an adjustable solids
discharge apex for maximum solids
removal. All desilter cones have a
molded-in ceramic insert to reduce
wear and extend the life of the
cone.

Figure 4-16 Desilter

Figure 4-18 Decanting Centrifuge

4.9 Centrifuges
Brandt/EPI offers several models of reliable, high-performance
centrifuges to meet your two-phase
liquid/solid separation requirements
fine solids removal from
unweighted muds, viscosity control
(barite recovery) for weighted
muds, and dual centrifuge systems
for synthetic oil base muds and
other critical applications. All
Brandt/EPI decanting centrifuges
can be used in both unweighted
and weighted mud applications. All
units feature high capacity contour
bowls, hard-faced conveyor feed
ports and scroll flight tips, hardfaced solids discharge ports, and
variable pond depth orifices. For
safe operation, all units include
safety shut-down devices, explosion-proof electrics, and heavy-duty
guards over all rotating components.

SC-1 Decanting Centrifuge

Figure 4-17 Desilter Cone

The SC-1 centrifuge has an 18 x

28 bowl and is designed primarily
for barite recovery from fluids
4.11

weighing up to 26 ppg. The SC-1

can also process up to 150 gpm of
unweighted muds, removing up to
6 tons per hour (TPH) of low gravity solids.

SC-4 Decanting Centrifuge

The SC-4 centrifuge has a 24 x
40 bowl and a double-lead conveyor designed for maximum solids
tonnage removal (up to 8 TPH)
and process rates up to 250 gpm
for unweighted muds. The SC-4 is
also an excellent dewatering centrifuge and barite recovery
centrifuge due to its 59:1 gearbox.
If desired, an electric back drive to
vary conveyor/bowl speed ratio is
available as an option.

designed for ultra fine solids

removal from unweighted muds at
process rates up to 160 GPM and 5
TPH. Top recommended bowl
speed is 3250 RPM. Stainless steel
construction and sintered tungsten
carbide wear tiles provide years of
trouble-free operation.
The HS3400 is available in allelectric, hydraulic main drive, or
all-hydraulic (main and back drive)
configurations. The all-electric drive
provides simple, reliable performance. The hydraulic drive systems
offer additional separation versatility and flexibility to optimize
solids/liquid separation over a wide
variety of drilling conditions.

Figure 4-19 HS3400 Centrifuge with Electric Drive

HS3400 High Speed

Decanting Centrifuge
For applications that require
high-speed, high G-force separations, the HS3400 decanting
centrifuge has become the industry
standard for high-speed performance and reliability. The HS3400
has a 14 x 49.5 bowl and is
4.12

Figure 4-20
HS3400 Centrifuge with Hydraulic Drive

SC-35HS Decanting Centrifuge

The SC-35HS decanting centrifuge
is designed for better high-speed
performance, longer life, and less
maintenance than competitive

Figure 4-21 SC-35HS Decanting Centrifuge

designs. Compared to other highspeed designs, the SC-35HS

centrifuges 15 x 48 contour bowl
and the proprietary gearbox provide several advantages higher
G-forces at a given speed, higher
solids capacity (6 TPH), higher
flowrates (up to 180 GPM), finer
separations, and greater settling
area in a smaller, more compact
footprint. Top recommended speed
is 3,500 RPM. Stainless steel construction and tungsten carbide wear
tiles provide years of trouble-free
operation. The SC-35HS is available
in all-electric, hydraulic main drive,
or all-hydraulic (main and back
drive) configurations.

HS-5200 High Speed

Decanting Centrifuge
The HS5200 is a third-generation
high-speed decanting centrifuge
capable of 4000 Gs and 4200 RPM
operation. Based on the proven
HS3400 design, the HS5200 has a
16 x 49.5 contour bowl and high
torque drive system for higher

capacity and sharper separations

up to 250 GPM and 8 TPH. The
HS5200s all-hydraulic drive system
can be easily adjusted for optimum
performance in all fluid processing
conditions. Main bowl speed is infinitely variable up to the maximum
4200 RPM, and the bowl/ conveyor
differential is also adjustable
between 1 RPM and 100 RPM.
Stainless steel construction and
tungsten carbide wear tiles along
the entire scroll length provide
years of trouble-free operation.

Figure 4-23 HS-5200 High Speed Decanting Centrifuge

Roto-Sep Centrifuge
The Roto-Sep Centrifuge is a perforated rotor design to remove
undesirable fine solids from weighted drilling fluids. The rotating
separation chamber increases solids
settling rate to remove these fine
solids and recover barite with up to
92% efficiency. Available in skid- or
trailer-mounted units, the Roto-Sep
provides slurrified solids, thus
allowing the unit to be located a
4.13

Figure 4-24 Roto-Sep Centrifuge

distance away from the solids

return tank and simplifying installation.

4.10 Dewatering Units

Brandt/EPI offers several models
of dewatering units, from simple,
skid-mounted metering pump and
tank modules, to the DWU-250
Dewatering Unit. The DWU-250 is a
self-contained, portable system that
includes all mixing and polymer
aging tanks, metering pumps, piping and connection points, controls,
and quality check points in a modular, weatherized container
enclosure. The DWU-250 is used
with one or more decanting centrifuges as part of the ChemicallyEnhanced Dewatering process. The
DWU-250 may be equipped with

Figure 4-25 Self-contained DWU-250

4.14

Figure 4-26 Inside the DWU-250

climatized laboratory and office

areas, including tropic or Arctic
conditions.

4.11 Filtration Units

The Brandt/EPI Super-Flo filtration system is a DE (diatomaceous
earth) unit designed for clear filtrate
quality, faster cycle times, and higher efficiency. The unique tubular
elements provide maximum flow in
minimum space; and the more
effective pre-coat and cleaning
cycles increase throughput and
reduce downtime. The Super-Flo
filtration unit is available in electric
or diesel/pneumatic power models.

Figure 4-27 Filtration Unit

Figure 4-28 Vacuum Degasser

impeller blades for complete mixing

action. Their low profile minimizes
headroom requirements and provides stability and safety. Brandt/
EPI agitators use a single-reduction,
worm/worm gear drive for higher
efficiency, dependable service, and
smooth vibration-free operation.
The Agitator Sizing Chart for
Drilling Muds, another Brandt/EPI
innovation, simplifies proper agitator sizing and selection, and is
located in Appendix D.

4.12 Vacuum Degassers

The DG-5 (500 gpm) and DG-10
(1000 gpm) vacuum degassers have
been rated by an independent
study as the best-performing
degassers for drilling fluid service.
These degassers are compact, lowprofile, and provide maximum
release and removal of entrained
gas by flowing the gas-cut fluid in
very thin sheets across a series of
stacked plates. While an eductor jet
removes the degassed mud, a
rugged, H 2S-rated vacuum pump
provides positive removal of gas.
There is no remixing of mud and
gas as found in other, low-efficiency methods. Interior parts are
treated to resist corrosion.

4.13 Mud Agitators

Brandt / EPI MA Series mechanical agitators are available from 3 HP
to 25 HP, with flat or canted

Figure 4-29 Mud Agitator

4.14 Portable Rig Blowers

Brandt/EPI developed these quiet,
efficient blowers especially for
improved comfort and safety on
drilling rigs. Designed to meet
applicable OSHA specifications,
4.15

4.15 Integrated Systems

Closed Loop
Processing Systems

Figure 4-30 Portable Rig Blower

these blowers are used to disperse

potentially dangerous gasses and
bothersome insects. Available in
three sizes 15,000 cfm, 25,000
cfm, and 40,000 cfm Brandt/EPI
Blowers move high volumes of air
with minimal noise or vibration. To
ensure safe operation, all blowers
feature non-sparking aluminum
blades, heavy-gauge safety guards
and explosion-proof electrics.
Blowers are available in floormounted, wall-mounted, or hangermounted units.

All Brandt / EPI equipment can

be integrated into systems designed
for specific applications. We have
over 20 years experience designing, manufacturing, and operating
systems for Closed Loop processing of drilling fluids, dewatering
systems, cuttings wash systems,
product classification systems, and
other waste reduction/management
systems. Brandt / EPI equipment is
currently in service throughout the
world, providing excellent results in
land and offshore installations,
remote areas, processing plants,
in-plant installations, and site remediation projects.
Brandt / EPI Closed Loop Mud
Systems (CLMS) are customdesigned for your specific
application, based on operational,
environmental, and economic
needs. A typical CLMS may include

Figure 4-31 Closed Loop Mud System

4.16

one or more primary Screen

Separators, Drying Shakers, Mud
Conditioner, and Decanting
Centrifuge. Dual centrifuge installations for special applications
such as weighted oil base muds
and synthetic oil- or water-base
drilling fluids are also readily
available.

Coiled Tubing (CT)

Processing Systems
CT Processing Systems are
designed for the specific requirements of coiled tubing operations,
both drilling and workover. Their
modular design makes it easy to
select the total mud volume, type
and number of fluid processing
equipment, mixing equipment, and
tank configuration. All compartments are mechanically agitated to
prevent settling of weighting materials and maintain a homogenous
fluid mixture. The integrated
degasser (not shown) is specially
designed to remove large amounts
of entrained gas safely and effectively.

Trenchless Technology
Processing Systems
Brandt/EPI CLMS are also rapidly
becoming the preferred choice for
Trenchless Technology Mud
Systems. We have successfully completed over 75 trenchless projects in
North America, ranging from small
diameter fiber-optic cable installations to large natural gas pipeline
projects. We have also provided
systems and operators for horizontal wells to neutralize underground
contamination plumes and other
environmental remediation projects.

Live Oil Systems

Brandt/EPI offers a proprietary
system to process three-phase
solids/water/oil separations when
drilling underbalanced through producing zones. The Brandt/EPI Live
Oil System is a modular tank system, complete with pressure control
and solids separation equipment.
Water and oil are separated and
recovered in separate tanks for
future re-use or transportation.

4.16 Remediation
Management Services

Figure 4-32 Coiled Tubing (CT) Processing System

Remediation
Management
Services, a Brandt/ EPI company,
provides a full range of site remediation services throughout the world.
In over eighteen years of site remediation, we have successfully closed
over 1,000 surface pits to Louisiana
4.17

4.17 Technical and

Engineering Services

Figure 4-33 Site Remediation Services

Rule 29-B standards or better.

Techniques available include:
Closed loop mud systems
Chemically Enhanced
Dewatering
Landfarming / landspreading
Bioremediation
Cuttings slurrification and
injection systems
Sludge stabilization and
fixation
Soil/sand washing
Surface pit closure
Waste minimization
Water treatment
Construction equipment
Pump rental
Water Discharge Permit No. 5259
Each service typically includes all
necessary excavation equipment,
process equipment, tanks, transfer
pumps and related equipment,
chemicals, power source, labor,
onsite testing and analytical data,
site closure, and necessary state or
federal permits, reports, and other
documentation.

4.18

Brandt/EPI offers a full range of

technical and engineering services
to ensure optimum application and
performance of separation and
other, related equipment. These services range from periodic, on-site
inspections to complete design proposals and continuous on-site
technical support, depending on
project and client requirements.
Technical and engineering services
include:
Project pre-planning
Rig surveys
Project recommendations
On-site system operation and
maintenance
Brandts exclusive RECAP
Report (Removal Efficiency
Cost Analysis Program)
CAD-based engineering
PC-based particle size analysis
Pilot testing
Technical education and
training
Any Brandt/EPI product may be
custom-manufactured to meet your
project requirements. All equipment
can be supplied in full carbon steel,
carbon/stainless steel combination,
or full stainless steel in a variety of
finishes and colors. Explosion-proof
electrical components are standard,
but other styles may be requested.
Call your local Brandt/EPI representative for a quotation.

APPENDICES
Glossary ..................................................................................................................A.2

Mud Solids Calculations

Standard Calculations........................................................................................B.1
Field Calculations to Determine Total Solids Discharge.................................B.4
Field Calculations to Determine High and Low Gravity Solids Discharge ....B.5
Solids Control Performance Evaluation ...........................................................B.6
Method for Comparison of Cyclone Efficiency .............................................B.10

Mud Engineering Data

Conversion Constants and Formulas ...............................................................C.1
Density of Common Materials..........................................................................C.2
Hole Capacities .................................................................................................C.3
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids Fast Rates ................................................C.4
Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids Slow Rates...............................................C.5
Solids Content Chart .........................................................................................C.6

Equipment Selection
Pre-well Project Checklist ................................................................................D.1
Screen Cloth Comparisons ...............................................................................D.2
Brandt/EPI Equipment Specifications ..........................................................D.3
Selecting Size and Number of Agitators ..........................................................D.7
Brandt/EPI Sales & Service Locations ..........................................................D.8

A.1

GLOSSARY
LEGEND
+ API Bul 13C
- API Bul D11
* IADC Mud Equipment Manual

A
ADSORBED LIQUID
The liquid film that adheres to the surfaces of solids particles which cannot
be removed by draining, even centrifugal force.
AERATION*
The mechanical incorporation and dispersion of air into a drilling fluid
system. If not selectively controlled, it
can be very harmful.

ANTIFOAM A substance used to prevent foam by

greatly increasing the surface tension.
Compare: DEFOAMER.
APERTURE +
An opening. In a screen surface, the
clear opening between wires. See related term: MESH.
APEX
See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW
OPENING.

AIR CUTTING
See Preferred Term: AERATION

APEX VALVE
See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW
OPENING.

AIR LOCK
A condition causing a centrifugal pump
to stop pumping due to a ball of air (or
gas) in the impeller center that will not
let liquid enter (usually caused by aeration).

API SAND
Solids particles in a drilling fluid that
are too large to pass through a U.S.
Standard 200 Mesh Screen (74 micron
openings). See related term: SAND
CONTENT.

AMPLITUDE +
The distance from the mean position to
the point of maximum displacement. In
the case of a vibrating screen with circular motion, amplitude would be the
radius of the circle. In the case of
straight-line motion or elliptical motion,
amplitude would be one-half of the
total movement of the major axis of the
ellipse; thus one-half stroke. See related term: STROKE.

APPARENT VISCOSITY The viscosity a fluid appears to have

on a given instrument at a stated rate
of shear. It is a function of the plastic
viscosity and the yield point. See also:
VISCOSITY, PLASTIC VISCOSITY, and
YIELD POINT.

A.2

AXIAL FLOW*
Flow from a mechanical agitator in
which the fluid first moves along the
axis of the impeller shaft (usually down

toward the bottom of a tank) and them

away from the impeller.
B

That portion of a shale shaker containing the deck upon which the screen(s)
is mounted; supported by vibration isolation members connected to the bed.

BACKPRESSURE +
The pressure opposing flow from a
solids separation device. See related
term: DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE.

BEACH
Area between the liquid pool and the
solids discharge ports in a decanting
centrifuge or hydrocyclone.

BALANCE (as a Hydrocyclone)*

To adjust a balanced design hydrocyclone so that it discharges only a slight
drip of water at the underflow opening.

BED *
Shale shaker support member consisting of mounting skid, or frame with or
without bottom, flow diverters to direct
screen underflow to either side of the
skid and mountings for vibration isolation members.

BALANCE DESIGN
(Hydrocyclone)
A hydrocyclone designed so it can be
operated to discharge solids when
there are solids to separate, but will
automatically minimize liquid discharge
when there are no separable solids.
BALANCE POINT *
(of a Hydrocyclone)
That adjustment at which exactly no
liquid will discharge at the underflow
opening, yet any greater opening at all
would result in some liquid discharge.
BARITE, BARYTES
Natural barium sulfate, used for
increasing the density of drilling fluids.
The barite mineral occurs in many colors from white through grays, greens,
and reds to black, according to the
impurities. API standards require a minimum of 4.2 average specific gravity.
BARREL (API)
A unit of measure used in the petroleum industry consisting of 42 U.S.
gallons.
BASKET

BENTONITE
A hydratable colloidal clay, largely
made up of the mineral sodium montmorillonite, used in drilling fluids to
create viscosity. See related term: GEL.
BLADE
See Preferred Term: FLUTE.
BLINDING +
A reduction of open area in a screening surface caused by coating or
plugging. See related terms: COATING,
PLUGGING.
BLOWOUT An uncontrolled escape of drilling
fluid, gas, oil, or water from the well
caused by the formation pressure being
greater than the hydrostatic head of the
fluid in the hole.
BOTTOM (Cyclone)
See Preferred Term: UNDERFLOW
OPENING.
BOTTOM FLOODING
The behavior of a hydrocyclone when

A.3

the underflow discharges whole mud

rather than separated solids.

outward from the center of rotation.

See related term: G-FORCE.

BOUND LIQUID
See Preferred Term: ADSORBED LIQUID.

CENTRIFUGAL SEPARATOR +
A general term applicable to any
device using centrifugal force to shorten and/or to control the settling time
required to separate a heavier mass
from a lighter mass.

BOWL +
The outer rotating chamber of a
decanting centrifuge.
C
CAKE THICKNESS The measurement of the thickness of
the filter cake deposited by a drilling
fluid against a porous medium most
often following the standard API filtration test. Cake thickness is usually
reported in 32nds of an inch. See related term: WALL CAKE.
CAPACITY
The maximum volume rate at which a
solids control device is designed to
operate without detriment to separation. See related terms: FEED
CAPACITY, SOLIDS DISCHARGE
CAPACITY.
CASCADE
Fluid movement on a single deck, multiple screen sloping shale shaker basket
which flow is parallel to screens.
CAVING *
Caving is a severe degree of sloughing.
See related term: SLOUGHING.
CENTIPOISE (cp)
A unit of viscosity equal to 1 gram per
centimeter-second. The viscosity of
water at 20C is 1.005 cp.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE +
That force which tends to impel matter

A.4

CENTRIFUGAL PUMP
A device for moving fluid by means of
a rotating impeller which spins the
fluid and creates centrifugal force.
CENTRIFUGE
A centrifugal separator, specifically: a
device rotated by an external force for
the purpose of separating materials of
various specific gravities and/or particle
sizes or shapes from a slurry to which
the rotation is imparted primarily by
rotating bowl.
CERAMICS
A general term for heat-hardened clay
products which resist abrasion: used to
extend the useful life of wear parts in
pumps and cyclones.
CHOKE *
An opening, aperture, or orifice used to
restrict a rate of flow or discharge.
CIRCULATION The movement of drilling fluid from
the suction pit through pump, drill
pipe, bit, annular space in the hole,
and back again to the suction pit. The
time involved is usually referred to as
circulation time.
CIRCULATION RATE The volume flow rate of the circulation
drilling fluid, usually expressed in gallons or barrels per minute.

CLAY-SIZE, CLAY
(Particles)
Any solids particles less than 2 microns
in diameter. Natural clay particles are
commonly (but not limited to) a
hydrous silicate of alumina, formed by
the decomposition of feldspar and
other aluminum silicates. Clay minerals
are essentially insoluble in water but
disperse into extremely small particles
as a result of hydra-small particles as a
result of hydration, grinding, or velocity
effects.
COARSE (Solids) +
Solids larger than 2000 microns in
diameter.
COATING
A condition wherein undersize particles
cover the openings of a screening surface by virtue of stickiness. See related
term: BLINDING.
COLLOIDAL (Solids)
Particles so small that they do not settle
out when suspended in a drilling fluid.
Commonly used as a synonym for
clay.
CONE
See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE.

decanting centrifuge, a hollow hub

with flutes designed to move the
coarse solids out of the bowl.
CROWN
The curvature of a screen deck or the
difference in elevation between its high
and low points.
CUT POINT
A general term for the effectiveness of
a liquid-solids separation device
expressed as the particle size that is
removed from the feed stream at a
given percentage under specified operating conditions. See related term:
MEDIAN CUT.
CUTTINGS
Small pieces of formation that are the
result of the chipping and crushing
action of the bit. Field practice is to call
all solids removed by the shaker screen
cuttings, in spite of the fact that such
solids may include sloughed materials
and may be smaller than the screen
openings.
CYCLONE
See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE.
D

CONTAMINATION
The presence in a drilling fluid of any
foreign material that may tend to harm
the desired properties of the drilling
fluid.

DECANTING CENTRIFUGE +
A centrifuge which continuously
removes solids that are coarse enough
to be separated from their free liquid.

CONTINUOUS PHASE
The fluid phase of a drilling mud,
either water or oil.

DECK
The screening surface in a shale shaker
basket.

CONVEYOR
A mechanical device for moving material from one place to another. In a

DEFLOCCULATION
Breakup of flocs of gel structures by
use of a thinner or dispersant.

A.5

DEFOAMER Any substance used to reduce or eliminate foam by reducing the surface
tension. Compare: ANTIFOAM.
DEGASSER
A device that removes entrained gas
from a drilling fluid.
DENSITY
Matter measured as mass per unit of
volume expressed in pounds per gallon
(lbs/gal), pounds per square inch per
thousand feet of depth (psi/1000 ft.),
grams per liter (g/l), and specific gravity. Density is commonly referred to as
weight.
DESAND
To remove the API sand from drilling
fluid.
DESANDER
A hydrocyclone capable of removing
the API sand (particles greater than 74
microns) from a drilling fluid.
DESILT
To remove most particles larger than
15-20 microns from a drilling fluid.
DESILTER
A hydrocyclone capable of removing most particles larger than 15-20
microns from a drilling fluid.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE
(Hydrocyclone)
The difference between the inlet and
outlet pressures measured near the inlet
and outlet openings of a hydrocyclone.
DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE (Wall)
STICKING
Sticking which occurs because part of
the drill string (usually the drill collars)

A.6

becomes embedded in the filter cake,

resulting in a non-uniform distribution
of pressure around the circumference
of the pipe. The conditions essential for
sticking require a permeable formation
and a pressure differential across the
filter cake and drill string.
DILUENT
Liquid added to dilute or thin a drilling
fluid.
DILUTION
Increasing the liquid content of a
drilling fluid by addition of water or oil.
DILUTION RATIO *
Ratio of volume of dilution liquid to the
volume of raw mud in the feed to a liquid-solids separator.
DILUTION WATER
Water used for dilution of water-base
drilling mud.
DIRECT-INDICATING VISCOMETER
See VISCOMETER, DIRECT INDICATING.
DISCHARGE SPOUT OR LIP
Extension at the discharge area of a
screen. It may be vibrating or stationary.
DISPERSANT
Any chemical which promotes dispersion of particles in a fluid.
DISPERSE *
To separate in component parts.
Bentonite disperses by hydration into
many smaller pieces.
DISPERSION (of Aggregates)Disintegration of aggregates. Dispersion
increases the specific surface are of
solids resulting in an increase in viscosity and gel strength.

DIVIDED DECK +
A deck having a screening surface longitudinally divided by partition(s).
DOUBLE FLUTE +
The flutes or leads advancing simultaneously at the same angle and 180 apart.
DRILLED SOLIDS
Formation particles drilled up by the
bit. See related term: LOW SPECIFIC
GRAVITY SOLIDS.
DRILLING IN
The operation during the drilling procedures at the point of drilling into the
producing formation.
DRILLING MUD OR FLUID
A circulating fluid used in rotary drilling
to carry cuttings out of the hole and
perform other functions required in the
drilling operation. See related term:
MUD.
DRILLING OUT
The operation during the drilling procedure when cement is drilled out of the
casing before further hole is made or
completion attempted.
DRILLING RATE
The rate at which hole depth progresses, expressed in linear units per unit of
time (including connections) as
feet/minute or feet/hour. See related
term: PENETRATION RATE.
DRY BOTTOM
Referring to a hydrocyclone, an adjustment of the underflow opening that
causes a dry beach, usually resulting in
severe plugging.
DRY PLUG
The plugging of the underflow opening

of a hydrocyclone caused by operating

with a dry bottom.
DYNAMIC
The state of being active or in motion;
opposed to static.
E
EDUCTOR
A device using a high velocity jet to
create a vacuum which draws in liquid
or dry material to be blended with
drilling mud.
EFFECTIVE SCREENING AREA
The portion of a screen surface available for solids separation.
EFFLUENT
See Preferred Term: OVERFLOW.
ELASTOMER
Any rubber or rubber-like material
(such as polyurethane).
ELEVATION HEAD
The pressure created by a given height
of fluid. See related term: HEAD.
EMULSIFIER or EMULSIFYING
AGENT
A substance used to produce an emulsion of two liquids which ordinarily
would not mix.
EMULSION
A substantially permanent mixture of
two or more liquids which do not normally dissolve in each other. They may
be oil-in-water or water-in-oil types.
EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL
DIAMETER (ESD) +
The theoretical dimension usually
referred to when the sizes of irregularly
shaped small particles are discussed.

A.7

These dimensions can be determined

by several methods, such as: settling
velocity, electrical resistance, and light
reflection. See related term: PARTICLE
SIZE.
F
FEED, or FEED SLURRY
A mixture of solids and liquid entering
a liquid-solids separation device,
including dilution liquid if used.
FEED CAPACITY *
The maximum feed rate that a solids
separation device can effectively handle, dependent upon particle size,
particle concentration, viscosity, and
other variables. See related terms:
CAPACITY, SOLIDS DISCHARGE
CAPACITY.
FEED CHAMBER +
The part of a device which receives the
mixture of diluents, mud and solids to
be separated.
FEED HEAD
The pressure (expressed in feet of
head) exerted by the drilling fluid in a
header. See related term: HEAD.
FEED HEADER +
A pipe, tube, or conduit to which two
or more hydrocyclones are connected
and from which they receive their feed
slurry.
FEED OPENING
See Preferred Term: INLET.
FEED PRESSURE +
The actual gauge pressure measured as
near as possible to, and upstream of,
the inlet of a device.

A.8

FILTER CAKE
The suspended solids that are deposited on a porous medium during the
process of filtration, such as the standard API fluid loss test. It may also
refer to the solids deposited on the wall
of the hole. See related term: WALL
CAKE.
FILTER CAKE THICKNESS
A measurement of the solids deposited
on filter paper in 32nds of an inch during the standard 30-min. API filter test.
This term also refers to the cake
deposited on the wall of a hole.
FILTER PRESS
A device for determining fluid loss of a
drilling fluid.
FILTRATION
The process of separating suspended
solids from their liquid by forcing the
latter through a porous medium. Two
types of fluid filtration occur in a well:
dynamic filtration while circulating, and
static filtration when at rest.
FILTRATION RATE
See FLUID LOSS.
FINE (Solids) +
Particles whose diameter is between
44-74 microns.
FINE SCREEN SHAKER
A vibrating screening device designed
for screening drilling fluids through
screen cloth finer than 40 mesh.
FISHING
Operations on the rig for the purpose
of retrieving sections of pipe, collars,
junk, or other obstructive items which
are in the hole and would interfere
with drilling.

FLIGHT +
On a decanting centrifuge, one full turn
of a spiral helix, such as a flute or
blade of a screw-type conveyor.
FLOCCULATING AGENT
A substance, such as most electrolytes
and certain polymers, that causes flocculation.
FLOCCULATION
Loose association of particles in lightly
bonded groups, or non-parallel association of clay platelets. In drilling fluids,
flocculation results in thickening gelation.
FLOODING
The effect created when a screen or
centrifuge is fed beyond its capacity.
Flooding may also occur on a screen as
a result of blinding.
FLUID LOSS Measure of the relative amount of fluid
loss (filtrate) through permeable formations or membranes when the drilling
fluid is subjected to a pressure differential. For standard API filtration-test
procedure, see API RP 13B.
FLUTE
The curved metal blade wrapped
around a shaft as on a screw conveyor
in a centrifuge.
FOAM
A light frothy mass of fine bubbles
formed in or on the surface of a liquid;
usually caused by entrained air or gas.
FORMATION DAMAGE Damage to the productivity of a well
resulting from invasion into the formation by mud particles or mud filtrate.

FREE LIQUID
The layer of liquid that surrounds each
separate particle in the underflow of a
hydrocyclone. The thickness of this
film depends upon the cyclone and the
viscosity of the fluid.
FUNNEL VISCOSITY The time, in seconds, for a quart (or
liter) of drilling mud to flow out the
bottom of a Marsh Funnel. Used in the
field as a rough measure of apparent
viscosity. See related terms: MARSH
FUNNEL, APPARENT VISCOSITY.
G
GAS-CUT (Mud)
Drilling fluid containing entrained gas.
GEAR RATIO +
On a decanting centrifuge, the ratio of
the outer bowl speed to the difference
in speed between the outer bowl and
the screw conveyor, normally
expressed as the number of revolutions
of the outer bowl for a given difference
of one complete revolution between the
outer bowl and the screw conveyor.
GEAR UNIT +
On a centrifuge, a reduction device
connected to the rotating bowl and driving the conveyor at a slightly different
rate.
GEL A term used to designate high colloidal, high-yielding, viscosity-building
commercial clays, such as bentonite
and attapulgite clays.
GEL STRENGTH
The ability or the measure of the ability
of a colloid to form gels. Gel strength

A.9

is a pressure unit usually reported in

lbs/100 sq. ft. It is a measure of the
same interparticle forces of a fluid as
determined by the yield point under
dynamic conditions.
GEL STRENGTH, INITIAL
The measured initial gel strength of a
fluid is the maximum reading (deflection) taken from a direct-reading
viscometer after the fluid has been
allowed to sit for 10 minutes.

HOOK STRIPS +
The hooks on the edges of a screen
section which accept the tension member.
HOPPER
See MUD HOPPER.
HORSEPOWER
A measure of the rate at which work is
done. Motor nameplate horsepower is
the maximum steady load that the
motor can pull without damage.

G-FORCE *
The acceleration of gravity (32.2
ft/sec/sec, 9.8 m/sec/sec). Multiplied
acceleration due to centrifugal force is
usually expressed as 1G, 2G, 3G,
11,000G etc.

HYDRATION
The act of a substance to take up water
by means of absorption and/or adsorption; usually results in swelling,
dispersion and disintegration into colloidal particles.

GUMBO *
Any relatively sticky shale formation
encountered while drilling.

HYDROCYCLONE
A liquid-solids separation device which
utilizes centrifugal force to speed up
settling. Drilling fluid is pumped tangentially into a cone and the rotation of
the fluid provides centrifugal force to
separate particles by mass weight - the
heavier solids being separated from the
light solids and liquid.

GUNNING THE PITS

Agitation of the drilling fluid by means
of mud guns.
H
HEAD
The height (in feet) of a column of
fluid necessary to develop a specific
pressure. Commonly used to refer to
the pressure put out by a centrifugal
pump.
HIGH SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS
Solids whose specific gravity is greater
than 4.2 which are added to a drilling
fluid specifically to increase mud density. Barite is the most common, but
others such as iron oxides are also
used. See related Term: LOW SPECIFIC
GRAVITY SOLIDS.

A.10

HYDROCYCLONE SIZE *
The maximum inside working diameter
of the cone part of a hydrocyclone.
I
INERTIA *
That force which makes a moving particle tend to maintain its same direction.
INHIBITED MUD A drilling fluid having a aqueous phase
with a chemical composition that tends
to retard and even prevent (inhibit)
appreciable hydration (swelling) or dis-

persion of formation clays and shales

through chemical and/or physical
means. See INHIBITOR (mud).

LIQUID *
Fluid that will flow freely, takes the
shape of its container.

INHIBITOR (mud) Substances generally regarded as

drilling mud contaminants, such as salt
and calcium sulfate, are called
inhibitors when purposely added to
mud so that the filtrate from the drilling
fluid will prevent or retard the hydration of formation clays and shales.

LIQUID-CLAY PHASE
See Preferred Term: OVERFLOW

INLET
The opening through which the feed
mud enters a solids control device.
INTERMEDIATE (Solids) +
Particles whose diameter is between
250-2000 microns.
INVERT OIL-EMULSION MUD An invert emulsion is a water-in-oil
emulsion where fresh or salt water is
the dispersed phase and diesel, crude,
or some other oil is the continuous
phase. Water increases the viscosity
and oil reduces the viscosity.
L
LEAD
In a decanting centrifuge, the slurry
conducting channel formed by the
adjacent walls of the flutes or blades of
the screw conveyor.
LIGNOSULFONATES
Organic drilling fluid additives derived
from by-products of sulfite paper manufacturing process from coniferous
woods. Commonly used as dispersants
and anti-flocculants. In large quantities,
may be used for fluid-loss control and
the shale inhibition.

LIQUID DISCHARGE
See Preferred Terms: OVERFLOW
(Hydrocyclones);
UNDERFLOW
(screens).
LIQUID FILM
The liquid surrounding each particle
discharging from the solids discharge of
cyclones and screens. See related term:
FREE LIQUID.
LOST CIRCULATION
The result of whole mud escaping into
a formation, usually in cavernous, fissured, or coarsely permeable beds,
evidenced by the complete or partial
failure of the mud to return to the surface as it is being circulated in the
hole.
LOST CIRCULATION MATERIALS
(LCM)
Materials added to drilling fluid to control mud loss by bridging or plugging
the lost circulation zone.
LOW SILT MUD
An unweighted mud that has all the
sand and high proportion of the silts
removed and has a substantial content
of bentonite or other water-loss-reducing clays.
LOW SOLIDS MUDS
Low solids muds are unweighted
water-base muds containing less than
10% drilled solids (1-4% is a normal
range). They are used whenever it is
desirable to increase penetration rate.
A.11

In general, the lower solids content in

a mud, the faster a bit can drill.
LOW SPECIFIC GRAVITY SOLIDS
Drilled solids of various sizes, commercial colloids, salts, lost circulation
materials, i.e., all solids in drilling fluid,
except barite or other commercial
weighting materials. Typical S.G. is 2.6.
M
MANIFOLD (Cyclone)
A piping arrangement through which
liquids, solids or slurries from one or
more sources can be fed to or discharged from a solids separation
device.
MARSH FUNNEL
An instrument used in the field to
determine funnel viscosity of a drilling
fluid. See related term: FUNNEL VISCOSITY.
MASS
The effective weight of a particle, considering both its specific gravity and
particle size.
MECHANICAL AGITATOR
A device used to mix, blend, or stir fluids by means of a rotating impeller
blade.
MEDIAN CUT *
In separating solids particles from a
specific liquid-solids slurry under specified conditions, the effectiveness of the
separation device expressed as the particle size that reports 50% to the
overflow and 50% to the underflow.
MEDIUM (solids) +
Particles whose diameter is between
74-250 microns.

A.12

MESH
The number openings per linear inch
in a screen. For example, a 200 mesh
screen has 200 openings per linear
inch.
MESH COUNT
The count is the term most often used
to describe a square or rectangular
mesh screen cloth. A mesh count such
as 30 x 30 (or often 30 mesh) indicates
a square mesh, while a designation
such as 70 x 30 mesh indicates a rectangular mesh.
MESH EQUIVALENT
As used in oilfield drilling applications,
the U.S. Sieve number which has the
same size opening as the minimum
opening of the screen in use.
MICRON ()
A unit of length equal to one thousandth of a millimeter; used as a
measure of particle size.
MUD
Mud is the term most commonly given
to drilling fluids; used for circulating
out cuttings and many other functions
while drilling a well.
MUD ADDITIVE Any material added to a drilling fluid to
achieve a particular purpose.
MUD BALANCE A beam-type balance used in determining mud density. It consists primarily of
a base, graduated beam with constantvolume cup, lid, rider, knife edge and
counterweight.
MUD BOX
The feed compartment on a shale shaker into which the mud flow line

discharges, and from which the mud is

either fed to the screens or is bypassed.
Also called Backtank or Possum Belly.
MUD CLEANER
A solids separation device which combines several manifolded hydrocyclones
and a fine mesh vibrating screen to
remove valuable mud additives and liquids to the active mud system.
MUD CONE
See Preferred Term: HYDROCYCLONE.
MUD ENGINEER One versed in drilling fluids whose
duties are to manage, implement, and
maintain the various types of oilwell
mud programs.

solids to the mud is by means of the

mud hopper. Some other devices for
mixing are: eductors, mechanical agitators, electric stirrers, mud guns, and
chemical barrels.
MUD PIT Earthen or steel storage facilities for the
surface mud system. Mud pits which
vary in volume and number are of two
types: circulating and reserve. Mud testing and conditioning is normally done
in the circulating pit system.
MUD PUMPS
See RIG PUMPS.
MUD SCALES
See MUD BALANCE.

MUD FEED +
Drilling fluid, with or without dilution,
for introduction into a liquid-solids separator.

MUD STILL
See RETORT.

MUD GUNS
A system of pumps and piping in
which drilling mud is pumped through
nozzles at a high velocity. Used for
mixing, blending and stirring the mud
pits.

NEAR SIZE
The material very nearly the size of a
screen opening, generally considered
as plus or minus 25% of the opening.

MUD HOPPER *
A device used for mixing mud chemicals and other products into a fluid
stream. It usually consists of a mud jet,
an open top hopper, and downstream
venturi.

OBLONG
(Mesh)
Screen cloth having more wires per
inch in one direction than in another.
For example, 70 x 30 mesh has 70
wires per inch in one direction and 30
wires per inch in the other direction.
(Also called rectangular mesh.)

MUD HOUSE A structure at the rig to store and shelter sacked materials used in drilling
fluids.
MUD MIXING DEVICES
The most common device for adding

OIL-BASE MUD
A drilling fluid containing oil as its liquid phase, usually including 1-5%
water emulsified into the system.

A.13

OPEN AREA
See PERCENT OPEN AREA.
OVERFLOW
The discharge stream from a centrifugal
separation device that contains a higher
percentage of liquids than does the
feed.
OVERFLOW HEADER *
In hydrocyclone operation, a pipe into
which two or more hydrocyclones discharge their overflow.
OVERLOAD +
To feed separable solids to a separating
device at a rate greater than its solids
discharge capacity.
OVERSIZE (Solids)
Particles, in a given situation, that can
be separated from the liquid phase by
centrifugal force or which will not pass
through the openings of the screen in
use.
P
PARTICLE
In drilling mud work, a small piece of
solid material.
PARTICLE SIZE
Particle diameter, usually expressed in
microns. See related term: EQUIVALENT SPHERICAL DIAMETER.

trates the formation, expressed in linear

units, i.e., feet/minute or feet/hour. See
related term: DRILLING RATE.
PERCENT OPEN AREA
Ratio of the area of the screen openings to the total area of the screen
surface.
PERFORATED CYLINDER
CENTRIFUGE +
A mechanical centrifugal separator in
which the rotating element is a perforated cylinder (the rotor) inside of and
concentric with an outer stationary
cylindrical case.
PERFORATED ROTOR +
The rotating inner cylinder of the perforated cylinder centrifuge.
PERMEABILITY
Normal permeability is a measure of
the ability of a formation to allow passage of a fluid.
PLASTICITY
The property possessed by some
solids, particularly clays and clay slurries, of changing shape or flowing
under applied stress without developing shear planes or fractures; that is, it
deforms without breaking.

PARTICLE SURFACE AREA

See SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA.

PLASTIC VISCOSITY
Plastic viscosity is a measure of the
internal resistance to fluid flow attributable to the amount, type, and size of
solids present in a given fluid. When
using a direct-indicating viscometer,
plastic viscosity is found by subtracting
the 300-rpm reading from the 600-rpm
reading.

PENETRATION RATE
The rate at which the drill bit pene-

PLUGGING (Screen Surface)

The wedging or jamming of openings

PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION +

The fraction or percentage of particles
of various sizes or size ranges. See
related term: SIEVE ANALYSIS.

A.14

in a screening surface by particles, preventing passage of undersize material.

See related term: BLINDING.
POLYMER
A synthetic mud additive used to maintain viscosity, control fluid loss and
maintain other desirable mud properties.
POLYURETHANE
A high performance elastomer polymer
used in construction of hydrocyclones
for its unique combination of physical
properties, especially abrasion, toughness and resiliency.
POOL
The reservoir or pond of fluid, or slurry, formed inside the wall of
hydrocyclones and centrifuges and in
which classification or separation of
solids occurs due to the settling effect
of centrifugal force.
PORTS +
The openings in a centrifuge for entry
or exit of materials. Usually applied in
connection with a descriptive term, i.e.,
feed ports, overflow ports, etc.
PRESSURE HEAD *
Pressure within a system equal to the
pressure exerted by an equivalent
height of fluid (expressed in feet). See
related term: HEAD.
R
RADIAL FLOW *
Flow from a mechanical agitator in
which fluid moves away from the axis
of the impeller shaft (usually horizontally toward a mud tank wall).
RATE OF PENETRATION
See PENETRATION RATE.

RAW MUD
Mud, before dilution, that is to be
processed by solids removal equipment.
RECTANGULAR OPENING (Screen
Cloth)
See OBLONG MESH.
RETENTION TIME (Screen) +
The time any given particle of material
is actually on a screening surface.
RETENTION TIME + (Centrifugal
Separators)
The time the liquid phase is actually in
the separating device.
RETORT
An instrument used to distill oil, water,
and other volatile material in a mud to
determine oil, water, and total solids
content in volume-percent. Also called
mud still.
RHEOLOGY
The science that deals with deformation and flow of matter.
RIG PUMPS (or Mud Pumps)
The reciprocating, positive displacement, high pressure pumps used to
circulate drilling fluid through the hole.
RIG SHAKER
A general term for a shale shaker using
coarse mesh screen.
ROPE DISCHARGE
The characteristic underflow of a
hydrocyclone operating inefficiently
and so overloaded with separable
solids that not all the separated solids
can crowd out the underflow opening,
causing those that can exit to form a
slow-moving, heavy, rope-like stream.
A.15

(Also referred to as rope or rope

underflow.)

solids which may get past the shale

shaker.

ROTARY DRILLING
The method of drilling wells that
depends on the rotation of a drill bit
which is attached to a column of drill
pipe. A fluid is circulated through the
drill pipe to flush out cuttings and perform other functions.

SCREEN CLOTH
A type of screening surface, woven in
square or rectangular openings. See
related term: WIRE CLOTH.

RPM *
Revolutions per minute.
S
SALT-WATER MUDS A drilling fluid containing dissolved salt
(brackish to saturated). These fluids
may also include native solids, oil,
and/or such commercial additives as
clays, starch, etc.
SAMPLES Cuttings obtained for geological information from the drilling fluid as it
emerges from the hole. They are
washed, dried, and labeled as to the
depth.
SAND CONTENT
The sand content of a drilling fluid is
the insoluble solids content retained on
a 200-mesh screen. It is usually
expressed as the percentage bulk volume of sand in a drilling fluid. This test
is an elementary type in that the
retained solids are not necessarily silica
and may not be altogether abrasive.
SAND TRAP
The first compartment and the only
unstirred compartment in a welldesigned mud system; intended as a
settling compartment to catch large

A.16

SCREENING
A mechanical process which accomplishes a separation of particles on the
basis of size, through their acceptance
or rejection by a screening surface.
SCREENING SURFACE
The medium containing the openings
for passage of undersize material.
SCROLL
See Preferred Term: FLUTE.
SETTLING VELOCITY
The velocity a particle achieves in a
given fluid when gravity forces equal
the friction forces of the moving particle.
SHALE
Stone of widely varying hardness,
color, and compaction that is formed of
clay-sized grains.
SHALE SHAKER
A general term for devices which use a
vibrating screen to remove cuttings and
other large solids from drilling mud.
SHEAR (Shearing Stress)
An action, resulting from applied
forces, which causes or tends to cause
two contiguous parts of a body to slide
relatively to each other in a direction
parallel to their plane of contact - as in
particles within a mud.
SIEVE
See Preferred Term: TESTING SIEVE.

SIEVE ANALYSIS
A measurement of particle size and
percentage of the amount of material in
various particle size groupings. See
related term: PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION.
SILT
Materials whose particle size generally
falls between 2 microns and 74
microns. A certain portion of dispersed
clays and barite falls into this particle
size range as well as drilled solids.
SIZE DISTRIBUTION
See Preferred Term: PARTICLE SIZE
DISTRIBUTION.
SLOUGHING
A situation in which portions of a formation fall away from the walls of a hole,
as a result of incompetent unconsolidated formations, high angle of repose,
wetting along internal bedding planes,
or swelling of formations caused by fluid
loss. See related term: CAVING.
SLURRY
A mixture or suspension of solid particles in one or more liquids.
SOLIDS +
All particles of matter in the drilling
fluid, i.e., drilled formation cuttings,
barite, etc.
SOLIDS CONTENT
The total amount of solids in a drilling
fluid as determined by distillation,
including both the dissolved and the
suspended (or undissolved) solids. The
suspended-solids content may be a
combination of high and low specific
gravity solids and native or commercial
solids. Examples of dissolved solids are

the soluble salts of sodium, calcium,

and magnesium. The total suspended
and dissolved solids content is commonly expressed in percent by volume.
SOLIDS DISCHARGE +
That stream from a liquid-solids separator containing a higher percentage of
solids than does the feed.
SOLIDS DISCHARGE CAPACITY
The maximum rate at which a liquidsolids separation device can discharge
solids without overloading.
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
The weight of a particular volume of
any substance compared to the weight
of an equal volume of water at a reference temperature.
SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA
The effective surface area per unit of
weight of some sample or grouping of
particles of matter, usually expressed in
units of area per units of weight such
as square feet per pound, or acres per
pound, square meters per gram, etc. It
can be a valuable indicator of the
amount of liquid certain particles can
attract and retain on their surface.
SPEED +
The frequency at which a vibrating
screen operates, usually expressed in
RPM or CPM; the bowl rpm of a
decanting centrifuge; the rotor rpm of a
perforated cylinder centrifuge.
SPRAY DISCHARGE
The underflow of hydrocyclones when
not overloaded with separable solids.
SPUDDING IN The starting of the drilling operations
of a new hole.
A.17

SPUD MUD The fluid used when drilling starts at

the surface, often a thick bentonite
lime slurry.

TEST SIEVE
A cylindrical or tray-like container with
a screening surface bottom of standard
aperture.

SPURT LOSS *
The flux of fluids and solids which
occurs in the initial stages of any filtration before pore openings are bridged
and a filter cake is formed.

THINNER Any various organic agents (tannins,

lignins, lignosulfonates, etc.) and inorganic agents (pyrophosphates,
tetraphosphates, etc.) that are added to
a drilling fluid to reduce the viscosity
and/or thixotropic properties.

STROKE
The distance between the extremities
of motion; viz., the diameter of a circular motion. See related term:
AMPLITUDE.
STUCK A condition whereby the drill pipe, casing, or other devices inadvertently
become lodged in the hole.
SUMP
A pit or tank into which a fluid drains
before recirculation or in which wastes
gather before disposal.
SURGE LOSS
See Preferred Term: SPURT LOSS.
SWABBING
When pipe is withdrawn from the hole
in viscous mud or if the bit is balled, a
low pressure is created below the bit.

THIXOTROPY The ability of a fluid to develop gel

strength with time. That property of a
fluid which causes it to build up a rigid
or semirigid gel structure if allowed to
stand at rest, yet can be returned to a
fluid state by mechanical agitation.
THRUST
The force that pushes on the mud as
on a shale shaker screen.
TOTAL DEPTH (or TD) The greatest depth reached by the drill
bit.
TOTAL HEAD *
The sum of all heads within a system
(Total Head = velocity head + pressure
head + elevation head.)
U

T
TENSIONING +
The stretching of the screening surface
within the vibrating frame.
TENSION RING
A rigid hoop surrounding a stretched
screen cloth used for maintaining
screen tension and mounting the
screen to a shaker frame.
A.18

ULTRA-FINE (Solids) +
Particles whose diameter is between 244 microns.
UNDERFLOW
(Hydrocyclone)
The discharge stream from centrifugal
separators that contains a higher percentage of solids than does the feed.
See general term: SOLIDS DISCHARGE.

UNDERFLOW (Screen)
The discharge stream from a screening
device which contains a greater percentage of liquids than does the feed.
UNDERFLOW HEADER +
A pipe, tube, or conduit into which
two or more hydrocyclones discharge
their underflow.
UNDERSIZE (Solids)
Particles that will, in a given situation,
remain with the liquid phase when
subjected to centrifugal force, or will
pass through the openings of the
screen in use.
UNWEIGHTED (Mud)
A drilling fluid which has not had significant amounts of high gravity solids
added and whose density and whose
density is generally less than 11 pounds
per gallon.
V
VELOCITY HEAD *
Head (relating to pressure when multiplied by the density of the fluid)
created by the movement of a fluid,
equal to an equivalent height of static
fluid.
VENTURI *
Streamlining up to a given pipe size
following a restriction (as in a jet in a
mud hopper) to minimize turbulence
and pressure drop.
V.G. METER
See VISCOMETER, DIRECT-INDICATING.
VIBRATING SCREEN
A screen with motion induced as an
aid to solids separation.

VISCOMETER, DIRECT-INDICATING Commonly called a V-G meter. The

instrument is a rotational-type device
powered by means of an electric motor
or handcrank, and is used to determine
the apparent viscosity, plastic viscosity,
yield point, and gel strengths of drilling
fluids. The usual speeds are 600 and
300 rpm. See API RP 13B for operational procedures.
VISCOSITY The internal resistance offered by a fluid
to flow. This phenomenon is attributable
to the attractions between molecules of a
liquid, and is a measure of the combined
effects of adhesion and cohesion to the
effects of suspended particles, and to the
liquid environment. The greater this
resistance, the greater the viscosity. See
related terms: APPARENT VISCOSITY,
PLASTIC VISCOSITY.
VORTEX +
A cylindrical or conical shaped core of
air or vapor lying along the central axis
of the rotating slurry inside a hydrocyclone.
VORTEX FINDER
A hollow cylinder extending axially
into the barrel of a hydrocyclone. The
overflow exits from the separating
chamber through the vortex finder, and
the vortex is centered in the hydrocyclone by the hole in the vortex finder,
hence the name.
W
WALL CAKE The solid material deposited along the
wall of the hole resulting from filtration
of the fluid part of the mud into the

A.19

formation. See related terms: CAKE

THICKNESS, FILTER CAKE.

mud, usually by the addition of weight

material.

WALL STICKING
See Preferred Term: DIFFERENTIAL
PRESSURE STICKING.

WETTING The adhesion of a liquid to the surface

of a solid.

WATER-BASE MUD
The conventional drilling fluid containing water as a the continuous phase.

WIRE CLOTH +
Screen cloth of woven wire.

WATER FEED +
Water to be added for dilution of the
mud feed into a centrifugal separator.
See related term: DILUTION WATER.
WEIGHT (Mud Weight)
In mud work, weight refers to the density of a drilling fluid. This is normally
expressed in lbs/gal or specific gravity.
See related term: DENSITY.
WEIGHT MATERIAL
Any of the heavy solids (specific gravity of 4.3 or more) used to increase the
density of drilling fluids. This material
is most commonly barite but can be
galena, etc. In special applications,
limestone is also called a weight material (even though its specific gravity is
2.6).
WEIGHTED (Mud)
A drilling fluid to which heavy (over
4.3 specific gravity) solids have been
added to increase its density.
WEIGHT UP *
To increase the weight of a drilling

A.20

WORKOVER FLUID Any type of fluid used in the workover

operation of a well.
Y
YIELD
As applied to drilling mud, a term
used to define the quality of a clay by
describing the number of barrels of a
given centipoise slurry that can be
made from a ton of the clay.
YIELD POINT
The resistance to initial flow, representing the stress required to start fluid
movement. This resistance is due to
electrical charges located on or near
the surfaces of the particles. The values
of the yield point and thixotropy,
respectively, are measurements of the
same fluid properties under dynamic
and static states. The Bingham yield
value, reported in lbs/100 sq. ft, is
determined by the direct-indicating viscometer by subtracting the plastic
viscosity from the 300-rpm reading.

STANDARD CALCULATIONS
I. MUD VOLUME
Capacity of annulus in bbl/ft = [(hole size)2 - (pipe OD)2] * 0.00097
Approximate capacity of hole in bbl/1000 ft = (diameter of hole)2
Approximate pipe displacement, bbl/100 ft = Weight of pipe (lb/ft) * 0.0364
Pit volume in cu ft = Length * Width * Depth
Pit volume in bbl = cu ft
5.6
Hole volume in bbl = [hole capacity(bpf) * depth(ft)] - pipe displacement (bbl)
Annular volume in bbl = hole volume - capacity and displacement of drill pipe
Total Volume = hole volume + pit volume
II. CIRCULATION DATA
Pump output in bpm = bbl/stroke * strokes/minute
Annular velocity in fpm = pump output (bpm * 100)
annular volume (bbl/100 ft)
Bottoms up in minutes = annular volume (bbl)
pump output (bpm)
Hole cycle in minutes = pump output (bpm * 100)
pump output (bpm)
Mud cycle in minutes = total volume (bbl)
pump output (bpm)

B.1

III.

SOLIDS DETERMINATION
A. Low weight muds without barite
Percent solids by volume = (mud weight - water weight) * 7.5
Correct for oil: For each 1% of oil, add 0.1 to % solids by volume
Correct for NaCl: For each 10,000 ppm salt, deduct 0.3% solids by volume. Ignore if salt content is less than 10,000 ppm. Convert Cl ppm to
salt ppm (* 1.65)
B. Weighted Muds
Percent by volume desired solids = (mud weight - 6) * 3.2
C. Drilled Solids Per Foot of Hole
Barrels per foot = (hole size + washout)2 * 0.00097
Pounds per foot = bpf * 910.7

IV. SOLIDS CONTROL EVALUATION CALCULATIONS

A.

Average specific gravity of solids in WBM

1. Freshwater muds
Sa = (12 * Dm) - Vw
Vs
2. Sa = (12 * Dm) - (Vwc * Sw)
(100-Vwc)

B.

Volume percent solids in freshwater muds, without weighting material

Vs = 7.5 * (Dm - 8.34)
OR
7.5 * (Dm - 62.55)

B.2

C.

Volume percent solids in freshwater muds containing

barite, S.G. = 4.2
Vb = (Sa - 2.6) * Vsc * 0.625
Vlg = Vsc - Vb

D.

Volume percent solids in freshwater muds containing

hematite, S.G. = 5.0
Vh = (Sa-2.6) * Vsc * 0.417
Vlg = Vsc - Vh

E.

Volume percent in muds containing oil > 1% or salt >

10,000 ppm
Vlg = [(Vw * Swc) + (Vo * So) + (Vsc * Shg)] - (100 * Sm)
(Shg - Slg)

F. Bentonite and reactive clay correction

CECa = 7.69 * (MBTm)
Vlg
Vben = Vlg * (CECa - CECds)
(CECben - CECds)

Terms:
CECa = Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC),
average
CECben = CEC of bentonite, typically 60
CECds = CE of drilled solids, typically 10
Cl
= Total Chlorides, in mg/l
Dm
= Mud density, in ppg
MBTm = Methylene Blue Test, in lbs/bbl
Sa
= Specific gravity of solids, average
Shg
= Specific gravity of high gravity
solids
Slg
= Specific gravity of low gravity
solids
Sm
= Specific gravity of mud
So
= Specific gravity of oil

Sw
Swc
Vb
Vh
Vhg
Vlg
Vs
Vsc
Vw
Vwc

= Specific gravity of water

= Specific gravity of water, corrected
for chlorides
= Volume percent barite (50% = 50,
not .50)
= Volume percent hematite
= Volume percent high gravity
solids
= Volume percent low gravity solids
= Volume percent total solids
= Volume percent solids, corrected
for chlorides
= Volume percent water
= Volume percent water, corrected
for chlorides

B.3

Field Calculations to Determine

Total Solids Discharge
Note:
This method is only a quick approximation of solids removal rate and
should be used only for unweighted muds or where quick comparisons
need to be made on a mud system to see what results when conditions
change, i.e., is solids removal rate increasing, decreasing, or staying
the same?
1.

Use a one-quart container and wristwatch to determine how many

seconds (R) it takes to collect one quart of slurry from a cyclone
underflow or a screen discharge.

2.

Use a mud balance to obtain the density (D) of the slurry in pounds
per gallon.

3.

Use the following equations to calculate the rate of solids removed in

pounds per hour.
(D - 8.3) * 1450 = Total Solids Removed in #/hr
R
D = Density of slurry in #/gal.
R = Rate of solids slurry discharge in sec/qt
8.3 = Density of Water

Example:
D = 12.3 #/gal
R = 8 sec
(D - 8.3) * 1450 =
R
(12.3 - 8.3) * 1450 =
8
4 * 1450
= 725 #/hr
8

B.4

Field Calculations to Determine

High and Low Gravity Solids Discharge
1.

Use a one-quart container and wristwatch to determine how many

seconds (R) it takes for one quart of solids to be discharged.

2.

Use a mud balance to obtain the density (D) of the sand slurry in
pounds per gallon.

3.

Retort the sand slurry to determine the volume fraction solids (Vs) and
the volume fraction liquids (V1)

4.

Use the following equations to calculate the rate of solids removed in

pounds per hour.
A. Total pounds per hour Solids Removed = [D - (8.34 * V1)] 900
R
B. Average Specific Gravity of Solids = [D - (8.34 * V1)]
(8.34 Vs)
C. Weight % Low Gravity Solids = 4.3 - ASG
1.6
D. Lbs/hr Low Gravity Solids = Total #/hr solids * weight % LGS
E. Lbs/hr Barite = Total #/hr solids - #/hr LGS
D = Density of solids slurry in #/gal
R = Rate of removal in sec
V1 = Volume fraction liquid
Vs = Volume fraction solids
ASG = Average Specific Gravity
LSG = Low Gravity Solids

B.5

SOLIDS CONTROL PERFORMANCE EVALUATION

There are several methods used to determine economic performance. This
appendix describes a method to compare the cost of dilution versus
mechanical removal. It utilizes the concept of a dilution factor (the
amount of mud required to maintain a given solids concentration for every
barrel of solids that remain in the mud) to determine dilution requirements. This method may be used to determine economic efficiency of any
type of solids control equipment. Note: Effluent is defined as the process
stream returned to the active mud system. The underflow is defined as the
waste stream removed from the mud system and discarded.

Example:
Given:
Feed Rate
Underflow Density
Feed Density
Effluent Density
Total Low Gravity Solids
Mud Cost
Disposal Cost
Equipment Cost per Day

= 30 gpm
= 17.0 ppg
= 10.0 ppg
= 9.0 ppg
= 6%
= $15./bbl
= $10./bbl
= $600

Determine the economic performance.

Feed Rate, Vf = 30 gpm

Effluent Rate, Ve = ?

Feed Density, Df = 10.0 ppg

Effluent Density, De= 9.0

Underflow Rate, Vu = ?
Underflow Density, Du = 17.0 ppg

B.6

1) Determine the Effluent and Underflow Volume Rates.

2) Calculate the Low Gravity Solids Removed per minute.
3) Calculate the equipment effectiveness & cost, compared to dilution
4) Calculate economic benefits

1) Determine the Effluent and Underflow Volume Rates.

Df * Vf = (Du * Vu) + (De * Ve);
& let X = Underflow Rate, Vu
(10.0 * 30) = (17.0 * X) + [9.0 * (30-X)] =
300 = 17X + 270 - 9X
30/8 = X
X

= 3.75 gallons per minute

Underflow Rate Volume

(30 - X) = (30 - 3.75)

= 26.25 gallons per minute

Effluent Rate Volume

Feed Rate, Vf = 30 gpm

Effluent Rate, Ve = 26.25

Feed Density, Df = 10.0 ppg

Effluent Density, De= 9.0

Underflow Rate, Vu = 3.75

Underflow Density, Du = 17.0 ppg

B.7

2) Calculate the Low Gravity Solids Removed per minute.

a) Calculate the low gravity solids in the underflow:
Let X = the decimal fraction low gravity solids
17/8.33
2.04
1.04
X

= X(2.6) + (1-X)
= 2.6X + 1 - X
= 1.6X
= 1.04/1.6 = .65 or 65% solids in underflow

b) Calculate the low gravity solids removed:

3.75 * .65 = 2.44 gallons of low gravity solids
removed per minute
3) Calculate the equipment effectiveness, compared to dilution
a) Dilution: Assume the 9.0 ppg fluid is the desired fluid. It contains
5% solids. The equivalent dilution required to treat the solids
removed is the volume removed divided by the desired fraction of
solids.
2.44/.05 = 48.8 or 49 gallons per minute dilution
required to match the machines
effectiveness
or (49 gal./min. * 60 min./hr.)/ 42 gal./bbl.
= 70 bbls per hour equivalent dilution

Dilution Cost = Volume * (Mud Unit Cost +

Disposal Unit Cost)
Cost: $ = 70 * ($15 + $10)
$1,750 per hour is Equivalent Dilution Cost

B.8

b) Mechanical Treatment Cost =[Liquid Volume Lost * (Mud Unit Cost +

Disposal Unit Cost)] + Equipment Cost
3.75 X (1-.65)
(1.3 X 60 min/hr)/ 42 gal/bbl

= 1.3 gallons of liquids

removed per minute OR
= 1.85 bbl/hr liquids removed

Cost: $

= [ 1.85 X ($15 + $10) ] + $600/24

$71.25

= Cost to Remove the LGS

4) Calculate the economic benefits

$

= (cost to remove) - (cost to dilute)

= $71.25 - $1,750

= $(1,678.75)

$ in ( ) = Savings, Removal compared to Dilution

Therefore, in this example, prompt and continuous removal of drilled
solids will save $1,679 per hour!

B.9

Method for Comparison of

Cyclone Efficiency
Assuming Identical:

Where:

Mud
Feed Volume
Feed Pressure

D
V
UF

=
=
=

Density
Volume Rate
Underflow

CASE #1: When DUF1 = DUF2

Then higher VUF = Greater Efficiency,

since a greater volume of solids is
being removed at the same
liquid/solids ratio.

CASE #2: When VUF1 = VUF2

Then higher DUF = Greater Efficiency,

since more solids (and less liquid) are
being removed in the same underflow
volume.

CASE #3: When one cone has higher DUF and higher VUF, then that cone
is operating at significantly greater efficiency.

Note: When none of the above conditions occur, or for specific numerical
accuracy, See Appendix A.

B.10

Conversion Constants and Formulas

A.

Conversion Constants
Specific Gravity (SG) Water ............................................1.0
1 Gallon of Water ............................................................8.34 lb
1 cu. ft. of Water..............................................................62.4 lb
1 Barrel (42 gallons) of Water.........................................350 lb
100 Column of Water Exerts Hydrostatic
Pressure of.....................................................................43.3 psi
Clay (SG=2.5)...................................................................875 ppb
Barite (SG=4.3) ................................................................1506 ppb
Calcium Carbonate (SG=2.7) ..........................................945 ppb
1 Barrel (42 Gallons) .......................................................5.6146 cu ft
1 Cubic Foot ....................................................................7.48 gal

B.

Conversion Formulas
MULTIPLY
BY
TO OBTAIN
sp gr (specific gravity) ..............62.4 ............pcf (pounds/cubic feet)
sp gr .............................................8.34 ..........ppg (pounds/gallon)
ppg (pounds/gallon)...................0.052 ........psi/ft
bbl (barrels) .................................0.157 ........m3 (cubic meters)
bbl ..............................................42.0 ............gal
bbl ................................................5.615 ........ft3 (cubic feet)
ft3 (cubic feet) ..............................0.0283 ......m3
ft3 ..................................................7.48 ..........gal
gal (gallons).................................0.00379 ....m3
lb (pounds)..................................0.454 ........kg (kilograms)
miles.............................................1.609 ........km (kilometers)
ft (feet) .........................................0.305 ........m (meters)
in. (inches)...................................2.54 ..........cm (centimeters
psi (pounds/in2)...........................6.895 ........kPa (kilo-Pascals)
psi.................................................0.069 ........bar
psi.................................................0.07 ..........kg/cm2
kg/m.............................................0.01 ..........kP/m
sp gr .......................................1000.0 ............kg/m3
ppg (pounds/gallon) ...............119.8 ............kg/m3
ppg ...............................................0.1198 ......kg/liter
pcf (pounds/cubic feet) ............16.02 ..........kg/m3
ppb (pounds/barrel) ...................2.85 ..........kg/m3
psi/ft ...........................................22.61 ..........kPa/m

C.1

Density of Common Materials

Specific Gravity of Common Materials (Average)

MATERIAL

SP GR

PPG

PPB

Barite

4.3

35.9

1506

Bentonite

2.4

20.0

840

Calcium Carbonate

2.7

22.5

945

Cement

3.2

26.7

1120

Clays, Drilled Solids

2.6

21.7

911

Diesel Oil

0.84

7.0

294

Dolomite

2.9

24.2

1016

Fresh Water

1.0

Galena

6.5

54.1

2272

Gypsum

2.3

19.2

806

Iron

7.8

65.0

2730

Iron Oxide

5.1

42.5

1785

11.4

95.0

3990

Limestone

2.8

23.3

980

Salt

2.2

18.3

769

Sand (Silica)

2.6

21.7

911

Lead

C.2

8.33

350

Hole Capacities
HOLE
DIAMETER
(INCHES)
4 3/4
5 5/8
5 7/8
6
6 1/8
6 1/4
6 1/2
6 5/8
6 3/4
6 7/8
7 3/8
7 5/8
7 3/4
7 7/8
8 3/8
8 1/2
8 5/8
8 3/4
9 1/2
9 5/8
9 7/8
10 5/8
12 1/4
13 1/2
14 3/4
17 1/2
26

CAPACITY
(BPF)
.0219
.0307
.0335
.0350
.0364
.0379
.0410
.0426
.0442
.0459
.0528
.0564
.0583
.06.2
.0681
.0701
.0722
.0734
.0876
.0899
.0947
.1096
.1456
.1769
.2112
.2973
.6563

CAPACITY
(GPF)
.92
1.29
1.41
1.47
1.53
1.59
1.72
1.79
1.86
1.93
2.22
2.37
2.45
2.53
2.88
2.94
3.03
3.12
3.68
3.78
3.98
4.60
6.12
7.43
8.87
12.49
27.56

Formula: Volume (Barrels) = (Hole Diameter in Inches)2 * Length in Feet

1029.44
OR

(Hole Diameter in Inches)2 * .(Length in Feet) * 0.00097

C.3

Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids Fast Rates

C.4

Pounds per Hour Drilled Solids Slow Rates

C.5

Solids Content Chart

C.6

SOLIDS CONTENT - % BY VOLUME

70

60
er

50

ds

vit

40

ing

s
tu

&

at
W

li
So

a
Gr

Lo

m
ximu

solid

ditio

on
od C

Go
s in ds
d
u
i
ater
d M sol
C
&W
Fiel inimum
f
s
s
o
d
e
m
oli
lid
ang
ty S
So
te R
ravi
a
G
m
i
h
rox
Hig
App
sing
u
t
n
onte
sC
d
i
l
So

30

en

t
on

20

10

ma

0
10

11

12

13
14
15
16
MUD WEIGHT - LBS/GAL

17

18

19

Pre-well Project Checklist

Well Design:

Where is the well being drilled?

What type of well is it wildcat, development, injection, etc.
What problems are anticipated?

Drilling Program:

What are the hole size, casing points, and washout factors?
What is the expected rate of penetration?
What type bit?
What is the mud program?
Are there any environmental restrictions?
What rig is being considered?
Any anticipated hole problems?

Equipment and
Vendor Capability:

Logistics:

Environmental
Issues:

Economics:

What size and type of solids need removal?

What equipment is already installed?
What is its process rate and expected removal efficiency?
Are there sufficient mud compartments?
Is the equipment installed properly?
What additional equipment is needed?
What is expected downtime?
What are the power and fuel requirements?
What rig modifications are required?
What is vendor experience and safety record?
Is H&S Plan available?
Where is the location?
Where is the local stock/service base?
What on-site spares are required?
How many additional people are required?
Do they need housing or meals?
What personal protective equipment is required?

What are the preferred mud treatment and disposal options?

What are preferred cuttings treatment and disposal options?
Is analytical testing required?
What is the mud cost?
What is the equipment acquisition and installation cost?
What is the expected operating cost?
What is the expected disposal and site remediation cost?
What are the expected savings?

D.1

Screen Cloth Comparisons

SCREEN
CLOTH TYPE
MARKET
GRADE CLOTH

TENSILE
BOLTING
CLOTH

EXTRA FINE
CLOTH,
3-LAYERED

HIGH
CONDUCTANCE
CLOTH,
3-LAYERED

D.2

SCREEN
DESIGNATION
10x10
20x20
30x30
40x40
50x50
60x60
80x80
100x100
120x120
150x150
200x200
250x250
325x325
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
94
105
120
145
165
200
230
24
38
50
70
84
110
140
175
210
250
45
50
60
70
80
100
125
150
180
200
230
265
310

SEPARATION POTENTIAL, IN
D16
D50
D84
1678
839
501
370
271
227
172
136
114
102
72
59
43
1011
662
457
357
301
261
218
175
160
143
116
104
84
72
508
317
234
171
131
107
86
66
57
51
270
216
184
158
145
112
92
78
62
52
47
39
35

1727
864
516
381
279
234
177
140
117
105
74
62
44
1041
681
470
368
310
269
224
180
165
147
119
107
86
74
715
429
324
234
181
151
118
95
81
72
353
274
240
208
186
142
120
107
85
69
60
50
45

1777
889
531
392
287
241
182
144
120
108
76
63
45
1071
700
483
379
319
277
230
185
170
151
122
110
88
76
824
528
390
274
223
185
143
113
100
85
379
301
267
221
192
154
131
117
93
77
69
55
51

CONDUCTANCE
IN KD/MM
49.68
15.93
8.32
4.89
2.88
2.40
1.91
1.44
1.24
1.39
0.68
0.78
0.44
0.93
24.33
11.63
7.94
5.60
5.25
3.88
2.84
2.77
2.51
2.03
1.86
1.49
1.30
20.69
11.86
6.77
4.73
3.62
3.00
2.38
1.86
1.67
1.45
9.81
7.66
5.75
5.01
4.08
3.00
2.53
2.15
1.82
1.55
1.27
0.96
0.82

Brandt/EPI Vibrating Screen Separators

MODEL

MOTION

DECKS

SCREENS/
DECK

SCREEN
ANGLE

DECK TYPE

SCREEN
TYPE

ATL-1000

1/3

O/F

H/P

10.8/25

ATL-CS

C/L

1/1/3

F/F/A

O/U/F

ATL-CS/LP

C/L

1/1/3

F/F/A

LCM-2D

LCM-2D/CS

C/L

LM-3

Tandem
Standard

ATL-1200

Motion
Screens/deck
Screen Angle
Deck Type

WEIR
HEIGHT

4.2

43

93x71x64

4,300

Scalping deck, also available as drying shaker

25

4.2

40

93x71x49

4,100

Low profile ATL

H/H/P

20/20/25

B/G

4.9/4.2

79

93x77x87

8,000

Cascade tandem over ATL

O/U/F

H/H/P

20/20/25

B/G

4.9/4.2

67

93x77x74

7,750

Low profile cascade shaker

33.7

2.5-6.4

52

120x69x62

5,200

Dewatering deck
(patent pending)

1/1/3

F/F/A

O/U/F

H/H/P

20/20/33.7

B/C

4.9/2.5-6.4

70

120x80x80

9,385

Cascade version of LCM-2D

33.7

32

141x69x62

5,000

U/U

20/20

4.9

38

79x72x52

2,865

Dual, triple, and quad

available

20

36.25

79x64x44

1,800

Dual units available

Screen Type
Screen Area
Vibrator
G-Force

DIMENSIONS WEIGHT,
LXWXH
LBS

COMMENTS

G-FORCE

L = linear, C = circular, E = unbalanced elliptical

number of screen panels in each deck, beginning with the top deck
F = fixed, A = adjustable
O = overslung screens, U = underslung screens, F = flat

SCREEN
VIBRATOR
AREA, SQ FT

H = hook strip screen, P = pre-tensioned panel

Total screen area, beginning w/ top deck. If Pinnacle screens are used, multiply area X 1.4
B = belt, G = gear box, C = canister direct drive
Total acceleration, beginning with the top screen basket.

D.3

D.4

Brandt/EPI Mud Conditioners

ATL-16/2

25

4.2

40

115x77x93

7,500

ATL-2800

25

4.2

40

122x77x92

7,500

LCM-2D
MC

33.7

2.5-6.4

52

130x80x90

6,335

1000 gpm, three-stage mud

conditioner
1680 gpm, two-stage mud
conditioner
1000 gpm, three-stage mud
conditioner

Brandt/EPI Liquid Recovery Shakers

MODEL

MOTION

DECKS

SCREENS/
DECK

SCREEN
ANGLE

DECK TYPE

SCREEN
TYPE

SCREEN
AREA, SQ FT VIBRATOR

G-FORCE

WEIR
HEIGHT

DIMENSIONS WEIGHT,
LXWXH
LBS

ATL-Dryer

25

4.2

N.A.

93x77x49

7,500

SDW-Dryer

33.3

4.2-7.0

N.A.

134x78x66

8,300

Motion
Screens/deck
Screen Angle
Deck Type

L = linear, C = circular, E = unbalanced elliptical

number of screen panels in each deck, beginning with the top deck
F = fixed, A = adjustable
O = overslung screens, U = underslung screens, F = flat

Screen Type
Screen Area
Vibrator
G-Force

COMMENTS
includes liquid recovery
tank and pump
includes liquid recovery
tank and pump

H = hook strip screen, P = pre-tensioned panel

Total screen area, beginning w/ top deck. If Pinnacle screens are used, multiply area X 1.4
B = belt, G = gear box, C = canister direct drive
Total acceleration, beginning with the top screen basket.

Brandt/EPI Degassers
NOMINAL FLOW, VACUUM RANGE
GPM
INCHES HG

MODEL

TYPE

DG-5

VJ

500

DG-10

VJ

1,000

Type

BAFFLE AREA,
SQ. IN

DIMENSIONS,
LXWXH

WEIGHT, LBS

COMMENTS

7-20 - 29 max

9,956

88x54x62

2,390

Rated top performing unit in comparative degasser test

conducted by Amoco Production Research.

7-20 - 29 max

32,060

100x60-x77

3,900

Similar design to DG-5, larger capacity.

VJ = vacuum, emptied by jet pump

Drive

E = electric, H = hydraulic

Brandt/EPI Hydrocyclones
MODEL

DIAMETER,

INLET TYPE

CONSTRUCTION

UNDERFLOW

Desander

12.2

Circular involute

Poly

3.9

Rectangular
involute

Poly w/ ceramic
liner

Fixed, available in 1.5,

1.75, and 2.125 apex
Adjustable
0.125 to 0.69

Desilter

INCHES

ADJUSTMENT

FEET
HEAD

FLOW RATE,

75

495

Three piece cone, available as 1, 2, or 3-cone units,

upright or canted header configuration

75

66

Two piece cone, available in 4-32 cone units

GPM

COMMENTS

D.5

D.6

Brandt/EPI Decanting Centrifuges

SC-1

18x28

Contour

ROTATING
ASSY
CS

CF-1

18x28

Contour

CS

1600-2000

40:1

Fixed/
single lead

1600/654
1650/696
2000/1022

SC-2

18x30

Contour

CS

1350-2250

59:1

Fixed/
double lead

1350/466
2250/1294

CF-2

24x38

Contour

CS

1400-2000

80:1

Fixed/
single lead

1400/668
2000/1363

SC-4

24x40

Contour

CS

1150-1950

59:1

Fixed/
double lead

HS3400

14x49.5

Contour

SS

E
H

1750-4000
1750-4000

52:1
Variable

Fixed/
single lead
Variable/
single lead

SC-35HS

15x48

Contour

SS

E
H

1750-3250
1750-3250

59:1
Variable

HS5200

16x49.5

Contour

SS

1750-4000

Variable

Fixed/
single lead
Variable/
single lead
Variable/
single lead

MODEL

Rotating Assy

BOWL SIZE,
IN

BOWL TYPE

CS = Carbon steel, SS = Stainless steel

SPEED RANGE,
RPM
1350-2000

GEARBOX
RATIO
80:1

BOWL/CONVEYOR
DIFFERENTIAL
Fixed/
double lead

RPM/
G-FORCE
1350/466
2000/1022

DRIVE

Drive

CAPACITY, MUD
WT/GPM
9.0/150
10.0/70.0
17.0/20
9.0/90
12.0/60
16.0/30
18.0/25
9.0/150

DIMENSIONS WEIGHT, LBS

LXWXH
103x46x32
3,920

COMMENTS
Barite recovery, viscosity
control 6 TPH (tons per
hour) solids capacity
Barite recovery, viscosity
control 4 TPH (tons per
hour) solids capacity

111x63x61

4,700

116x53x61

4,500

Barite recovery, viscosity

control 6 TPH (tons per
hour) solids capacity

130x66x63

7,500

Unweighted muds, dewatering 6 TPH (tons per

hour) solids capacity

1150/451
135x62x93
1350/621
1950/1296
1750/609
9.0/160
98x69x46
2400/1145
12.0/75
2900/1672
15.0/20
3500/2435
18.0/10
4000/3181
2000/852
9.0/150
120x61x60
2500/1331
12.0/45
3000/1917
15.0/30
3250/2100
18.0/20
2000/909
9.0/250
95x69x40
2500/1420
3000/2045
3500/2784
4000/3636
4200/4000
E = electric, H = hydraulic

7,200

Excellent all-purpose centrifuge, 8 TPH (tons per

hour) solids capacity
Rugged high speed
decanter. 5 TPH (tons per
hour) solids capacity

9.0/175
12.0/60
16.0/30
18.0/25
9.0/250

4,100

6,105

High capacity, high speed

decanter. 6 TPH (tons per
hour) solids capacity

7,720

8 TPH (tons per hour)

solids capacity

Selection of Agitator Size and Number

Select the right size agitator by first locating the tank width on the right
side of the graph. A recommended impeller diameter is shown across the
left side. This impeller size is correlated to the mud weight and the
required horsepower. Simply follow a horizontal line from the impeller
diameter to the curve showing the heaviest anticipated mud weight. Now
locate the nearest vertical line to the right of this point and note the
required horsepower at the top of the graph.

Example:
Agitators are required for a 10-foot-wide tank, 30 feet long, to maintain
weighting materials in suspension for a 12 lbs/gal mud:
Find the tank width (10 ft) and the recommended corresponding
impeller diameter (36 in) on the graph. Follow a horizontal line from the
impeller diameter to the curve of the given mud weight (12 lbs/gal mud
use the curve on the next higher mud weight). From the intersection of the
mud weight curve and the impeller diameter, locate the nearest vertical
line to the right and note the horsepower at the top of the graph.
This particular application will require a 7.5-hp size Brandt Agitator for
each 10 feet of tank length a total of three 7.5-hp agitators.
D.7