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18 Pressure Control
Introduction
A blowout Despite efforts to understand and con- The key to effective pressure control
is an trol formation pressures, blowouts still is preparation and vigilance on the part
occur. A blowout is an uncontrolled of those who are responsible for con-
uncontrolled flow of formation fluids as the result of trolling formation pressures. Respect
flow of failure to control subsurface pressures. for formation pressures and the confi-
formation Blowouts can occur at the surface or dence that comes from training and
into an underground formation. practice in controlling pressures are the
fluids as Nearly every well drilled has the elements that minimize the frequency
the result of potential to blow out. Experience has and severity of blowouts.
failure to shown that blowouts occur as the result It is important to identify high forma-
of human error and/or mechanical fail- tion pressures before drilling, to detect
control ures. However, a carefully planned, con- pressure changes while drilling, and to
subsurface tinuously supervised pressure-control control them safely during drilling and
pressures. program will lessen the possibility of completion operations.
a blowout considerably.
18 Pressure Control
reports indicate that more than half This record shows that the 62% of
of all blowouts occur in normally the loss of secondary control was the
pressured wells. The most common result of equipment failure and reflects
cause of blowouts is the failure to a lack of understanding among those
keep the hole full on trips. It should responsible for securing, installing,
be standard procedure on all wells maintaining and operating blowout-
to either monitor the pump strokes control equipment.
while filling the hole during a trip or The remainder of this chapter will
to use a trip tank to measure the mud discuss the various components of well
required to replace the volume of control. This will include the various
pipe removed from the wellbore. pressures, pressure prediction tech-
Failure of secondary control. It has niques, kick-detection methods, well-
been estimated that 95% of the wells control methods, and some special
in which secondary control is lost arrive
…the loss of problems and techniques used in
at that condition as the result of either controlling the well.
secondary poor maintenance and inadequate test-
control was ing programs, which result in leaks that
the result of erode pressure-control equipment, or
inadequate crew training, which results
equipment in miss-use or no use at all of pressure-
failure… control equipment.
18 Pressure Control
Subsurface Pressures
Many different pressures are involved Example 2
in drilling and controlling oil and gas In Figure 2, how much force must
wells. It is important to understand be applied on the small cylinder in
these pressures and how they are used order to balance the pressure created
to detect and control formation pres- by the weight of the automobile on
sures. The following is a description of the large cylinder.
the various pressures. To balance pressures:
Pressure is defined as force per unit area: P1 = P2 or
force (lb) F1 F
Pressure (psi) = = 2
area (in.2) A1 A2
Hydrostatic Example 1 F
Therefore, F1 = 2 x A1
How much pressure would be A2
pressure is shown on the gauge in Figure 1?
the pressure Force on small cylinder:
4,000 lb
caused by F1 (lb) =
100 in.2
x 2 in.2 = 80 lb
the…MW 20 lb 10 in.2
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
and TVD Hydrostatic pressure (PHYD) is the pres-
of a column sure caused by the density or Mud
of fluid. Weight (MW) and True Vertical Depth
(TVD) of a column of fluid. The hole
Neglect
fluid size and shape of the fluid column have
weight no effect on hydrostatic pressure since,
at a given depth, pressure is equal in all
directions.
?
PHYD is calculated by:
PHYD (psi) =
Figure 1: Example 1 — pressure. 0.052 x MW (lb/gal) x TVD (ft)
Where:
Answer:
0.052 = The units conversion factor
20 lb
Pressure on gauge = = 2 psi equal to:
10 in.2 12 in./ft
or 0.052 gal/(in.2 x ft)
231 in.3/gal
F (lb) = ?
4,000 lb
Area =
2
Area = 2 in. 100 in.2
Hydraulic
fluid
18 Pressure Control
describes
a rapid
change
in pore
pressure.
a
The most
CHAPTER
18
“transition
zone”
critical of the
three types of
transition
zones is the
interval from
the top of the
pressured
zone.
Pressure Control
PRESSURE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
a Sand A
INDICATORS
Historically, the occurrence of sur-
normal pressures has caused many
drilling problems. Problems vary with
geographical location, mud weight and
type, rig type, and hole type (straight
or deviated). However, a number of
drilling response indicators exist that
warn of a change in formation pressure.
Formation pore pressure
Sand C
Sand D
TZ1
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Mud weight equivalent (lb/gal)
TZ2
18 Pressure Control
Rate of penetration
MEASURING DOWNHOLE PRESSURE
The advent of downhole, real-time
psi
measurements of drilling and geological
parameters has greatly improved the
500
ability to identify increasing pressure.
These tools include Measurement While
Drilling (MWD), Logging While Drilling
As the (LWD) and Pressure While Drilling Differential pressure
differential (PWD). Obviously, LWD and PWD
Figure 4: Typical shale drilling.
pressure can be used to verify sur-pressured
transition zones. These tools can
decreases, Differential pressure is an important
measure increasing pressure indica- factor in ROP. Differential pressure is the
the ROP tors which fall into both engineering difference between the hydrostatic pres-
increases. and geological categories. sure of the drilling fluid column and the
ENGINEERING INDICATORS formation pressure. As the differential
Engineering indicator 1: Changes in pressure decreases, the ROP increases.
Rate of Penetration (ROP) The increase follows a hyperbolic curve
and often has a critical point at about
ROP increases while drilling the tran-
500 psi overpressure against the for-
sition zone. While drilling normally
mation, as shown in Figure 4. A reduc-
pressured shale sections, the ROP will
tion in differential pressure occurs
decrease with depth if drilling parame-
with entrance into the over-pressured
ters such as weight-on-bit, RPM, bit
zone of greater porosity. The increase
types, hydraulics and mud weight
in porosity and the decrease in differen-
remain fairly constant. This is due to
tial pressure cause an increase in ROP.
the increased density, or compaction,
Differential pressure affects ROP more
of the shale. This trend will be inter-
than porosity. The ideal ROP curve
rupted when a sur-normal pressure
should resemble Figure 5A when bit
18 Pressure Control
_______________________
Ideal ROP Actual ROP Bit weight long intervals, so actual drilling curves
_______________________ 90 70 30 90 50 30 100 20 will resemble Figure 5B. If it were possi-
7 ble to record bit weight on the same
_______________________
chart with ROP, the ROP curve would be
_______________________ much easier to interpret, as shown in
_______________________ Figure 5C. Bit dulling also can mask the
8 transition zone, as shown later in Figure
_______________________
6. The increase in ROP may not be seen
_______________________ due to reduced bit performance caused
by the dull bit.
Depth (ft x 1,000)
_______________________
9 Engineering indicator 2: Decreases
_______________________
in dcs exponent trend
_______________________
Calculations for “d exponent” and “dcs
_______________________ exponent” can be made to normalize
_______________________ 10 ROP data and predict the magnitude
_______________________
of increasing formation pressure.
Many methods have been developed
_______________________
to resolve the problem of normalizing
_______________________ 11 the ROP. All of them are effective to a
degree, but each has its limitations. All
methods become inaccurate when poor
drilling practices are used. Most of the
12 methods involve complex mathemati-
A B C cal equations; however, one method
uses a simplified drilling equation that
Figure 5: Ideal ROP, actual ROP and bit weight.
is more suitable for use at the wellsite.
Sharp bit Dull bit
This method is known as the d
ROP (fph) ROP (fph) exponent and the equation is:
8.0
100 50 0 Lithology 100 50
Shale
0
d=
( )R
60N
( )
Depth (ft x 1,000)
8.5 12W
log
Sand D106
9.0
Shale
Where:
Transition d = Exponent in the generalized
9.5 zone
drilling equation
D = Bit diameter (in.)
10.0
N = Rotary speed (RPM)
Figure 6: Comparison of sharp and dull R = Penetration rate (ft/hr)
bit ROP in the top of the transition zone W = Bit load (lb)
(NOTE: Dull bit masked transition zone).
This is not a rigorous solution to
weight, rotary speed, hydraulics and the original equation and cannot be
mud properties are held constant. For defended mathematically. Even so,
economic reasons, it is not possible to the results are as accurate as any of
hold these parameters constant over the more complex equations if a mud
18 Pressure Control
Exponient
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
dcs d
4
9.6
9.7
5
9.8
9.8 9 9
9.8 10
6
11
10
10.4
10.6 12
7 11
10.8 13 12
Depth (ft x 1,000)
8 11.0 14 13
15
11.0
9 11.0
11.6
10 12.0
12.0
12.6
11
14.5
16.0
16.5
12
16.6
16.9
Figure 7: Plot of d and dcs exponents with depth indicating formation pressure changes at the bit.
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transition zone. If an increase in pit vol- return the well to primary control and
ume or flow is detected, drilling should allow normal rig activities.
be stopped and the well checked for Engineering indicator 6:
flow. If the well continues to flow, it Filling the hole on trips
should be shut in. When pulling the drillstring out of the
“Taking a “Taking a kick” was once used as hole, the amount of pipe in the hole is
kick” was a method for finding the transition reduced, and the mud level drops. The
zone. After a kick was taken, the for- volume can be calculated from the size
once used as mation pressure was calculated, the and weight of the pipe and the length
a method for mud weight was increased, the well of the pipe removed, so that an appro-
finding the was controlled and protective casing priate amount of mud can be pumped
was set. This technique has limita- into the hole to fill it up.
transition tions, but it is still used inadvertently If the drillstring volume is not
zone. when other indicators are masked. It replaced and the mud column drops,
is not recommended. then the hydrostatic pressure is reduced
Oil, gas or saltwater can intrude into and may result in a kick. If the hydrosta-
the drilling fluid without being identi- tic pressure is reduced to less than for-
fied as a kick. A formation with low per- mation pressure, formation fluids will
meability can feed formation fluids flow into the well. Keeping the hole full
slowly into the well without the flow of mud requires more than pumping
being detected by the surface sensors. mud into the well. The volume of mud
Monitoring the drilling fluid for gas-cut pumped into the well should be mea-
mud, formation oil in the mud and a sured and compared to the calculated
chloride increase in the mud filtrate will displacement of the pipe pulled out of
alert drilling personnel of a potential the hole. Measurement of the mud vol-
underbalanced condition downhole. ume for this fill-up is usually taken from
Detecting and minimizing the vol- a graduated trip-tank or from monitor-
ume of a kick reduces the potential for ing rig pump strokes. If the mud pump
problems while controlling the well. method is used, count the number of
This applies to any of the formation strokes to arrive at the mud volume. It is
fluids. A large gas kick causes higher a good drilling practice to stop pulling
casing pressures in controlling the pipe every 5 to 10 stands of drill pipe
bottom-hole pressure. This can fracture (more often when pulling heavyweight
the formation at the casing shoe or drill pipe and drill collars) and to fill the
If the exceed the pressure limits of the sur- hole with mud. The purpose is to limit
hole takes face equipment. A saltwater kick can the reduction in hydrostatic pressure
seriously contaminate both water- and
less mud oil-base fluids, resulting in high treat-
and to know the amount (volume) of
mud it takes to fill the hole.
than the ing costs to return the fluid to its origi- If the hole takes less mud than the
calculated nal condition. The contamination will calculated displacement volume for
displacement also affect the fluid-loss and filter-cake the number of stands pulled, fluid is
quality. This can result in differential entering the wellbore. This signals an
volume for sticking of the drillstring. A large oil impending kick. Such deviations should
the number kick in a water-base fluid will cause be investigated immediately, and if the
of stands environmental concerns as well as con- conditions persist, the crew should take
tamination of the fluid. No matter what remedial measures. Under such circum-
pulled, fluid type of fluid invasion is experienced, stances, the best thing to do, if possible,
is entering the sooner a kick is detected and the is to go back to the bottom immediately
the wellbore. well is shut in, the easier it will be to and circulate bottoms-up. The chances
18 Pressure Control
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10.0
9 Show gas cut 10.3 the pressure seal contains more fluid
Show-kick 11.7 than the normally pressured forma-
tion above them. The fluid acts as an
10 11.7 insulator, restricting the flow of heat.
11.7
A 14.6 The rocks below a transition zone will
Top of
Show 14.6 have a higher temperature due to the
transition
11 zone energy being transmitted to the fluid
14.6 as the pressure increases.
Show-kick 16.8
Numerous field investigations of dif-
12
130 140 150 160 170 180
ferential temperature between flow line
Flow-line temperature (°F) and suction pit have been made. These
investigations generally are regarded as
Figure 8: Flow-line temperature as an indication of little use due to the variables that
of transition zone and geopressures. affect the suction pit temperature. These
pressure. The cause and magnitude variables, which are very difficult to
of the changes are noted on the plot track, include:
and these amounts are added to or 1. The amount of water being added
subtracted from the actual readings to to the mud.
produce a continuous plot. A normal 2. Solids-control equipment (desilters,
trend can be established and depar- desanders, degassers and centrifuges).
tures from the normal trend can be 3. Ambient temperature.
readily recognized. An end-to-end 4. Volume of the mud in the pits.
plot will produce a curve as shown in 5. The amount of agitation.
Figure 8. There is a 5 to 6° difference Changes in flow-line temperature
between the high and low points. cannot be used to estimate formation
High points are the result of drilling pressures directly, due to flow-line tem-
porous rocks containing fluids, and perature variables and because each
low points are the result of drilling geographic area has a different temper-
denser rocks. ature gradient. However, changes in
At about 150 to 300 ft above the flow-line temperature are a qualitative
seal, a marked decrease in flow-line indication that a change in pressure
temperature will be noted (Point A in may be occurring.
Figure 8). Usually, this decrease is 18
18 Pressure Control
18 Pressure Control
Where: Where:
D = Depth (ft) K = M [1.0 – C5 exp(C6DS)]
POG = Overburden gradient always C5 = 0.55 and C6 = - 0.000134
equal to 1.0 (psi/ft) See Petroleum Engineer International,
PPG = Pore pressure gradient (psi/ft) September 1989, pages 38 to 47 for a more
Matthews & Kelly (1967) developed thorough discussion of this technique.
a somewhat different approach. They FRACTURE PRESSURES FOR
concluded that whenever a formation OFFSHORE OPERATIONS
The fracture fractures horizontally, the required The fracture pressure of offshore wells
pressure is equal to overburden stress. normally is less than that of wells drilled
pressure of However, most fracturing occur in the on land. This occurs as a result of less
offshore wells vertical direction, resulting in the overburden pressure due to the water
normally is required pressure being considerably depth and the air gap.
less than overburden stress. Their In shallow water, fracture pressure
less than equation used a “matrix-stress coeffi- varies only slightly from the fracture
that of wells cient” multiplier (Ki) based on a vari- pressure anticipated on land. In deeper
drilled on able horizontal to vertical stress ratio. water, the reduction in overburden pres-
land. The Matthews & Kelly gradient equa- sure is significant. Reducing the over-
tion is expressed as: burden pressure will result in reducing
18 Pressure Control
the fracture pressure. If data are not test is used more often in hard-rock
available for a deepwater area, a rule formations than the leak-off test.
of thumb can be used to estimate the
LEAK-OFF TEST PROCEDURES
fracture gradient. The rule is that for
each 1,000 ft of water, the fracture 1. Drill out the casing shoe and
gradient is reduced 0.8 lb/gal over sufficient new formation.
the fracture gradient of a similar 2. Circulate the drilling fluid to ensure
well on land. a consistent mud weight.
3. Stop the rig pumps and shut the
MEASURING FRACTURE PRESSURE well in.
Many problems exist in trying to esti- 4. Pump mud into the shut-in well
mate fracture pressures. This is because at a very low rate. A typical pump
the exact values of the components rate of 0.25 to 0.5 barrels per minute
that contribute to formation strength (bbl/min) is used. Normally, a cement-
are not known. These factors are local. ing unit is used so an accurate read-
Data from one area cannot be readily ing of volume and pressure can be
applied to other areas. obtained.
The fracture The fracture pressure estimate is used 5. Record the pressure and volume
pressure to help design a drilling program for a pumped. A graphical presentation
well with regard to casing depths and should be made of these data to
estimate is hole sizes. Once a well has spudded, determine the point at which the
used to help the formation fracture pressure should fluid is being pumped into the for-
design a be determined by physical tests. mation (leak-off). A normal leak-off
Two tests are used to measure the for- test will show the pressure increasing
drilling mation strength or fracture pressure. in a straight line with the volume of
program These are: (1) the Leak-Off Test (LOT) mud pumped. Once the fracture pres-
for a well… and (2) the Formation-Integrity Test sure is reached, the pressure will stop
(FIT). These tests are conducted after cas- increasing with volume pumped as
ing has been set and the casing shoe has the fracture is being propagated. The
been drilled out. Although procedures pressure may actually decrease as
differ from one operator to the other, a fluid is pumped into the formation.
common practice is to drill either to the Figure 9 is an illustration of a graph
first sand or 10 ft of new formation obtained from a leak-off test.
before running either test. In some
cases, the test can be run again after
drilling further. This is usually done 2.0
when mud weights are used that exceed
those planned for in the well plan or
Pressure (psi x 1,000)
B
1.5 A
mud program.
Leak-off tests and formation-integrity C D
tests are very similar. The difference is 1.0 Shut-in
that the leak-off test fractures the forma- time
tion and measures the actual strength (min)
of the formation, while the formation- A = Leak-off pressure
0.5
B = Maximum test pressure
integrity test measures the formation to C = Minimum formation stress
a predetermined pressure but does not D = Fracture closure pressure
cause a fracture. The formation being 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
drilled often determines which of them Volume (bbl)
will be used. The formation integrity
Figure 9: Example leak-off test graph (after Postler).
18 Pressure Control
6. Once leak-off has been observed, Testing the formation physically estab-
stop pumping and observe the well. lishes its pressure limitations (fracture
The pressure should remain relatively pressure). If a kick occurs and the well is
the same or decrease slightly once shut in, the sum of the shut-in pressure
pumping has stopped. and the hydrostatic pressure of the mud
7. Record the pressure where the fluid could exceed the fracture pressure of the
…it is started leaking off into the forma- formation. Therefore, it is important to
important to tion. Convert this pressure to a mud know how much shut-in pressure the
weight equivalent by using the formation can stand prior to taking a
know how following equation: kick. The Maximum Allowable (shut-in)
much shut-in Equiv. MW (lb/gal) = Casing Pressure (MACP) changes as the
pressure the leak-off pressure (psi) mud density changes. The equation for
0.052 x TVD of casing shoe (ft) determining the MACP is:
formation
MACP (psi) = (fracture MW (lb/gal)
can stand The fracture mud weight is calcu-
– MW (lb/gal)) x TVD of casing
prior to lated by adding the equivalent mud
shoe (ft) x 0.052
weight to the test mud weight.
taking a This calculation should be made
FORMATION-INTEGRITY
kick. TEST PROCEDURES
every time the mud weight is changed.
It is based on the fracture gradient at
Use the same procedure as above the casing shoe, since it is assumed
until you reach Step 5. A predeter- that the casing shoe is the weakest
mined maximum mud weight for the point in the well.
interval is determined from the well The MACP can be represented graphi-
plan. Normally, 0.5 to 1.0 lb/gal is cally so the pressure will not have to be
added to this value as a safety factor. calculated every time the mud weight is
The difference between this mud changed. The graph is drawn on rectan-
weight and the mud weight in the gular coordinates with the MACP on
well is calculated. The difference is the Y-axis and the mud weight on the
then converted to a pressure at the X-axis. Figure 10 is an example of a
casing shoe. This pressure is then MACP graph. To draw the graph, plot
used as the maximum test pressure a point at the leak-off pressure and the
when conducting the formation mud weight used to run the leak-off
integrity test. test. Then, plot a point at the fracture
FIT Example: gradient and 0 psi. Connect the two
MW = 13.5 lb/gal points with a straight line. To use the
TVD casing = 7,500 ft chart, find the weight of the mud in
Maximum anticipated the hole and read the MACP where the
mud weight = 16.0 lb/gal line intersects the mud weight. A safety
Desired safety margin = 0.5 lb/gal margin can be incorporated into this
Determine the required FIT pressure. graph by drawing another line parallel
to the maximum shut-in pressure line
1. Maximum allowable mud weight = already drawn. This line should reflect
maximum anticipated MW + the amount of safety margin desired,
safety margin = in lb/gal. In the example shown in
16.0 + 0.5 = 16.5 lb/gal Figure 10, 0.5 lb/gal is used as the safety
2. Test pressure (psi) = MW (lb/gal) – margin. The advantage of using a graph
test MW (lb/gal) x 0.052 x TVD is that the hydrostatic pressure of the
casing shoe (ft) = mud does not have to be calculated
(16.5-13.5) x 0.052 x 7,500 each time the mud weight changes.
= 1,170 psi.
Pressure Control 18.18 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98
CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
18 Pressure Control
Surge gauge reading plus the choke line fric- forces of the mud flowing upward. The
pressures tion pressure. Subsea-well-control sum of these frictional forces of flow
schools discuss choke line friction and the hydrostatic pressure is called
from pipe pressures in detail. the surge pressure. Surge pressures from
movement pipe movement can fracture formations
ANNULAR PRESSURE LOSS (APL)
can fracture and cause lost returns.
The pressure loss through the annulus When pipe is pulled from a well
formations from the bit to the bell nipple is the filled with mud, the mud column in
and cause annular pressure loss. The APL depends the annulus falls to displace the pipe
on the flow rate, mud properties and
lost returns. hydraulic diameter. APL is expressed
taken from the well. The hydrostatic
pressure is reduced by the frictional
as psi and is an imposed pressure on forces of the mud flowing downward
the hole when circulating under nor- to displace the pipe. The hydrostatic
mal conditions. The APL is calculated pressure minus the reduction in pres-
using the equations in the chapter on sure caused by pulling pipe from the
Rheology and Hydraulics in this man- well is called the swab pressure. The
ual or in the API bulletin on rheology reduction in hydrostatic pressure from
and hydraulics, API RP 13D. swabbing can “swab” formation fluids
EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY into the wellbore and cause the well
The reduction The ECD is the pressure exerted on the to kick.
in hydrostatic formation by the hydrostatic pressure When tripping, the pipe is picked
of the drilling fluid plus the annular up from the slips and accelerated to a
pressure from maximum velocity and then slowed
circulating pressure losses, expressed as
swabbing… the mud weight which would provide to a stop while the slips are reset. Swab
cause the a hydrostatic pressure equal to the sum and surge pressures are calculated for
the maximum velocity which is diffi-
well to kick. of these pressures.
cult to determine. Most swab and surge
ECD (psi) = calculations assume the maximum
APL (psi) velocity of pipe movement to be 50%
MW (lb/gal) +
0.052 x TVD (ft) greater than the average pipe velocity.
Example: Under these assumptions, if it takes
MW: 10.0 lb/gal one minute to run or pull a 90-ft stand
TD: 10,000 ft of pipe, the average pipe velocity is
APL: 15 psi/1,000 ft 1.5 ft/sec (90/60) and the maximum
pipe velocity would be assumed to
What is the ECD at 10,000 ft? be at least 2.25 ft/sec (1.5 x 90/60).
Total APL = After the velocity of the mud from
15 the pipe’s movement has been deter-
x 10,000 = 150 psi
1,000 mined, the swab and surge pressures
ECD (lb/gal) = can be determined using the standard
150 API hydraulics calculations.
10.0 +
0.052 x 10,000 TRIP MARGIN
= 10.3 lb/gal
Trip margin is the amount the mud
SURGE/SWAB PRESSURES density is increased to offset the loss in
When pipe is run into a well filled with bottom-hole pressure resulting from
mud, the mud is displaced upward in swabbing when the drill pipe is tripped
the annulus from the bit. The hydrosta- from the hole. The trip margin will
tic pressure is increased by the frictional change with conditions, but should
18 Pressure Control
be kept as low as possible. Excessive When using a mud motor, it may not
mud weights increase the surge pres- be possible to read the SIDPP from the
sures and reduce the penetration rate standpipe pressure gauge. There are
when drilling. three ways for formation pressure to be
A simple equation for estimating the communicated to the column of mud
trip margin is: in the drillstring when using a mud
Trip margin (lb/gal) = motor: (1) through the dump valves;
YP (2) through the rotor, if it is bored; and
11.7(Dh – Dp) (3) through the motor.
Many companies do not use dump
Where: valves. Even when they are used, how-
YP = Yield point (lb/100 ft2) ever, it is estimated they will fail to
Dh = Hole diameter (in.) open about 50% of the time after being
Dp = Pipe diameter (in.) subjected to temperature and pressure
Example 6 while drilling.
YP = 17 lb/100 ft2 Bored rotors allow direct mud flow
Dh = 8.5 in. from the drillstring to the bit. Bit jets
Dp = 4.5 in. or blanks are run in the rotors. A blank
will prevent formation pressures from
What is the needed trip margin? being communicated to the drillstring
Trip margin (lb/gal) = through the rotor.
17 If the formation pressure is less than
= 0.36 lb/gal
11.7(8.5 – 4.5) 150 psi greater than the hydrostatic
pressure, it may not be communicated
SHUT-IN DRILL PIPE through the motor to the drillstring.
PRESSURE (SIDPP)
The pressure required for communica-
Shut-in drill Shut-in drill pipe pressure is the pres- tion through the motor may be higher
pipe pressure sure recorded on the drill pipe (stand- than 150 psi for some motor designs
pipe gauge) when the well is shut in and conditions. The process of equal-
is the with a kick. SIDPP is the amount of izing the pressure past the rotor may
pressure pressure required to balance the for- take time.
recorded on mation pressure due to insufficient Whenever a kick is taken or suspected,
hydrostatic pressure in the drill pipe. drilling should not be resumed until it
the drill The kick is always assumed to be in is determined that the mud weight is
pipe…when the annulus due to the direction of mud adequate to control the well.
the well is movement while circulating. This leaves
an uncontaminated drilling fluid col- SHUT-IN CASING PRESSURE (SICP)
shut in with umn in the drill pipe. With this assump- The shut-in casing pressure is the pres-
a kick. tion, a direct calculation of formation sure recorded on the casing when the
pressure (Pform) can be made: well is shut in with a kick in the hole.
Pform (psi) = PHYD (psi) + SIDPP (psi) The SICP is similar to the SIDPP in that
it is the amount of pressure required to
Example 7 balance the formation pressure due to
TVD = 12,000 ft insufficient hydrostatic pressure in the
MW = 14.0 lb/gal annulus. As mentioned earlier, it is
SIDPP = 500 psi assumed that the kick volume is in the
What is the formation pressure? annulus. This will result in fluids of
Formation pressure (psi) = (0.052 x unknown, differing densities and vol-
14.0 x 12,000) + 500 = 9,236 psi umes in the annulus. Since the density
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18 Pressure Control
U-Tube Analysis
The concept of pressure control can be Virtually all pressure-control work is
related to a balanced U-tube. The basic based on the application of this simple
It is essential relationships can be seen readily in the equation. It is essential to know how to
to know how following examples, which demonstrate calculate each of these pressures and
several conditions of U-tube behavior understand how they relate to control-
to calculate that relate to wellbore conditions. ling pressures. Figure 11 shows the pres-
each of these Sources of pressures under which a sure profile for a well, which illustrates
pressures well can be controlled can be broken how the equation predicts the total
down into three basic types. They are: pressure vs. depth for both static and
and 1. Hydrostatic pressures (PHYD). dynamic conditions.
understand 2. Pressures losses (PL).
BALANCED STATIC CONDITION
how they 3. Imposed pressures (PI).
Figure 12 shows a balanced U-tube sit-
relate to Imposed pressures are more com- uation with fluid of the same density
controlling monly called back pressures. Using in the annulus and drill pipe sides.
these three basic pressures, a simple The drill pipe side and annular side of
pressures. equation can be written that will the U-tube are balanced because each
always hold true under both static contains the same height of fluid of
and dynamic steady-state conditions. the same density. Since both columns
The equation is: are balanced, no imposed pressures
PT = PHYD + PL + PI are shown on the drill pipe or casing
pressure gauges.
Where:
PT = Total pressure at some point 0 0
of interest in the system at a
specific time
Drill pipe Annulus
PT = Total pressure
PH = Hydrostatic pressure
1 Pi = Imposed pressure
PL = Annular pressure loss Depth 10 lb/gal 10 lb/gal
5,000 ft
2 Example: 10,000 ft
10 lb/gal mud
Pi = 600 psi
3
PL = 200 psi
2,600 psi
Depth (ft x 1,000)
Pi ESD =
4
10 lb/gal
5 PL
5,200 psi
6 Dynamic
PH PT = PH +Pi +PL Figure 12 : Balanced static U-tube.
7
Static
8 PT = PH +Pi
10
0 2,000 4,000 6,000
Pressure (psi)
18 Pressure Control
_______________________
Drill pipe Annulus Drill pipe Annulus
_______________________
_______________________
Depth 10 lb/gal 10 lb/gal Depth 10 lb/gal 10 lb/gal
_______________________ 5,000 ft 5,000 ft
10,000 ft 10,000 ft
_______________________
_______________________
3,900 psi 2,730 psi
5 lb/gal Circulating (2,600 + 130)
_______________________ ESD =
direction ECD =
15 lb/gal
_______________________ 10.5 lb/gal
5,460 psi
5,200 psi (5,200 + 260)
_______________________ (APL = 26 psi/1,000 ft)
ECD = 10.5 lb/gal
_______________________
Figure 13: Unbalanced U-tube with imposed pressure. Figure 14: Circulating U-tube.
_______________________
UNBALANCED STATIC CONDITION to move the mud from the pump to
_______________________
Figure 13 shows an unbalanced U-tube the flow line. The circulating pressure
_______________________
situation with two fluids that have is the sum of the pressure losses in the
different densities in the annulus. In surface equipment, drill pipe, mud
this situation, there is a difference in motor, MWD, drill collars, bit nozzles
the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in and the annulus. The bottom-hole cir-
the drill pipe and the fluid in the annu- culating pressure (5,460 psi) is the sum
lus. The hydrostatic pressure of the of the annular hydrostatic pressure
fluid in the annulus is the sum of the and the 260 psi annular pressure loss.
hydrostatic pressures of the 10.0 lb/gal Similarly, the casing shoe circulating
mud (2,600 psi) and the 5 lb/gal fluid pressure (2,730 psi) is the sum of the
(1,300 psi) or 3,900 psi. The hydrosta- hydrostatic pressure and the 130 psi
tic pressure of the 10.0 lb/gal fluid in annular pressure loss between the cas-
the drill pipe is 5,200 psi. If the well is ing shoe and atmospheric pressure.
shut in, a pressure of 1,300 psi will be These pressures cause the ECD to be
imposed on the casing pressure gauge 10.5 lb/gal at the shoe and on bottom
because of the difference in the hydro- for this example.
static pressures in the two parts of CIRCULATING (ANNULAR DENSITY
the U-tube. LESS THAN DRILL PIPE DENSITY)
NOTE: The pressure at the casing shoe Figure 15 shows a U-tube diagram
is 3,900 psi (the sum of the imposing of an unbalanced circulating system
casing pressure (1,300 psi) and the using the combined examples from
hydrostatic pressure of the 10.0 lb/gal Figures 13 and 14. The hydrostatic
mud (2,600 psi). pressure is unbalanced in the U-tube.
The Equivalent Static Density (ESD) In order to maintain a bottom-hole
at the casing shoe would be 15 lb/gal. pressure of 5,460 psi, an imposed cas-
STANDARD CIRCULATING SITUATION ing pressure of 1,300 psi is necessary
Figure 14 shows a standard U-tube dia- (5,460 psi – 3,900 psi (hydrostatic
gram for a circulating situation. A circu- pressure) – 260 psi (annular pressure
lating pressure of 2,600 psi is required loss)). The pressure at the casing shoe
is 4,030 psi, with an ECD of 15.5 lb/gal.
18 Pressure Control
_______________________
Drill pipe Annulus Drill pipe Annulus
_______________________ Open flow
_______________________
Depth 10 lb/gal 10 lb/gal Depth 10 lb/gal 10 lb/gal
_______________________ 5,000 ft 5,000 ft
10,000 ft 10,000 ft
_______________________
_______________________
4,030 psi 2,730 psi
_______________________ (1,300 + ECD =
5 lb/gal 2,600 + 130) 10.5 lb/gal
_______________________ ECD =
5,460 psi 15.5 lb/gal
(5,200 + 260)
_______________________ (APL = 26 psi/1,000 ft)
ECD = 10.5 lb/gal (APL = 26 psi/1,000 ft) 5,720 psi Pressure
_______________________ ECD = 11 lb/gal
Figure 15: Unbalanced circulating U-tube
_______________________ situation with imposed casing pressure. Figure 16: Circulating U-tube with
_______________________ influx of formation fluids.
CIRCULATING
_______________________ (FORMATION FLUID INFLUX) Shut-in drill pipe Shut-in casing
pressure pressure
Figure 16 illustrates a U-tube diagram of 520 psi 1,820 psi
a kicking circulating well with the BOPs
open. The bottom-hole hydrostatic pres-
Drill pipe Annulus
sure is only 5,460 psi (as in Figure 12). A
formation with a pressure of 5,720 psi
bottom-hole pressure is encountered. Depth 10 lb/gal 10 lb/gal
5,000 ft
An unbalanced pressure of 260 psi 10,000 ft
exists (5,720 psi (formation pressure) –
5,460 psi (bottom-hole pressure)). As a 5 lb/gal
4,420 psi
result, formation fluids will begin to ESD =
enter the annulus, causing a kick. It 17 lb/gal
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Pressure Control
18 Pressure Control
4. Close the designated BOP. This that the intruding fluid can be circu-
could be the annular preventer or lated out of the well on the first circu-
the topmost pipe ram with the lation. But kicks do occur when the
appropriate ram size for the drill drill pipe is out of the hole or is being
…it is easier pipe inside the BOP stack. tripped. Since it is easier to control a
to control a 5. Close the adjustable choke on the well when the bit is on or near bottom,
choke manifold. the drill pipe should be run back into
well when NOTE: Closing the well with the the hole if it is possible to do so safely.
the bit is adjustable choke precludes the possibil- This may be done if the well is not flow-
on or near ity of imposing surge pressures on the ing or the rate of fluid flow is very low
BOP equipment. and the size of the influx is very small.
bottom… 6. Record the influx volume and the Extreme caution should be taken when
shut-in pressures on the casing and tripping into the well under these con-
drill pipe. It may take several min- ditions. When the bit is run into the top
utes for the pressures to stabilize. of the kick fluid influx, the influx will
Check visually for leaks. It is also be rapidly displaced upward. This can
a good practice to double-check reduce the hydrostatic head sufficiently
the position of all standpipe and for the well to “unload” the mud and
choke-and-kill manifold valves. blow out if the well is not closed in
Subsea BOP stack on floating units quickly. Do not risk losing control of
equipped with motion compensator the well in order to get the bit all the
1. Raise the drillstring until the lower way back to bottom. Once it has been
kelly cock is above the rotary table determined that the well should be shut
and there is no tool joint across the in, the following steps should be taken:
pipe rams. 11. Install the drill pipe safety valve in
2. Shut the pumps down and check the open position. It may be nec-
for flow. If the well is flowing, essary to install this valve with
continue with Step 3. mud flowing “through” it.
Do not 3. Open the outer fail-safe valve in 12. Close the safety valve.
risk losing the choke line at the BOP stack. 13. Open the hydraulic choke line
(Normally, the inner valve should valve or outer choke line valve.
control of be in the open position.) 14. Space out the drillstring so that
the well in 4. Close the designated BOP. there is no tool joint opposite
order to get 5. Land the drillstring on the top pipe the BOPs.
rams and close the ram locks. 15. Close the (upper) annular BOP or
the bit all top pipe rams.
6. Close the second-from-top pipe rams.
the way back 7. Close the adjustable choke on the 16. Close the adjustable choke.
to bottom. choke manifold. Set the motion com- 17. Install the kelly or circulating head.
pensator to mid-stroke. Record the 18. Open the drill pipe safety valve.
influx volume and pressures on both 19. Re-align the standpipe manifold
casing and drill pipe. Check visually and choke-and-kill manifolds.
for leaks. Double-check the position 10. Record shut-in pressures on both
of all standpipe and choke-and-kill the casing and drill pipe. Take
manifold valves. readings at one-minute intervals
until the pressures stabilize.
KICKS OFF BOTTOM 11. Measure pit gain in the mud
Well control is simplified when the bit is tanks. On floating rigs, the drill-
on bottom. The maximum column of string should be hung on the pipe
drilling fluid can be conditioned to con- rams using normal procedures.
trol the formation pressure and ensure
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used, the well can be killed without hav- 4. Mud weight consistency. To kill a
ing to compensate for gas expansion in well successfully, the mud weight
the calculations. When weighted mud is must be increased to a density that
being pumped down the drill pipe, the will balance the formation pressure.
use of a schedule to decrease the drill At high flow rates, equipment limi-
pipe pressure as the hydrostatic pressure tations may make it impossible to
in the annulus increases, will lessen the add weight material fast enough to
likelihood of fracturing the formation. maintain the proper kill-mud weight.
After the kill-weight mud reaches the Reduced pump rates give the rig crew
bit, a constant pressure is held on the more time to maintain the correct
drill pipe while displacing the annulus mud weight and fluid properties
with kill-weight mud at the slow pump during the well-control operation.
rate. Two methods are used to deter-
The RCP mine this pressure. These calculations
The Reduced Circulating Pressure
should be (RCP) should be measured at a slow
will be discussed in the well-control
pump rate and recorded every tour
measured at method to which they apply.
for all mud pumps in the event that
a slow pump Usually, well-control operations are
a pump breaks down during a well-
conducted at a reduced pump rate of 1⁄3
rate and control operation. The RCPs should
to 1⁄2 the normal circulating rate. There
be measured and recorded whenever
recorded are many reasons for doing this. Among
well changes occur that will affect the
every tour… them are:
circulating pressure. Some of these
1. Improved reaction time. The bottom-
changes are mud density, drilling
hole pressure is controlled by open-
assembly or nozzle changes, pump
ing or closing an adjustable choke. At
repairs, and a high quantity of new
high flow rates, small adjustments in
hole drilled.
the choke opening can result in large
Several calculations are necessary
pressure changes. This may permit
for each of the well-control methods.
additional formation fluids to enter
Some of them are common to all of
the annulus or fracture the forma-
the well-control methods. They are:
tion. Reduced flow rates allow more
…well- time to analyze changes and recog- Kill-weight mud (lb/gal) =
SIDPP (psi)
control nize equipment problems such as MW (lb/gal) +
pump failure, choke failure and 0.052 x TVD (ft)
operations plugged bit nozzles. Surface-to-bit strokes =
are conducted 2. Pressure limits. The pump pressure drillstring capacity x measured depth
at a reduced used to circulate a kick out is the cir- pump output
pump rate culating pressure at a known pump
NOTE: Calculations necessary for a par-
rate plus the SIDPP. In most drilling
of 1⁄3 to 1⁄2 ticular well-control method will be described
operations, the pumps are operated
in the discussion of that method.
the normal near their maximum pressure limits.
circulating Under these conditions, the pumps When a kick occurs and the well is
would not be capable of operating at shut in, basic information should be
rate. the required kill rates and pressures. recorded. This information will be used
3. Equipment failure. When equip- to kill the well and can be used in future
ment is run at or near its maxi- analysis of the operation. To assist rig
mum rating, the higher stress levels personnel, worksheets have been devel-
increase the likelihood of failure. oped for the various well-control meth-
ods. The worksheets usually include all
of the information about the well, kick
18 Pressure Control
and rig needed to kill the well using a NOTE: The Driller’s Method is not
specific well-control procedure. The recommended for most offshore wells.
necessary calculations are included
The procedure for circulating a kick
with a description of the well-control
out using the Driller’s Method is:
method. The worksheets are good tools
11. Shut the well in and record the
for guiding rig crews through the neces-
pertinent kick information.
sary well-control procedures.
12. Calculate the Initial Circulation
NOTE: A worksheet for each of
Pressure (ICP):
the approved well-control procedures
is included in this chapter with a ICP = RCP + SIDPP
discussion of the procedure. 13. Open the adjustable choke and
The information that should be start pumping at the preselected
recorded after taking a kick are: slow pump rate. Adjust the choke
11. Measured depth. to obtain a pump pressure equal
12. Total vertical depth. to the ICP.
13. Mud weight. 14. Circulate the kick out by main-
14. Shut-In Drill Pipe Pressure (SIDPP). taining the ICP using the adjust-
15. Shut-In Casing Pressure (SICP). able choke. Maintain a constant
16. Kick volume. pump rate throughout the circu-
17. Fractured gradient. lating process.
18. Casing TVD. 15. Once the kick has been circulated
19. Reduced Circulating Pressure (RCP). out of the well, the well can be shut
10. Reduced Circulating Rate (RCR). in. The SIDPP and the SICP should
11. Reduced Pump Output (RPO). be equal, since the intruding fluid
has been circulated out of the well.
If off-bottom: 16. Calculate the kill-mud weight and
12. Measured depth of bit. weight up the fluid in the surface
13. TVD of bit. system.
Items 1 through 6 are taken at the 17. Open the adjustable choke and
time the kick is taken and the well is start pumping at the preselected
shut in. Items 7 through 11 should be slow pump rate. Adjust the choke
known or measured prior to taking a to maintain the casing pressure at
kick. They must be used to make the the SICP.
necessary calculations to circulate the 18. Maintain the mud weight in the sur-
kick out of the hole and to kill the face system at the kill-mud weight.
well. Items 12 and 13 apply if the 19. Once the kill mud reaches the bit,
kick occurs while tripping. record the pump pressure. Maintain
this pump pressure by adjusting the
THE DRILLER’S METHOD choke until the kill mud is observed
The Driller’s The Driller’s Method is the simplest of at the surface.
Method is the approved well-control methods. It 10. Stop pumping and shut the well
was developed to circulate the kick out in to check for pressures. If shut-
not recom- of the well and circulate the kill mud in pressure exists, additional mud
mended into the well (in two circulations) with weight and circulation will be
for most a minimum number of calculations. required. If no shut-in pressures
The method’s original purpose was to exists, the well is under control.
offshore control wells with minimal supervision, At this time, one or two circula-
wells. poor mixing capabilities or insufficient tions may be made to condition
weighting material on location. the mud and increase the mud
weight to provide a trip margin.
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Once the constant bottom-hole pressure must Once the kill-weight mud reaches
kill-weight change as the fluid is circulated. A chart the bit, the pump pressure is held con-
of the scheduled pump or drill pipe stant at the Final Circulating Pressure
mud reaches pressure changes simplifies the kill pro- (FCP) until the kill mud reaches the
the bit, cedure and reduces the chance of error. surface. This FCP is calculated with the
the pump The pressure schedule or graph deter- following equation.
mines the pump pressure while the kill kill-mud weight
pressure mud is being pumped down the drill FCP = RCP x
original mud weight
is held pipe. As the hydrostatic pressure in the
constant drill pipe increases, the pump pressure This equation calculates the reduced
necessary to maintain the correct circulating pressure using the kill-mud
at the FCP bottom-hole pressure is reduced. weight as the circulating fluid. The cal-
until the kill Well-control worksheets for the Wait- culations for pressures through these
mud reaches and-Weight Method contain a pressure two sections of the circulating system
schedule graph. The schedule is drawn are based on turbulent pressure losses
the surface. and energy changes. Since the only
on standard rectangular coordinates.
The vertical axis is for the pump pres- significant change to the drilling fluid
sure and the horizontal axis is for the properties used to calculate these pres-
pump strokes. At zero (0) pump strokes, sure losses is the mud density, the cir-
plot the ICP on the pressure scale. Plot culating pressure is increased by the
the surface-to-bit strokes and plot the ratio of the kill-mud weight to the
FCP on the graph. Draw a straight line original mud weight.
between the two points. It is not prac- The Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP)
tical to try to maintain too fine a con- is calculated the same way as in the
trol on the drill pipe pressure while Driller’s Method:
killing the well. Instead, make a chart ICP = RCP + SIDPP
that shows the pump pressure from the
The pressure schedule is drawn
schedule at a selected stroke interval (i.e.
using the ICP, FCP and the surface-
100, 150, 200 etc.). The pump pressure
to-bit strokes.
is maintained according to this pressure
until the selected number of strokes is The procedure for circulating a
pumped. The pump pressure is then kick out using the Wait-and-Weight
reduced to the next pressure until the Method is:
stroke interval is pumped. This stair- 11. Shut the well in and record the
step fashion is continued until the kill pertinent kick information.
mud reaches the bit. At that time, the 12. Calculate the kill-weight mud.
pump pressure is held constant until 13. Begin increasing the mud
the kill mud is observed at the surface. weight in the surface pits
NOTE: The pump pressure will decrease on to the kill-weight mud.
its own as the kill-mud weight is pumped 14. Calculate the ICP.
down the drill pipe. This is due to the 15. Calculate the FCP.
increase in hydrostatic pressure in the drill 16. Calculate the surface-to-bit strokes.
pipe. As a result, few, if any, choke adjust- 17. Construct a pressure schedule.
ments are required while pumping kill mud 18. Open the adjustable choke and
down the drill pipe. Some adjustments will start pumping at the preselected
be required to account for the changing slow pump rate. Adjust the choke
hydrostatic pressure in the annulus due to to obtain a pump pressure equal
the intruding fluid moving up the annulus. to the ICP.
18 Pressure Control
_______________________ 19. Circulate out the kick following • Calculate the kill-mud weight (Step 4).
_______________________ the pressure schedule using the Kill-MW (lb/gal) =
adjustable choke. Maintain a con- SIDPP (psi) x 19.25
_______________________ MW (lb/gal) +
stant pump rate throughout the TVD (ft)
_______________________ circulating process. 400 x 19.5
_______________________ 10. Maintain the mud weight in the sur- = 13.3 +
9,000
face system at the kill-mud weight. = 14.1
_______________________
11. Once the kill mud reaches the bit, • Calculate FCP (Step 8).
_______________________ maintain the FCP until the kill
mud is observed at the surface. kill-mud weight
_______________________ FCP = RCP x
12. Stop pumping and shut the well in original mud weight
_______________________ 14.1
to check for pressures. If shut-in = 600 x
_______________________ pressures exist, additional mud 13.2
_______________________ weight and circulation will be = 641 psi
_______________________
required. If no shut-in pressures • Calculate circulating time to bit
exist, the well is under control. At (Step 9).
_______________________
this time, one or two circulations
Circulating time to bit =
_______________________ can be made to condition the mud
DP capacity (bbl/ft) x MD (ft)
_______________________ and increase the mud weight to
kill pump rate (bbl/min)
provide a trip margin.
• Calculate time to bit (Step 10).
The following information has been
used to fill out the Wait-and-Weight 0.01422 (bbl/ft) x 9,000 (ft)
=
Method worksheet as shown in 4.17 (bbl/min)
Figures 20 and 21. = 30.7 min
Total depth: 9,000 ft (TVD) Strokes to bit = kill pump rate
Hole size: 81⁄2 in. (stk/min) x time (min)
Casing: 95⁄8 in. (43.5 lb/ft) set = 30 x 30.7 = 920 stk
to 5,000 ft (capacity
Prepare drill pipe pressure schedule.
0.0744 bbl/ft)
Mud weight: 13.2 lb/gal Procedure:
SIDPP: 400 psi • Open the adjustable choke and start
SICP: 500 psi pumping at 30 stk/min.
Pit volume • Adjust the choke to obtain a pump
increase: 15 bbl pressure of 1,000 psi.
Drill pipe: 41⁄2 in. (16.6 lb/ft) • Follow the pressure schedule pre-
(capacity = pared in Figure 21 as the kill mud
0.0142 bbl/ft) is pumped down the drill pipe.
RCP • After the kill mud has reached the
(at stk/min): 600 psi bit (920 stk), maintain the pump
Kill pump rate: 4.17 bbl/min pressure at 641 psi (FCP) until the
kill mud is observed at the surface.
Calculations • Shut the well in and determine if
• Calculate ICP (Step 7). the well is dead.
ICP = RCP + SIDPP • If the well is dead, the mud can be cir-
ICP = 600 + 400 culated either through an open choke
= 1,000 psi or with the BOPs open. The mud can
be conditioned and/or a trip margin
can be added at this time.
18 Pressure Control
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18 Pressure Control
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18 Pressure Control
Special Problems
18 Pressure Control
In many cases, when the mud NOTE: The results of this equation
becomes gas-cut, the mud density is assume that the pit volume gain is due
Increases in increased needlessly. Increases in con- specifically to the effects of the gas-cut
connection or nection or background gas should be mud. Since the drilling fluid circulating
the basis for increasing the mud density, system is in a dynamic condition, exact
background not gas cutting. Gas cutting usually has determination of this value will be diffi-
gas should be little effect on the hydrostatic head of cult. Another assumption made with this
the basis for the total column of mud in the well- equation is that the gas has no density.
bore, since the reduction of mud density This is not the case; however, using this
increasing is only at the surface. The Strong-White assumption would give you the largest
the mud equation can be used to calculate the decrease in hydrostatic pressure.
density… reduction in bottom-hole hydrostatic Figure 24 shows the effects of gas-cut
pressure due to gas cutting. The follow- mud at various depths and amounts of
ing problems are exercises in calculating gas cutting. It shows the reduction in
this reduction: hydrostatic pressure at depth for various
∆PHYD = Reduction in PHYD (psi) percentages of gas cutting. The gas per-
centages used in the graph were 10,
PHYD = Hydrostatic pressure with
33.3 and 50%. The effects of this gas
uncut mud (psi)
cutting were shown for 10 and 18 lb/gal.
N = Ratio of gas to mud Figure 24 indicates that an 18-lb/gal
original mud weight mud cut to 9 lb/gal at the surface (a
= –1
cut mud weight 50% cut) reduces the hydrostatic pres-
NOTE: ∆PHYD and PHYD are expressed in sure of a 20,000-ft well by only about
psi. “∆” represents the change in pressure 100 psi. The graph does not show all of
or density. the various possibilities, but does show
that the reduction in hydrostatic pres-
1. Strong-White equation: sure due to gas-cut mud is minimal.
P
( )
∆PHYD = N x 2.3 log HYD
14.7
x 14.7
The results can be extrapolated between
percentages for a close estimate in
bottom-hole pressure reduction.
2. Shortcut estimation:
The following example calculates the
∆PHYD = 100 (
uncut MW
gas-cut MW ) –1 reduction in bottom-hole pressure due
to gas-cut mud using the Strong-White
3. When gas expands in the annulus, equation and the short-cut equation.
the volume increase is observed as Use the graph to estimate the reduction
a gain in surface volume. This pit in bottom-hole pressure and compare
gain can be depicted as occupying the results to the equation.
some specific annular height in the Example:
hole. A loss of hydrostatic pressure Depth: 10,000 ft
can be determined from this gain Hole size: 97⁄8 in.
using the following equation: Pipe size: 5 in.
∆PHYD (psi) = Mud weight: 14 lb/gal
pit gain (bbl) Mud cut to: 10 lb/gal
x MW (lb/gal) x 0.052 Pit volume gain: 3.6 bbl
VANN (bbl/ft)
18 Pressure Control
_______________________ 20
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
lb/gal
al
_______________________ 10
t to 13.5 lb/g
9
lb/gal to 7.5
_______________________
lb/gal
8
_______________________
7
to 6.66
/gal
18 lb/gal cu
_______________________
25% cut 10
5 lb
6
l
12 lb/ga
Depth (ft x 1,000)
_______________________
/gal cut
t to
10% cut 10 lb/gal to 9 lb/gal
_______________________ 5
al cu
18 lb/gal cut to 16.2 lb/gal
l cut to
ut 10 lb
lb/g
_______________________
4
10
18 lb/ga
_______________________
33.3% c
cut
_______________________
50%
3
_______________________
al
lb/g
to 9
2
l cut
b/ga
18 l
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Change in BHP (psi)
18 Pressure Control
18 Pressure Control
pipe or N-80 tubing is considered sus- level for the fluid, with additions of
ceptible. These grades also may be sus- lime. In water-base muds, the pH
ceptible when work-hardened under should be kept at >11.5 and SULF-X
high loads or by rough handling such or another suitable zinc scavenger
as being struck with a hammer when should be maintained (in excess).
trying to detect a wet string. Chelated zinc may be used in water-
The problems The problems associated with hydro- base muds, but zinc oxide is preferable
associated gen sulfide cannot be over-emphasized. in any fluid that can suspend it, since
It is soluble in water and liquefies at it has twice the activity of chelated
with pressures of only 350 to 400 psi. Because zinc. Chelated zinc is especially suited
hydrogen of these characteristics, kicks containing for use in clear brines and Newtonian
sulfide a significant amount of hydrogen sul- fluid systems that lack sufficient rhe-
fide are difficult to control. The phase ology to suspend zinc oxide. Simply
cannot change from a liquid to a gas with large raising the pH will not neutralize
be over- increases in volume occur rapidly, hydrogen sulfide. It converts the
emphasized. very near the surface. Even when hydrogen sulfide to different types
alerted to the presence of hydrogen of soluble sulfide ion species. A reduc-
sulfide, it is difficult to work the tion in pH will allow these soluble
choke fast enough to handle a ions to convert to poisonous hydro-
hydrogen sulfide kick properly. gen sulfide gas. On the other hand,
Once hydrogen sulfide reaches the the reaction of sulfide with zinc
surface, it presents an extreme hazard forms a stable zinc sulfide which
to personnel and animal life. These haz- will not revert to hydrogen sulfide.
ards are discussed in greater depth in It is a common practice to bullhead
the Corrosion and HSE chapters of this the hydrogen sulfide gas back into the
manual. In most areas where hydrogen formation. This involves pumping mud
sulfide is thought to be a hazard, strict down the annulus to force the kick back
It is a regulations are in place as regards to into the formation. The amount of fluid
common safety equipment, training, and evacu- pumped is equal to the amount of
practice ation zones and procedures. If hydro- influx taken. Once the intruding fluid
gen sulfide blows out, the well should has been bullheaded back into the for-
to bullhead be set on fire — even though the rig mation, procedures should be under-
the hydrogen will be destroyed — to reduce the haz- taken to restore hydrostatic control of
sulfide gas ard. It would be unusual to find an area the well.
of the world so remote that the govern- Carbon dioxide (CO2) is another acid
back into the ment, operator or drilling contractor did gas. It can be highly corrosive and cause
formation. not have plans for drilling in hydrogen severe flocculation of water-base muds.
sulfide environments. If such a condi- It is not considered to be a lethal gas.
tion should exist, regulations and proce- Carbon dioxide is treated with addi-
dures from Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas tions of lime or lime and caustic soda.
or Wyoming can be used as a guide. This precipitates the carbonates as cal-
The handling of hydrogen sulfide in cium carbonate. Additions of defloc-
drilling fluids is mentioned in other culants also are required to control
chapters in this manual. SULF-X T or the rheological properties of the fluid.
another inorganic zinc sulfide scav- NOTE: A more in-depth discussion of treat-
enger should be maintained in excess ing CO2 and carbonates can be found in the
in oil- or synthetic-base drilling fluids. Contamination and Treatment chapter of
The POM of oil and synthetic muds this manual.
should be maintained at a suitable
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DENSITY OF THE INTRUDING FLUID Drill pipe: 41⁄2 in., 16.6 lb/ft
The approximate density of the intrud- Drill collars: 5-in. OD — 400 ft
ing fluid can be calculated. However, SICP: 500 psi
the accuracy of the answer depends on SIDPP: 275 psi
several factors. These factors are: (1) the Pit volume gain: 20 bbl
accuracy of the shut-in drill pipe and Annular volume around drill collars =
casing pressures, (2) the accuracy of the 0.0359 bbl/ft
measured volume of influx, (3) the hole Annular volume around drill pipe =
size (allowing for washout), (4) the 0.0406 bbl/ft
assumed annular mud density above
the intruding fluid, and (5) the detection Calculate the length of the
of the kick before gas expansion occurs. intruding fluid:
Usually, the mud density in the Find the length of the 20 bbl of kick
annulus is slightly heavier than in the fluid in the annulus.
mud pits due to the cuttings concen- a. Drill collars
tration and loss of filtrate to the for- 400 ft x 0.0359 bbl/ft = 14.4 bbl
mation. This density can usually be a. 20 bbl – 14.4 bbl
determined by weighing the mud at = 5.6 bbl of intrusion above collars
the flow line, unless it is gas-cut. The
weight of gas-cut mud at the flow line b. Drill pipe
is not a true indication of the weight 5.6 bbl ÷ 0.0406 bbl/ft = 138 ft
of the mud in the annulus, because b. Total length of the kick fluid is:
gas expansion only occurs near the 400 ft + 138 ft = 538 ft
surface. If the mud is gas-cut, the
Calculate the density of the
weight should be determined with
intruding fluid:
a pressurized Halliburton scale.
The actual hole size also must be (SICP – SIDPP)
FW = MW –
determined to calculate the length of 0.052 x L
the intruding fluid. Knowledge of the Where:
degree of washout in other wells in the FW = Kick density (lb/gal)
area in which the same type fluid (as MW = Mud density (lb/gal)
the current well) was used is valuable L = Length of kick volume (ft)
in estimating hole size.
(500 – 275)
Accuracy in determining the volume FW = 10.5 –
of the intruding fluid is also necessary; 0.052 x 538
therefore, the use of accurate measur- FW = 2.46 lb/gal probable gas kick
ing equipment that totals all surface LOST CIRCULATION
pits is important, especially when
Lost large surface volumes are used.
Lost circulation is the loss of whole
circulation mud to the formation. It is more likely
To determine the density of the
to occur during well-control operations
is the loss intruding fluid, measure:
than during drilling operations. During
a. The shut-in drill pipe pressure.
of whole b. The shut-in casing pressure.
well-control operations, it can occur at
mud to the any time — from the initial shut-in
c. The pit volume increase.
until the well is dead. When lost circu-
formation. Example: lation is most likely to occur depends
Given: on the following factors:
Total depth: 6,000 ft 1. Type of kick (gas or saltwater).
Mud weight: 10.5 lb/gal 2. Length of kick (hole geometry
Bit size: 77⁄8 in. and volume of kick).
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18 Pressure Control
is out of the hole. The longer the well drill pipe when shutting the well in
flows, the larger the volume of intrud- (see Shut-In Procedures). An inside
ing fluid. A heavy influx of formation BOP is a one-way valve that allows
fluids will result in excessive surface fluid to be pumped through it but
pressures when the well is shut in. These closes to prevent backflow when
pressures can fracture the casing shoe pumping stops.
or cause failure of surface equipment. If the pipe can be stripped back to
Shutting the well in reduces the size of bottom, the Driller’s Method kill pro-
the kick and the amount of pressure on cedure should be used to circulate the
the equipment. invading fluid out of the well. The
Caution must be exercised when run- Driller’s Method is used because the
ning pipe back into the hole after it is fluid density does not have to be
determined that formation fluids have increased to control the formation
entered the wellbore. When the drill- pressure. Some additional density
string is run into the formation fluids, may be required in order to trip out
they will be displaced up the wellbore. of the hole safely.
This displacement will quickly move In some cases, it will be impossible or
the fluids to a shallow depth where impractical to get the bit back to bot-
they will expand rapidly. This can tom, so the kick must be controlled
cause the well to flow. with the pipe in place. In such cases, the
If the well is shut in with the bit off following options should be considered:
bottom, several options are available. 1. Increase the density of the mud
One is to strip the pipe back to bottom. above the current position of the
To do this, pipe is run back into the bit by normal circulation or by
hole with the BOPs closed. If the pres- circulating through the choke.
sures are not excessive, this can be done 2. Mix and spot a high-density,
through the annular preventer without limited volume kill fluid.
severely damaging the sealing element. 3. Spot a barite plug or a cement plug.
It is a good practice to use some type of
In these cases, the sum of the hydro-
lubricant to ease the movement of the
static pressures of the mud densities
pipe through the closed preventer and
must equal the formation pressure,
prevent damage to the sealing element.
but not exceed the fracture pressure at
A bentonite slurry placed on top of the
the weakest point in the well. This is
preventer will lubricate the pipe as it
illustrated in the following examples:
passes through the element. Other
types of lubricants can be used. Before EXAMPLE #1:
An inside using a lubricant, check to see if it is Depth: 10,000 ft
BOP is a compatible with the sealing elements. Mud weight: 10 lb/gal
Some sealing elements are made of Depth of bit: 6,000 ft
one-way compounds that can be damaged by SIDPP: 150 psi
valve that lubricant compounds. Fracture gradient: 11.2 lb/gal at
allows fluid If the pipe is stripped into the hole, 2,000 ft
mud must be bled off to make room
to be Calculate the mud weight required
for the pipe as it is run into the closed
pumped well. If not, the pressure in the well to balance the kick based on the TVD
of the bit:
through it will increase and can fracture the for-
mation. The volume of mud that must 150 x 19.25
but closes Kill weight = 10 +
be bled off is equal to the displace- 6,000
to prevent ment and capacity of the pipe. An = 10.5 lb/gal
backflow… inside BOP must be installed in the
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_______________________ In this case, option No. 1 can be and should only be used as a last resort.
_______________________ used, since the kill-weight mud does If the plug is successful, gas will probably
not exceed the fracture gradient. migrate up to the plug. This can make it
_______________________
hazardous to drill the plug.
EXAMPLE #2:
_______________________ NOTE: Barite and cement plugs are dis-
Depth: 10,000 ft cussed in greater detail in the reference
_______________________
Mud weight: 10.0 lb/gal section.
_______________________ Depth of bit: 4,000 ft These options are only temporary
_______________________ SIDPP: 300 psi steps to balance formation pressures
_______________________
Fracture gradient: 11.2 lb/gal at until the bit can be run to bottom and
2,000 ft the mud weight increased uniformly
_______________________
Calculate the mud weight required throughout the wellbore.
_______________________
to balance the kick: GAS MIGRATION
_______________________
300 x 19.25 If a well is shut in on a gas kick, the
Kill weight = 10 +
_______________________ 4,000 pressure in the gas equals the hydrosta-
_______________________ = 11.44 lb/gal tic pressure of the fluid above it, plus
_______________________ In this case, option No. 2 should be the Shut-In Casing Pressure (SICP). The
used, since the kill-weight mud would specific gravity of gas is significantly
_______________________
exceed the fracture weight. less than that of the drilling fluid in the
When this situation occurs, heavy annulus. As a result, the gas will move
mud can be spotted below the casing upward, or migrate, toward the surface.
shoe to balance the kick pressure. The rate of migration is dependent
upon several factors, such as mud
Calculate the weight of the high- weight and mud viscosity. A widely
density, kill fluid: accepted migration rate for gas is 500
First calculate the bottom-hole to 1,000 ft/hr. When the well is shut
(kicking) pressure: in, the volumes of mud and gas in the
0.052 x 10,000 x 10 + 300 annulus will remain constant, unless
0.052 x 10,000 volume is lost to the formation or
= 5,500 psi released at the surface. Without being
allowed to expand, the confining pres-
Next calculate the length and pres-
sure of the gas will remain constant as
sure of the 10 lb/gal mud above and
it migrates up the wellbore. This has
below the heavy mud.
serious implications.
Length of 10 lb/gal mud When the well was shut in with the
= 2,000 – 0 + 10,000 – 4,000 bubble at the bottom of the well, the
= 8,000 ft gas was confined by the hydrostatic
PHYD of 10 lb/gal mud pressure of the mud column above it,
= 0.052 x 8,000 x 10 plus the SICP. When the gas migrates
= 4,160 psi to the surface, its confining pressure is
held by the casing. This confining pres-
PHYD of high-density mud from sure is added to the hydrostatic pres-
2,000 to 4,000 ft sure of the mud column at the casing
5,500 – 4,160 seat and at the total depth of the well.
= = 1,340 psi
0.052 x 2,000 If the drill pipe pressure is 1,000 psi
= 12.9 lb/gal and the hydrostatic pressure at TVD
An option is to set a barite or cement is 10,000 psi when a well is shut in,
plug. This option does not provide a the confining pressure of a gas bubble
way to balance the formation pressures at TVD is 11,000 psi. If the bubble is
18 Pressure Control
allowed to migrate to the surface with- slowly and vent enough mud to reduce
out expanding, the casing pressure will the casing pressure to a predetermined
be 11,000 psi and the pressure at TVD acceptable level. When this is done,
will be 21,000 psi. If this were an actual close the choke and allow the pressure
situation, it is highly unlikely that the to stabilize. This practice should be con-
bubble would reach the surface without tinued until the mud can be circulated
fracturing the formation, rupturing and the well killed.
the casing or causing the BOPs to fail. In some instances, circulation is not
There is a natural tendency to be possible due to mechanical problems
concerned when the surface volume such as:
increases and the pits run over as a gas 1. Pump failure.
bubble expands and displaces mud from 2. Failure of other rig components.
the annulus. Many wells have been lost 3. Plugged pipe or bit.
by untrained personnel who did not 4. Washout.
allow the gas to expand as it was circu-
The gas In these instances, the Volumetric
lated from the well in kill procedures.
bubble must Method will be required to allow the
This method of well control is contemp-
gas kick to migrate out of the hole.
be allowed to tuously referred to as the Constant Pit
However, this method will not kill
expand as it Level Method of well control. Under no
the well. The well will not be killed
circumstances should it ever be used! The
rises in the until there is sufficient hydrostatic
gas bubble must be allowed to expand
pressure in the annulus to prevent a
wellbore. as it rises in the wellbore.
further influx of fluid. If necessary,
A simple method of controlling
the gas can be allowed to migrate to
the bottom-hole pressure of a well is
the surface with this procedure. Once
referred to as the Volumetric Method.
the gas reaches the surface, the proce-
The amount of mud that is vented from
dure changes. Prior to venting gas to
the well represents a loss of hydrosta-
the atmosphere, a volume of mud
tic pressure. This loss is determined
A simple equaling some preselected hydrostatic
by the mud weight and the height
pressure must be pumped into the well
method of (annular height if pipe is in the hole)
(lubricated). The mud will replace the
it occupies in the hole. This procedure
controlling maintains near-constant bottom-hole
volume of gas that was vented. The
the bottom- increasing hydrostatic pressure will
pressure while allowing the gas to
reduce the casing pressure. This process
hole pressure expand as it migrates to the surface.
should continue until the gas has been
of a well is To monitor the volume of fluid vented
vented from the well and replaced with
from the well, returns should be taken
referred to mud. At this time, the SICP and the
to a small, calibrated pit, where the exact
SIDPP should be equal. Use of this
as the vented volume can be measured. A trip
procedure will result in avoiding
Volumetric tank is the best choice. A slugging pit
a dangerous well condition and
is the next-best choice.
Method. To prevent additional formation fluid
satisfactory control of the well.
from entering the annulus, select a min- PIPE OFF-BOTTOM OR OUT OF THE HOLE
imum overbalance pressure. Then, select Another instance where this procedure
the amount of pressure increase which can be used is when a kick was taken
will be tolerated before drilling fluid is with the bit off-bottom or with no drill
vented. Monitor the SIDPP and the SICP pipe in the hole. The same procedure
as the gas migrates upward. The pres- will work as before. There will be one
sures should increase equally, since the difference, however. With the bit off
system is closed. Once the selected pres- bottom, the SIDPP and the SICP will
sure increase occurs, open the choke be equal if the kick is below the bit. If
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18 Pressure Control
Once the gas has reached the sur- Actual volumes and pressures may
face, the 10.0-lb/gal mud will be used not coincide precisely with calculated
to lubricate the gas out of the hole. volumes and pressures. Therefore, this
The chart below would indicate the procedure should be continued until all
SICP reduction and the amount of the gas has been vented out of the hole.
mud pumped into the well:
SICP Volume of Mud Lubricated Into the Hole (bbl)
Before Venting After Venting* Cumulative Incremental
900 800 14.3 —
800 700 28.6 14.3
700 600 42.9 14.3
600 500 57.2 14.3
500 400 71.5 14.3
*Includes 100-psi safety margin.
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18 Pressure Control
_______________________
MIXING ORDER OIL-BASE WELLBORE PLUGS
Using a ribbon blender, the caustic Weight-material plugs can also be for-
soda should be added to the freshwater mulated in oil. As in water-base muds,
first, followed by the SPERSENE, D-D and certain products and mixing proce-
DEFOAM-X, in that order. The weight dures produce the best results. These
material should be added last. About oil-base fluids do not use water, lime
1
⁄3 of the defoamer should be added or brine. They are formulated with
initially, with the remainder added as only a wetting agent, oil and weight
needed to control foam. material. VERSAWETT is the preferred
wetting agent, but VERSACOATT can
also be used.
FORMULATION CHARTS FOR ONE FINAL BARREL OF OIL-BASE SLURRY:
Slurry Weight M-I BAR Diesel VERSAWET
(lb/gal) (lb/bbl) (gal/bbl) (gal/bbl)
14 380 30.8 0.60
15 432 29.4 0.60
16 484 28.0 0.60
17 536 26.4 0.60
18 587 25.0 0.60
Using FER-OX.
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18 Pressure Control
slurry in the annulus. This allows the 5. Determine the length that two
drillstring to be withdrawn with a barrels of slurry will occupy in
natural slug. the drill pipe.
SPOTTING PROCEDURES Length of 2 bbl of slurry x
Calculate the height at which the slurry 2 bbl
(less two barrels) is balanced in the hole drill pipe capacity (bbl/ft)
(with the drillstring in the hole): 6. Determine the height of mud above
1. Determine the volume of fluid the slurry after placing the slurry in
inside and outside the drill collars the well.
= (capacity of hole – displacement Height above slurry =
of drill collars) x length of drill total depth – drill collar length –
collars height remaining slurry (Step 3) –
length of 2 bbl (Step 6)
2. Determine the remaining volume
of slurry 7. Determine the volume of mud that
= slurry volume – volume around occupies this length or height of
drill collars (Step 1) – 2 bbl mud. This volume of mud will be
pumped behind the slurry to place
3. Height of remaining slurry =
the slurry in the correct spot.
remaining volume of slurry (from Step 2) Volume (bbl) =
(capacity of hole – displacement of drill pipe) height above slurry (ft) x
4. Check to make sure that the total drill pipe capacity (bbl/ft)
height of the slurry is less than the WELL-CONTROL COMPLICATIONS
maximum slurry length, determined
Well-control procedures, like all drill-
by well conditions. The maximum
ing operations, are subject to mechani-
slurry length is the length from the
cal failures and problems. When these
pressured zone to the lost-circulation
problems occur, they can quickly esca-
zone. If this is so, continue. If not,
late to a level where the safety of per-
adjust the slurry weight to increase
sonnel and loss of the well and rig are
the density and reduce the total
threatened. For these reasons, these
volume of slurry.
problems must be identified, and
responded to as quickly as possible.
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
18 Pressure Control
Every well • Choke washout. Every well should If the mud weight between the loss
should have have two or more chokes manifolded zone and the pressured zone can be
together so that a well-control opera- increased enough, its hydrostatic
two or more tion will not depend on the operation pressure, plus that of the mud above
chokes of a single choke. When it becomes the loss zone, may be sufficient to
manifolded apparent that the choke is washed out, stop the flow. When this is tried,
the kill operation should be switched heavy mud is usually pumped down
together… immediately to the second choke. The the drill pipe. Meanwhile light mud,
washed-out choke should be replaced which the loss zone would support
immediately. normally, is pumped down the drill
• Choke plugged. Chokes can become pipe/casing annulus.
plugged when heavy muds are used. Barite or hematite plugs are often
Usually, they can be unplugged by pumped as a part of the heavy
opening the choke briefly. If opening mud/fluid. Barite and hematite plugs
the choke does not unplug it, switch will add to the hydrostatic pressure of
to a backup choke and take steps to the fluid in the annulus, but will not
unplug the first choke immediately. settle while gas is flowing into the
• Jets plugged. If one or more — but well. The flow must also be stopped
not all — of the bit jets plug while for cement plugs to hold.
Chokes can killing a well, hold the casing pressure • Drillstring washout. When a washout
become constant while adjusting the pump occurs during a well-control proce-
rate to an acceptable value that is dure, in most cases the well will have
plugged below the pump liner limits. This will to be killed with the washout in the
when heavy result in a new pump rate, slower hole. With a washout in the drill-
muds are than the recorded “slow pump” rate. string, the well will flow through the
If the kill procedure is based on drill pipe if the kelly or circulating
used. time, it will have to be recalculated. head is broken off to make a trip. This
Recalculation will not be necessary if limits the choices that can be made
the kill procedure is based on the for killing the well.
stroke count. If all of the jets become Continued circulation may enlarge
plugged, the drillstring can be perfo- the washout and allow the drillstring
rated or the bit can be removed with to part. This will raise a difficult prob-
a shaped charge. lem to an even higher level of diffi-
• Lost circulation. When lost circula- culty, if the washout is in the upper
tion occurs while killing a well, it is part of the well.
generally assumed that the losses are If it can be determined by the posi-
at the casing seat unless special condi- tion of a “float” or other tool in the
tions or surveys indicate otherwise. drillstring that the washout is in the
Lost circulation while killing a well lower portion of the drillstring, the
will result in underground flow, com- well may be killed by pumping addi-
monly referred to as an “underground tional kill-weight mud through the
blowout.” Fluid will flow from the washout. If this is attempted, a new
pressured zone into the loss zone. “very” slow pump rate should be
Lost-circulation materials that established to reduce the erosion of
might plug the jets should not be the washout. Continued pumping,
used under these circumstances. without knowing where the washout
Lost-circulation material may be is, will be very risky.
bullheaded down the drill pipe/ The well can be shut in and the
casing annulus if needed. kick fluid allowed to migrate up the
18 Pressure Control