Chapter 18

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Introduction
A blowout Despite efforts to understand and con- The key to effective pressure control
is an trol formation pressures, blowouts still is preparation and vigilance on the part
occur. A blowout is an uncontrolled of those who are responsible for con-
uncontrolled flow of formation fluids as the result of trolling formation pressures. Respect
flow of failure to control subsurface pressures. for formation pressures and the confi-
formation Blowouts can occur at the surface or dence that comes from training and
into an underground formation. practice in controlling pressures are the
fluids as Nearly every well drilled has the elements that minimize the frequency
the result of potential to blow out. Experience has and severity of blowouts.
failure to shown that blowouts occur as the result It is important to identify high forma-
of human error and/or mechanical fail- tion pressures before drilling, to detect
control ures. However, a carefully planned, con- pressure changes while drilling, and to
subsurface tinuously supervised pressure-control control them safely during drilling and
pressures. program will lessen the possibility of completion operations.
a blowout considerably.
Three Levels of Pressure Control

Pressure control can be divided into drilling of a relief well to simplify
three categories: the final kill procedure and regain
1. Primary control. The proper use of control of the well.
hydrostatic pressure to overbalance
the formation and prevent unwanted
FAILUREOF PRIMARY AND
SECONDARY CONTROL
formation fluids from entering the
wellbore. The advantages of control Failure of primary control. Any event
at this level are self-evident. or chain of events that create a nega-
2. Secondary control. The use of tive differential pressure between the
equipment to control the well in hydrostatic pressure of the drilling fluid
the event primary control is lost. and the formation pressure can cause a
A kick is Formation fluids that have entered “kick.” A kick is an influx of formation
an influx the annulus can cause a blowout fluid into the well. The most common
quickly if not properly controlled. causes of a kick are:
of formation 1. Failure to keep the hole full of mud
3. Tertiary control. The use of equip-
fluid into the ment and hydrostatic pressure to during trips.
well. regain control once a blowout has 2. Insufficient mud weight.
occurred. This could involve the 3. Lost circulation causing the hydro-
drilling of a relief well. Although static pressure to be reduced.
tertiary control is normally han- 4. Swabbing in when pulling out of
dled by experts, many things can the hole.
be done during the planning and 5. Improper casing design and pore-
pressure prediction.
Pressure Control 18.1 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
A study of 55 blowouts during a In the 55-well study referred to earlier,

10-year period lists the following evidence showed that after the wells
primary causes of blowouts: kicked, 62% were not controlled for the
following reasons:
The most Percent of
Cause Total
common Failure to keep the hole full 42 Cause
Percent of
Total
cause of Insufficient mud weight 15 Insufficient blowout equipment 29
Lost circulation 22 Improperly designed blowout
blowouts is Swabbing 16 equipment 5
the failure to Other 5 Improper installation 11
Improper surface fittings 6
keep the hole
Although geopressured wells have Improper well casing and
full on trips. greater potential for blowing out,
cementing program 11
reports indicate that more than half This record shows that the 62% of
of all blowouts occur in normally the loss of secondary control was the
pressured wells. The most common result of equipment failure and reflects
cause of blowouts is the failure to a lack of understanding among those
keep the hole full on trips. It should responsible for securing, installing,
be standard procedure on all wells maintaining and operating blowout-
to either monitor the pump strokes control equipment.
while filling the hole during a trip or The remainder of this chapter will
to use a trip tank to measure the mud discuss the various components of well
required to replace the volume of control. This will include the various
pipe removed from the wellbore. pressures, pressure prediction tech-
Failure of secondary control. It has niques, kick-detection methods, well-
been estimated that 95% of the wells control methods, and some special
in which secondary control is lost arrive
…the loss of problems and techniques used in
at that condition as the result of either controlling the well.
secondary poor maintenance and inadequate test-
control was ing programs, which result in leaks that
the result of erode pressure-control equipment, or
inadequate crew training, which results
equipment in miss-use or no use at all of pressure-
failure… control equipment.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Subsurface Pressures
Many different pressures are involved Example 2
in drilling and controlling oil and gas In Figure 2, how much force must
wells. It is important to understand be applied on the small cylinder in
these pressures and how they are used order to balance the pressure created
to detect and control formation pres- by the weight of the automobile on
sures. The following is a description of the large cylinder.
the various pressures. To balance pressures:
Pressure is defined as force per unit area: P1 = P2 or
force (lb) F1 F
Pressure (psi) = = 2
area (in.2) A1 A2
Hydrostatic Example 1 F
Therefore, F1 = 2 x A1
How much pressure would be A2
pressure is shown on the gauge in Figure 1?
the pressure Force on small cylinder:
4,000 lb
caused by F1 (lb) =
100 in.2
x 2 in.2 = 80 lb
the…MW 20 lb 10 in.2
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
and TVD Hydrostatic pressure (PHYD) is the pres-
of a column sure caused by the density or Mud
of fluid. Weight (MW) and True Vertical Depth
(TVD) of a column of fluid. The hole
Neglect
fluid size and shape of the fluid column have
weight no effect on hydrostatic pressure since,
at a given depth, pressure is equal in all
directions.
?
PHYD is calculated by:
PHYD (psi) =
Figure 1: Example 1 — pressure. 0.052 x MW (lb/gal) x TVD (ft)
Where:
Answer:
0.052 = The units conversion factor
20 lb
Pressure on gauge = = 2 psi equal to:
10 in.2 12 in./ft
or 0.052 gal/(in.2 x ft)
231 in.3/gal
F (lb) = ?
4,000 lb
Area =
Area = 2 in.
2
100 in.2
Hydraulic
fluid
Figure 2: Example 2 — pressure.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Example 3 FORMATION PRESSURE

What is the hydrostatic pressure Formation pressure (Pform) is the fluid
of a fluid column for the following pressure exerted within the pore spaces
conditions? of any oil, water or gas formation, and
MW = 12.8 lb/gal is commonly called pore pressure.
MD (Measured Depth) = 14,300 ft
Formation TVD = 13,200 ft
NORMAL PRESSURE
pressure is Normal pressure is the hydrostatic pres-
The hydrostatic pressure is always sure exerted by a column of fluid equal
the fluid calculated using the TVD. to the density of the native fluid that
pressure PHYD = 0.052 x 12.8 x 13,200 existed in the geological environment
exerted = 8,786 psi at TVD when the solids were deposited.
within the Since more wells are drilled in sedi-
If the Measured Depth (MD) were used
ments characterized by marine forma-
pore spaces… to calculate the hydrostatic pressure, this
tion water with about 100,000 mg/L salt,
would result in significant error.
a gradient of 0.465 psi/ft will be used as
PHYD = 0.052 x 12.8 x 14,300 the normal gradient for purposes of this
= 9,518 psi (using MD) discussion. Deviations from normal
Incorrectly using MD to calculate hydrostatic pressures are referred to as
hydrostatic pressure results in an error being abnormal — sur-pressures (high)
of 732 psi (9,518 – 8,786 = 732). and subpressures (low).
PRESSURE GRADIENT Example 5

Hydrostatic Hydrostatic pressure gradient is the pres- When drilling in South Louisiana, in
sure increase per unit of vertical depth. a normally pressured shale, at a depth
pressure of 7,000 ft, what would the expected
gradient is PHYDG (psi/ft) = 0.052 x MW (lb/gal) formation pressure (Pform) be? What
the pressure Example 4 mud weight in lb/gal would be needed
What is the pressure gradient of a to balance this formation pressure?
increase 12.0 lb/gal mud? Pform = 7,000 x 0.465 = 3,255 psi
per unit PHYDG (psi) = 0.052 x 12.0 3,255
of vertical = 0.624 psi/ft MW = = 8.9 lb/gal
0.052 x 7,000
depth. Typical pressure gradients are:
Fluid Pressure Gradient (psi/ft)
Freshwater 0.433
Seawater 0.444
Marine formation water
(100,000 mg/L salt) 0.465
Saturated saltwater
(10 lb/gal) 0.520
16-lb/gal mud 0.832
19.2-lb/gal mud 1.0
Basin Type Formation Fluid (lb/gal) Pressure Gradient (psi/ft)

Saltwater 8.94 0.465 (Gulf Coast U.S.)
Fresh or brackish 8.33 0.433 (Mid-Continent U.S.)

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Indications of Increasing Formation Pressures
The term The term “transition zone” describes

“transition a rapid change in pore pressure. 1
Transition zones are important to 2
zone” maintaining pressure control in geo- 3
describes pressured drilling environments. The
4 Formation pore pressure
a rapid three types of transition zones (also
5
illustrated in Figure 3) are:
change
Depth (1,000 ft)

6
1. The interval from the top of geo-
TZ1
in pore pressures to the top of the first per- 7
pressure. meable sand in the geopressured 8

Sand A
section. 9
Sand B
2. Any rapid pressure increase in an 10
TZ2
impermeable section (usually shale). 11
Sand C
3. The interval from the top of geopres- 12 TZ3
sures to the depth at which the max- 13
imum pore pressure is encountered.
14
Sand D
Usually, the initial transition zone is 15
selected as the point at which interme- 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
Mud weight equivalent (lb/gal)
diate or protective casing is set. There
are two reasons for this. First, the pore Figure 3: Three different transition zones.
pressure in the first permeable sand
(Sand A) in the geopressured section is PRESSURE INDICATORS
usually higher than the fracture gradi- Historically, the occurrence of sur-
ent at the last casing shoe. Drilling into normal pressures has caused many
this sand would probably lead to the drilling problems. Problems vary with
fracturing of an upper formation, los- geographical location, mud weight and
ing circulation before the well could be type, rig type, and hole type (straight
controlled. Second, the fracture gradi- or deviated). However, a number of
ent increases with both depth and pore drilling response indicators exist that
pressure. Setting the casing as deep as warn of a change in formation pressure.
possible results in having the highest All of the indicators may not be present
possible fracture gradient. This reduces at one time, since they can be masked
the risk of fracturing the casing shoe or eliminated by: (1) poor drilling prac-
and losing circulation while drilling tices, (2) improper mud weight, (3)
the next interval. wrong bit selection for the formation
The most The most critical of the three types of being drilled and (4) poor hydraulics.
critical of the transition zones is the interval from the However, one — and usually more —
top of the pressured zone. This is due to of the indicators will be present. By
three types of weak upper formations, a long interval using the proper monitoring equip-
transition of open hole, differential sticking prob- ment and drilling procedures and
zones is the lems, etc. In the following discussions having trained personnel, the indica-
of detecting abnormal pressures while tors can be interpreted to anticipate
interval from drilling, the initial transition zone will and identify increasing pressure and
the top of the be stressed, with less emphasis on the insufficient mud weight.
pressured remaining two. Note that all of the Abnormal compaction, the principle
methods are related, either directly or on which most of the pressure indica-
zone. indirectly, to differential pressure. tors are based, is the change of porosity

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
of shale with depth, as discussed in the marked reduction in ROP as the pres-
…the porosity Pressure Prediction chapter. In a nor- sure seal is penetrated. After penetrat-
mally compacted (normally pressured) ing the seal in sur-normally pressured
of shale in a sequence of rocks, the porosity of shale formations, there will be an increase
transition decreases with depth as shale density in ROP. This is due to the higher poros-
zone remains increases. If a seal is formed, the porosity of the sur-normal pressured zone.
ity of shale cannot continue the trend Higher-porosity rocks tend to be drilled
the same or of reduced porosity with depth. In other faster. Also, decreases in the differential
shows only words, the porosity of shale in a transi- pressure increases ROP and rock fracture
a slight tion zone remains the same or shows characteristics near the bit.
increase, only a slight increase, with depth.
Pressure indicators are divided into
with depth. two groups:
I. Engineering.
Rate of penetration
II. Geological.
MEASURING DOWNHOLE PRESSURE
psi
The advent of downhole, real-time
measurements of drilling and geological
500
parameters has greatly improved the
ability to identify increasing pressure.
These tools include Measurement While
Drilling (MWD), Logging While Drilling Differential pressure
As the (LWD) and Pressure While Drilling
differential Figure 4: Typical shale drilling.
(PWD). Obviously, LWD and PWD
pressure can be used to verify sur-pressured Differential pressure is an important
transition zones. These tools can
decreases, factor in ROP. Differential pressure is the
measure increasing pressure indica- difference between the hydrostatic pres-
the ROP tors which fall into both engineering sure of the drilling fluid column and the
increases. and geological categories. formation pressure. As the differential
ENGINEERING INDICATORS pressure decreases, the ROP increases.
Engineering indicator 1: Changes in The increase follows a hyperbolic curve
Rate of Penetration (ROP) and often has a critical point at about
500 psi (34 bar) overpressure against
ROP increases while drilling the tran-
the formation, as shown in Figure 4.
sition zone. While drilling normally
A reduction in differential pressure
pressured shale sections, the ROP will
occurs with entrance into the over-
decrease with depth if drilling parame-
pressured zone of greater porosity.
ters such as weight-on-bit, RPM, bit
The increase in porosity and the
types, hydraulics and mud weight
decrease in differential pressure cause
remain fairly constant. This is due to
an increase in ROP.
the increased density, or compaction,
Differential pressure affects ROP more
of the shale. This trend will be inter-
than porosity. The ideal ROP curve
rupted when a sur-normal pressure
should resemble Figure 5A when bit
zone is encountered. There will be a

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________
Ideal ROP Actual ROP Bit weight long intervals, so actual drilling curves
________________________ 90 70 30 90 50 30 100 20 will resemble Figure 5B. If it were possi-
7 ble to record bit weight on the same
________________________
chart with ROP, the ROP curve would be
________________________ much easier to interpret, as shown in
________________________ Figure 5C. Bit dulling also can mask the
8 transition zone, as shown later in Figure
________________________
6. The increase in ROP may not be seen
________________________ due to reduced bit performance caused
by the dull bit.
Depth (ft x 1,000)
________________________
9 Engineering indicator 2: Decreases
________________________
in dcs exponent trend
________________________
Calculations for “d exponent” and “dcs
________________________ exponent” can be made to normalize
________________________ 10 ROP data and predict the magnitude
________________________
of increasing formation pressure.
Many methods have been developed
________________________
to resolve the problem of normalizing
________________________ 11 the ROP. All of them are effective to a
degree, but each has its limitations. All
methods become inaccurate when poor
drilling practices are used. Most of the
12 methods involve complex mathemati-
A B C cal equations; however, one method
uses a simplified drilling equation that
Figure 5: Ideal ROP, actual ROP and bit weight.
is more suitable for use at the wellsite.
Sharp bit Dull bit
This method is known as the d
ROP (fph) ROP (fph) exponent and the equation is:
8.0
100 50 0 Lithology 100 50
Shale
0
d=
( )R
60N
( )
Depth (ft x 1,000)
8.5 12W
log
Sand D106
9.0
Shale
Where:
Transition d = Exponent in the generalized
9.5 zone
drilling equation
D = Bit diameter (in.)
10.0
N = Rotary speed (RPM)
Figure 6: Comparison of sharp and dull R = Penetration rate (ft/hr)
bit ROP in the top of the transition zone W = Bit load (lb)
(NOTE: Dull bit masked transition zone).
This is not a rigorous solution to
weight, rotary speed, hydraulics and the original equation and cannot be
mud properties are held constant. For defended mathematically. Even so,
economic reasons, it is not possible to the results are as accurate as any of
hold these parameters constant over the more complex equations if a mud

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Exponent
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
dcs d
4
9.6
9.7
5
9.8
9.8 9 9
9.8 10
6
11
10
10.4
10.6 12
7 11
10.8 13 12
Depth (ft x 1,000)
8 11.0 14 13
15
11.0
9 11.0
11.6
10 12.0
12.0
12.6
11
14.5
16.0
16.5
12
16.6
16.9
Figure 7: Plot of d and dcs exponents with depth indicating formation pressure changes at the bit.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
density correction is added. The d drillstring or a change in formation

exponent calculated from the given pore pressure.
formula is corrected for the mud Experienced personnel can usually
density in the following manner: identify the problem. Torque will
dcs = increase in the transition zone because
a larger volume of shale cuttings will
normal pressure gradient (lb/gal) x d
enter the wellbore. Shale tends to close-
ECD (lb/gal)
in the hole, causing additional contact
Where:
with the drillstring and impeding bit
ECD = Equivalent Circulating Density
rotation. It is difficult to distinguish an
(lb/gal)
increase in torque in deviated holes
NOTE: The normal pressure gradient due to contact of the drillstring with
should be selected for the area where the the formation face. When these cases
well is drilled. Normally, this is considered occur, other indicators may be easier
9 lb/gal (1.1 kg/L) in coastal areas and to interpret.
8.33 lb/gal (1 kg/L) in hard rock areas. Engineering indicator 4:
Using the d and dcs plots as shown Changes in drag
An actual in Figure 7, a formation pressure at the An increase in drag may be experi-
bit can be predicted to an accuracy of enced while making connections in
kick is the ±0.5 lb/gal (±0.1 kg/L). the transition zone. After the kelly is
most obvious Another reason some methods fail is drilled down, the recommended prac-
indication of that bit weight does not exceed the tice is to pick up 5 to 10 ft (1.5 to 3 m)
an increase threshold strength of the rock and (to allow for working the drill pipe if
therefore does not cause the rock to fail. it sticks), turn the pumps off and pull
in pressure. This often happens with diamond bits the kelly from the hole.
and in crooked holes, where very low As previously explained, extra cut-
bit weights are used to control hole tings may enter the wellbore when
deviation. Polycrystalline Diamond the transition zone is penetrated. The
Compact (PDC) bits require new tech- hole may also tend to close-in around
niques for analyzing drilling data to pre- the drill collars and bit. Some transi-
dict formation pressures accurately. PDC tion zone shales tend to flow under
bits drill by shearing, rather than frac- differential pressure. There have been
turing, the formation. The primary fac- instances where it was necessary to
tor in ROP becomes torque instead of backream and circulate to trip out of
weight-on-bit. Several methods have the hole. Again, this indicator may be
been developed that correlate PDC bit masked when drilling deviated holes.
drilling performance with pore-pressure Engineering indicator 5: Kicks
prediction. These correlations depend
Rotary on formations and bit types.
An actual kick is the most obvious
torque may indication of an increase in pressure.
Engineering indicator 3: Any pit gain, if not accounted for, is
increase Changes in rotary torque an indication of an influx of formation
rapidly Rotary torque may increase rapidly in fluid (kick). When this happens, the
in the the transition zone. Torque increases amount of fluid returning increases, and
gradually with depth because the con- the flow sensor records the increase. The
transition tact friction between the drillstring flow sensor and the Pit Volume Totalizer
zone. and the wellbore increases with depth. (PVT) are the first two indicators of a
Abrupt changes in torque also may kick and should be monitored continu-
indicate a twist-off of the drillstring, a ously while drilling. Special vigilance
locked cone on a bit, a washout in the should be shown when approaching a

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
transition zone. If an increase in pit vol- return the well to primary control and
ume or flow is detected, drilling should allow normal rig activities.
be stopped and the well checked for Engineering indicator 6:
flow. If the well continues to flow, it Filling the hole on trips
should be shut in. When pulling the drillstring out of the
“Taking a “Taking a kick” was once used as hole, the amount of pipe in the hole is
kick” was a method for finding the transition reduced, and the mud level drops. The
zone. After a kick was taken, the for- volume can be calculated from the size
once used as mation pressure was calculated, the and weight of the pipe and the length
a method for mud weight was increased, the well of the pipe removed, so that an appro-
finding the was controlled and protective casing priate amount of mud can be pumped
was set. This technique has limita- into the hole to fill it up.
transition tions, but it is still used inadvertently If the drillstring volume is not
zone. when other indicators are masked. It replaced and the mud column drops,
is not recommended. then the hydrostatic pressure is reduced
Oil, gas or saltwater can intrude into and may result in a kick. If the hydrosta-
the drilling fluid without being identi- tic pressure is reduced to less than for-
fied as a kick. A formation with low per- mation pressure, formation fluids will
meability can feed formation fluids flow into the well. Keeping the hole full
slowly into the well without the flow of mud requires more than pumping
being detected by the surface sensors. mud into the well. The volume of mud
Monitoring the drilling fluid for gas-cut pumped into the well should be mea-
mud, formation oil in the mud and a sured and compared to the calculated
chloride increase in the mud filtrate will displacement of the pipe pulled out of
alert drilling personnel of a potential the hole. Measurement of the mud vol-
underbalanced condition downhole. ume for this fill-up is usually taken from
Detecting and minimizing the vol- a graduated trip-tank or from monitor-
ume of a kick reduces the potential for ing rig pump strokes. If the mud pump
problems while controlling the well. method is used, count the number of
This applies to any of the formation strokes to arrive at the mud volume. It is
fluids. A large gas kick causes higher a good drilling practice to stop pulling
casing pressures in controlling the pipe every 5 to 10 stands of drill pipe
bottom-hole pressure. This can fracture (more often when pulling heavyweight
the formation at the casing shoe or drill pipe and drill collars) and to fill the
If the exceed the pressure limits of the sur- hole with mud. The purpose is to limit
hole takes face equipment. A saltwater kick can the reduction in hydrostatic pressure
seriously contaminate both water- and and to know the amount (volume) of
less mud oil-base fluids, resulting in high treat- mud it takes to fill the hole.
than the ing costs to return the fluid to its origi- If the hole takes less mud than the
calculated nal condition. The contamination will calculated displacement volume for
displacement also affect the fluid-loss and filter-cake the number of stands pulled, fluid is
quality. This can result in differential entering the wellbore. This signals an
volume for sticking of the drillstring. A large oil impending kick. Such deviations should
the number kick in a water-base fluid will cause be investigated immediately, and if the
of stands environmental concerns as well as con- conditions persist, the crew should take
tamination of the fluid. No matter what remedial measures. Under such circum-
pulled, fluid type of fluid invasion is experienced, stances, the best thing to do, if possible,
is entering the sooner a kick is detected and the is to go back to the bottom immediately
the wellbore. well is shut in, the easier it will be to and circulate bottoms-up. The chances

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
of completing a successful kill procedure as the overburden pressure increases.

are much better with the bit on bottom. Shale porosity decreases and density
If the situation seems to be getting increases with depth.
out of control, the well should be shut If normal compaction is interrupted
in, and the appropriate well-control by the formation of a seal, the forma-
procedure implemented. tion water cannot be squeezed out of
the shale. When this occurs, the fluid
GEOLOGICAL INDICATORS
supports part of the overburden load
Geological indicator 1: and will have higher-than-normal pres-
Size and shape of cuttings sure. Since fluids remain in the shale,
A rapid A rapid increase in the size and a change the shales have a higher-than-normal
increase in in the shape (angular) of the drill cut- porosity and lower-than-normal density.
tings may indicate an increase in forma- If shale densities are checked and plot-
the size and tion pressure. Cuttings from normally ted at regular intervals during drilling, a
a change in pressured shales are generally flat with normal compaction trend is established
the shape rounded edges. Cuttings from a transi- for the predominant formation being
tion zone are larger and have sharp, drilled. When a seal is penetrated, the
of the drill angular edges. These cuttings should formation density will increase rapidly,
cuttings may not be confused with even larger, block- followed by decreased density as the
indicate an shaped cuttings, which are rectangular. overcompacted pressure seal and tran-
These block-shaped cuttings do not orig- sition zone are drilled.
increase in inate from the bottom of the well. They The true cuttings density is altered by
formation are formed by improper drillstring and exposure to the mud. The degree of
pressure. bottom-hole assembly mechanics or alteration will depend on the mud type
existing fracturing. and the length of exposure. Cuttings in
Geological indicator 2: Sloughing contact with water-base muds exhibit
shale and abnormal hole fill-up some degree of swelling and are less
Sloughing shale and abnormal hole dense. The resulting decrease in density
fill-up are indications of increasing for- is due to the absorption of water. This
mation pressure. As the transition zone could be misinterpreted as an increase
is penetrated, the pore pressure within in formation pressure. Any cuttings
the shale will increase. Shales have rela- exposed to the drilling fluid for a long
tively low permeability, but in a transi- period of time should not be used to
tion zone, shale porosity will increase. measure the bulk density. This change
This is reflected as a decrease in shale of cuttings density normally occurs
density, and is borne out by the acoustic only with water-base mud. When oil
log, in which the interval travel time muds are in use, the cuttings density
in the pressured, water-filled shales alteration is slight. Cuttings absorb very
increases. If this overpressure in the little oil; therefore, the density will
shale is not offset by increasing the remain about the same. When water-
hydrostatic pressure of the mud, the base mud is displaced with an oil-base
shale will collapse or slough into the mud, a shift will occur in the normal
annulus. This can cause enlarged holes compaction trend graph due to this
through transition zones and fill on alteration. The slope will be the same,
bottom during connections and trips. but the trend will shift to the right to
Geological indicator 3: Bulk density reflect the water absorption during the
During normal shale compaction, water mud interval.
water is squeezed out of the shale

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Geological indicator 4: Gas an increase in formation pressure.

Gas is an Gas is an indication of underbalanced This is an excellent tool for detection
formation pressure. When drilling is of abnormal pressures when used in
indication conjunction with background gas.
underway, most well-logging companies
of under- measure and record the gases entrained 3. Trip gas. This is the increase in gas
balanced in the circulating fluid. It is helpful to associated with pulling the drillstring
formation classify this gas into one of three differ- out of the hole. Trip gas is recorded
ent categories. These are: (1) total drilled when bottoms-up is being circulated
pressure. gas called background gas, (2) gas due to out after a trip. The time period dur-
the swabbing effect when making con- ing which trip gas is being recorded
nections called connection gas, and (3) gives some idea about the amount
gas due to swabbing and near-balanced and the migration of gases in the
conditions when making a trip called annulus. This parameter is used in
trip gas. the same manner as connection gas,
1. Background gas. This is the total but is not as useful due to the long
gas entrained in the mud. The back- interval between trips. In some
ground gas which comes from the instances, a short trip will be made
cuttings as the hole is being drilled (10 to 20 stands) for the purpose of
is not an indication of increasing determining changes in pore pres-
pressure and should not be compen- sure and changes in bottom-hole
sated for with higher mud weight. conditions.
Background gas from cuttings should There are two basic types of gas
always be circulated bottoms-up. A recorders used to measure and
continued increase in background gas identify gas:
indicates a higher formation porosity A. Total combustible gases (“hot
and/or a higher hydrocarbon satura- wire”). This rugged instrument is
tion in the available pore space. If used widely by well-logging compa-
lithology and ROP are given due nies and is based on the Wheatstone
consideration, an increase in back- bridge principle. The recorder deter-
ground gas would indicate drilling mines total “units” of combustible
into a transition zone. gases. It is not calibrated and, there-
2. Connection gas. Connection gas is fore, one “unit”of gas remains unde-
the amount of gas in excess of the fined. Nevertheless, the device has
background gas. This is the increase been in use for decades and contin-
in gas readings caused by the swab- ues to give a relative measure of the
bing action of drillstring movement total combustible gases released at
while a pipe connection is made. the surface from the circulating mud.
Pulling of the drillstring causes the B. Chromatograph. This sophisticated
effective bottom-hole pressure to be instrument has the potential to
less than the hydrostatic pressure of identify the type and relative vol-
the mud column. Such a reduction ume of gases which are present.
in hydrostatic pressure could lead Being a calibrated instrument, the
to formation fluids feeding into the chromatograph is more reliable and
hole. A small but constant amount a better evaluating tool than the
of connection gas is an indicator ”hot wire.” Various versions of this
that the formation pressure is slightly instrument are available, and newer,
less than the hydrostatic pressure, more sensitive devices are being used
whereas a continuous increase of gas by some mud-logging companies.
at each connection would indicate

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Geological indicator 5: Gas-cut mud mud resistivity differently. Logging com-

Gas-cut Gas-cut mud is the reduction in mud panies report that measurement of the
weight due to gas entrainment. Gas-cut changes in resistivity at both the suction
mud is the line and flow line are not effective in
mud is checked at the flow line, where
reduction in the fluid will contain the maximum detecting overpressure zones.
mud weight amount of gas. The use of gas-removal Geological indicator 7:
due to gas equipment, as well as surface retention Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)
time, will normally remove most or During compaction, the water from
entrainment. all of the gas from the mud. This is a the shale is squeezed out, which causes
simple measurement that can be made the shale to become more dense with
by the rig crews when a mud-logging an increasing overburden load. Shales
company is not being used on the are comprised mainly of clay miner-
well. The measurement can be made to als. When compacted, clay minerals
indicate the effects of gas from drilling, undergo mineralogical changes due to
connections and trips. A continued variations in temperature and pressure.
reduction in mud weight due to gas is Because of diagenesis of montmoril-
an indication of increasing gas content lonite to illite, a continuous decline in
in the formations and the potential of montmorillonite content is expected
increasing pore pressures (NOTE: A with depth. Due to higher temperatures
more-detailed explanation of gas-cut in a transition zone, the montmoril-
mud is contained in the Special Problems lonite content decreases at a much
section of this chapter). faster rate. Therefore, such overpres-
Geological indicator 6: Chloride ion sure zones would have illite as the
Dissolved solids in the formation predominant clay mineral.
water are often correlated to total A direct measurement of the CEC of
chloride concentration — or salinity, the shale retrieved from the shaker
as it is commonly called. The salinity screen can be made with the standard
of water found in shale is known to methylene blue titration. A plot of shale
increase with depth in a normally CEC test results with depth should indi-
compacted sedimentary basin, but cate a decline with depth in a normally
shows a decrease in a transition zone. pressured zone, but will show a drastic
In normally compacted formations, reduction in a transition zone. However,
the salinity of water found in sand- this method is only qualitative and has
stone is known to follow the same some serious drawbacks.
trend, but at much higher concentra- Geological indicator 8:
tions than those found in shale. In a Flow-line temperature
Increasing transition zone, the salinity of water in Increasing flow-line temperature is an
sands approaches that of water in the excellent indicator of a transition zone.
flow-line shales. The change in the salinity of Since certain other variables affect flow-
temperature the mud filtrate is not used for detect- line temperature, it is necessary to use
is an ing abnormal pressures because it is an end-to-end plot. Some of the vari-
excellent affected by numerous variables and ables that affect flow-line temperature
could give an erroneous indication are: (1) mud weight, (2) solids content,
indicator of of a transition zone. (3) flow properties, (4) circulation rates
a transition Most logging companies indicate that and (5) hole geometry. An end-to-end
zone. measurement of mud resistivity to plot is constructed by identifying
reflect changes in formation water salin- changes in flow-line temperature
ity has not been successful. Oil, solids caused by a change in the variables,
and chemicals present in the mud affect rather than a change in formation

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
7 decrease is 18 to 20°. After the seal is

9.8
drilled, a very rapid increase in tem-
perature will occur — to perhaps as
8 Show much as 30 to 35° from the time the
seal is drilled until a porous zone is
Show 9.8
encountered.
Mud weight (lb/gal)

Depth (ft x 1,000)
10.0
9 Show gas cut 10.3 The porous transition zone below
Show-kick 11.7 the pressure seal contains more fluid
than the normally pressured forma-
10 11.7 tion above them. The fluid acts as an
11.7
A 14.6 insulator, restricting the flow of heat.
Top of
Show 14.6 The rocks below a transition zone will
transition
11 zone have a higher temperature due to the
14.6 energy being transmitted to the fluid
Show-kick 16.8
as the pressure increases.
12
130 140 150 160 170 180
Numerous field investigations of dif-
Flow-line temperature (° F) ferential temperature between flow line
and suction pit have been made. These
Figure 8: Flow-line temperature as an indication investigations generally are regarded as
of transition zone and geopressures. of little use due to the variables that
pressure. The cause and magnitude affect the suction pit temperature. These
of the changes are noted on the plot variables, which are very difficult to
and these amounts are added to or track, include:
subtracted from the actual readings to 1. The amount of water being added
produce a continuous plot. A normal to the mud.
trend can be established and depar- 2. Solids-control equipment (desilters,
tures from the normal trend can be desanders, degassers and centrifuges).
readily recognized. An end-to-end 3. Ambient temperature.
plot will produce a curve as shown in 4. Volume of the mud in the pits.
Figure 8. There is a 5 to 6° difference 5. The amount of agitation.
between the high and low points. Changes in flow-line temperature
High points are the result of drilling cannot be used to estimate formation
porous rocks containing fluids, and pressures directly, due to flow-line tem-
low points are the result of drilling perature variables and because each
denser rocks. geographic area has a different temper-
At about 150 to 300 ft (46 to 91 m) ature gradient. However, changes in
above the seal, a marked decrease in flow-line temperature are a qualitative
flow-line temperature will be noted indication that a change in pressure
(Point A in Figure 8). Usually, this may be occurring.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Pressure/Transition Zone Analysis After Drilling

A variety of methods, both direct and FRACTURE PRESSURE
indirect, exist to confirm formation Fracture pressure is the pressure required
pressures after the well has been drilled. to rupture a formation physically, allow-
Some of the more common techniques ing entry of drilling fluids into the for-
are discussed below. mation. This pressure is a function of
A drill-stem Drill-stem tests. A drill-stem test is the fluid pressure (pore pressure) and
test is conducted to obtain accurate informa- matrix strength of the rock. Several
tion about the potential producing factors affect the fracture pressure of
conducted capabilities of a reservoir. The principal the formation:
to obtain objectives of the test are to determine 1. Geologic age.
accurate the types of fluids, the potential rate of 2. Depth and overburden.
production and the subsurface pressures. 3. Pore pressure.
information The drill-stem test derives its name 1. Geologic age
about the from the fact that the drillstring is used
As rocks become older, many changes
potential… as a conduit to bring formation fluids
take place. Some of these changes are:
to the surface. The zone of interest is
1. Degree of compaction as depth
isolated by the use of a single packer if
increases.
the zone is at the bottom of the hole or
2. Degree of cementation due to com-
by tandem packers if it is off bottom.
paction and chemical precipitation
The subsurface pressure is recorded
in the pore spaces.
during the course of this test.
3. Occurrence of tectonic factors such
Shut-in Shut-in pressure tests. Shut-in pres-
as folding, faulting and intrusion by
pressure sure tests are conducted on completed
salt or magma flows.
wells throughout their productive lives.
tests are Since pressure depletion occurs with Generally speaking, a tectonically
conducted production, producers prefer that such relaxed area such as the Gulf of Mexico
on completed tests are conducted early in the life of would be typified by vertical fracturing.
the reservoir. Mathematical techniques This is due to the greatest stress being
wells… are used to convert shut-in pressure tests approximately vertical and equal to
to approximate formation pressure. the overburden.
Downhole pressure bombs. A 2. Depth and overburden
variety of instruments can be used As layers of rock are buried deeper,
to measure formation pressure directly the increased overburden pressure
under bottom-hole conditions. These (PO) causes compaction. This process
“bombs” are usually run with wireline forces the rock grains closer together
equipment. and makes cementation more effec-
Wireline log evaluation. Logs run on tive. This combination of factors
the well can be evaluated as the offset increases the rock matrix strength.
logs were, to estimate formation pres-
3. Pore pressure
sure and pick the geopressured zones.
In turn, this type of information is use- Once a seal has been formed, the
ful in planning subsequent wells. The compaction process is reduced and
drilling information and wireline data the formation fluid supports part of
should be analyzed together to improve the overburden. This process causes
the accuracy of the pressure-prediction the fluid pressure (or pore pressure)
techniques which were used when the to increase. This, in turn, causes an
well was planned. increase in the formation fracture
pressure.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________ QUANTIFYING FRACTURE GRADIENTS PFRAC

= PPG + (POG – PPG) Ki
________________________ If, for a fracture to occur, the intergran- D
________________________
ular pressure (PI) plus the pore pressure Where:
(PP) must be overcome, then the frac- Ki = Matrix stress coefficient
________________________
ture pressure (PFRAC) should be equal to
________________________ overburden pressure: Eaton (1969) developed another
approach based on the assumption
________________________ PFRAC = PO or PP + PI,
that the fracture pressure gradient is a
________________________
(since PO = PP + PI)
function of the overburden stress gra-
________________________ Because fracture pressures are nor- dient, pore pressure gradient and the
mally less than this value, this equation ratio of horizontal to vertical stress.
________________________
is often written in the form PFRAC = PP + Eaton called this Poisson’s ratio (v),
________________________ (PO – PP) so that a depth multiplier (X) and expressed it as:
________________________ can be multiplied to the intergranular PFRAC v
(or rock matrix strength) portion of the = PPG + (P – PPG)
________________________ D 1 – v OG
equation inside the brackets.
________________________
PFRAC = PP + (PO – PP) X Where:
________________________ v = Poisson’s ratio of the rock
Where X is less than one, to
________________________
account for fracture pressures The M-I SWACO FRAC computer
less than overburden pressure. program uses a method developed by
The exact determination of this X Zamora which intergrates overburden
multiplier (or some equivalent correc- based on a power-model bulk-density
tion) has been made with a number curve with overburden codes (A) for
of mathematical methods. Hubbard each geological age and uses a matrix-
& Willis (1957) used an equation of stress coefficient (K) based on regional
the gradient form: matrix-stress codes (M).
PFRAC PFRAC
= α (POG – 2PPG) = PPG + (POG – PPG) K
D D
Where: Where:
D = Depth (ft) K = M [1.0 – C5 exp(C6DS)]
POG = Overburden gradient always C5 = 0.55 and C6 = - 0.000134
equal to 1.0 (psi/ft) See Petroleum Engineer International,
PPG = Pore pressure gradient (psi/ft) September 1989, pages 38 to 47 for a more
Matthews & Kelly (1967) developed thorough discussion of this technique.
a somewhat different approach. They FRACTURE PRESSURES FOR
concluded that whenever a formation OFFSHORE OPERATIONS
The fracture fractures horizontally, the required The fracture pressure of offshore wells
pressure is equal to overburden stress. normally is less than that of wells drilled
pressure of However, most fracturing occur in the on land. This occurs as a result of less
offshore wells vertical direction, resulting in the overburden pressure due to the water
normally is required pressure being considerably depth and the air gap.
less than overburden stress. Their In shallow water, fracture pressure
less than equation used a “matrix-stress coeffi- varies only slightly from the fracture
that of wells cient” multiplier (Ki) based on a vari- pressure anticipated on land. In deeper
drilled on able horizontal to vertical stress ratio. water, the reduction in overburden pres-
land. The Matthews & Kelly gradient equa- sure is significant. Reducing the over-
tion is expressed as: burden pressure will result in reducing

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
the fracture pressure. If data are not test is used more often in hard-rock
available for a deepwater area, a rule formations than the leak-off test.
of thumb can be used to estimate the
fracture gradient. The rule is that for
LEAK-OFF TEST PROCEDURES
each 1,000 ft (305 m) of water, the 1. Drill out the casing shoe and
fracture gradient is reduced 0.8 lb/gal sufficient new formation.
(0.01 kg/L) over the fracture gradient 2. Circulate the drilling fluid to ensure
of a similar well on land. a consistent mud weight.
3. Stop the rig pumps and shut the
MEASURING FRACTURE PRESSURE well in.
Many problems exist in trying to esti- 4. Pump mud into the shut-in well
mate fracture pressures. This is because at a very low rate. A typical pump
the exact values of the components rate of 0.25 to 0.5 barrels per minute
that contribute to formation strength (bbl/min) is used. Normally, a cement-
are not known. These factors are local. ing unit is used so an accurate read-
Data from one area cannot be readily ing of volume and pressure can be
applied to other areas. obtained.
The fracture The fracture pressure estimate is used 5. Record the pressure and volume
pressure to help design a drilling program for a pumped. A graphical presentation
well with regard to casing depths and should be made of these data to
estimate is hole sizes. Once a well has spudded, determine the point at which the
used to help the formation fracture pressure should fluid is being pumped into the for-
design a be determined by physical tests. mation (leak-off). A normal leak-off
Two tests are used to measure the for- test will show the pressure increasing
drilling mation strength or fracture pressure. in a straight line with the volume of
program These are: (1) the Leak-Off Test (LOT) mud pumped. Once the fracture pres-
for a well… and (2) the Formation-Integrity Test sure is reached, the pressure will stop
(FIT). These tests are conducted after cas- increasing with volume pumped as
ing has been set and the casing shoe has the fracture is being propagated. The
been drilled out. Although procedures pressure may actually decrease as
differ from one operator to the other, a fluid is pumped into the formation.
common practice is to drill either to the Figure 9 is an illustration of a graph
first sand or 10 ft (3 m) of new for- obtained from a leak-off test.
mation before running either test. In
some cases, the test can be run again
after drilling further. This is usually 2.0
done when mud weights are used that
exceed those planned for in the well
Pressure (psi x 1,000)
B
1.5 A
plan or mud program.
Leak-off tests and formation-integrity C D
tests are very similar. The difference is 1.0 Shut-in
that the leak-off test fractures the forma- time
tion and measures the actual strength (min)
of the formation, while the formation- 0.5 A = Leak-off pressure
B = Maximum test pressure
integrity test measures the formation to C = Minimum formation stress
a predetermined pressure but does not D = Fracture closure pressure
cause a fracture. The formation being 0.0
0 1 2 3 4 5
drilled often determines which of them Volume (bbl)
will be used. The formation integrity
Figure 9: Example leak-off test graph (after Postler).

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
6. Once leak-off has been observed, Testing the formation physically estab-
stop pumping and observe the well. lishes its pressure limitations (fracture
The pressure should remain relatively pressure). If a kick occurs and the well is
the same or decrease slightly once shut in, the sum of the shut-in pressure
pumping has stopped. and the hydrostatic pressure of the mud
7. Record the pressure where the fluid could exceed the fracture pressure of the
…it is started leaking off into the forma- formation. Therefore, it is important to
important to tion. Convert this pressure to a mud know how much shut-in pressure the
weight equivalent by using the formation can stand prior to taking a
know how following equation: kick. The Maximum Allowable (shut-in)
much shut-in Equiv. MW (lb/gal) = Casing Pressure (MACP) changes as the
pressure the leak-off pressure (psi) mud density changes. The equation for
0.052 x TVD of casing shoe (ft) determining the MACP is:
formation
MACP (psi) = (fracture MW (lb/gal)
can stand The fracture mud weight is calcu-
– MW (lb/gal)) x TVD of casing
prior to lated by adding the equivalent mud
shoe (ft) x 0.052
weight to the test mud weight.
taking a This calculation should be made
FORMATION-INTEGRITY
kick. TEST PROCEDURES
every time the mud weight is changed.
It is based on the fracture gradient at
Use the same procedure as above the casing shoe, since it is assumed
until you reach Step 5. A predeter- that the casing shoe is the weakest
mined maximum mud weight for the point in the well.
interval is determined from the well The MACP can be represented graphi-
plan. Normally, 0.5 to 1 lb/gal (0.1 cally so the pressure will not have to be
to 0.12 kg/L) is added to this value as a calculated every time the mud weight is
safety factor. The difference between changed. The graph is drawn on rectan-
this mud weight and the mud weight gular coordinates with the MACP on
in the well is calculated. The differ- the Y-axis and the mud weight on the
ence is then converted to a pressure X-axis. Figure 10 is an example of a
at the casing shoe. This pressure is MACP graph. To draw the graph, plot
then used as the maximum test pres- a point at the leak-off pressure and the
sure when conducting the formation mud weight used to run the leak-off
integrity test. test. Then, plot a point at the fracture
FIT Example: gradient and 0 psi. Connect the two
MW = 13.5 lb/gal points with a straight line. To use the
TVD casing = 7,500 ft chart, find the weight of the mud in
Maximum anticipated the hole and read the MACP where the
mud weight = 16.0 lb/gal line intersects the mud weight. A safety
Desired safety margin = 0.5 lb/gal margin can be incorporated into this
Determine the required FIT pressure. graph by drawing another line parallel
to the maximum shut-in pressure line
1. Maximum allowable mud weight = already drawn. This line should reflect
maximum anticipated MW + the amount of safety margin desired,
safety margin = in lb/gal. In the example shown in
16.0 + 0.5 = 16.5 lb/gal Figure 10, 0.5 lb/gal (0.1 kg/L) is used
2. Test pressure (psi) = MW (lb/gal) – as the safety margin. The advantage
test MW (lb/gal) x 0.052 x TVD of using a graph is that the hydrostatic
casing shoe (ft) = pressure of the mud does not have to
(16.5-13.5) x 0.052 x 7,500
= 1,170 psi.
CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
1.0 when circulating a kick out. After the

Allowable casing pressure vs. intrusion reaches the casing shoe, the
mud weight (from leak-off test)
0.8 hydrostatic pressure at the casing shoe
MACP (psi x 1,000 )

can be reduced by the amount the
0.6 Casing pressure without intrusion reduces the hydrostatic pres-
safety factor
sure at the casing shoe. Therefore, the
Casing pressure
0.4 with safety factor casing pressure can be increased by the
amount of reduction in the hydrostatic
0.2 pressure. The weight of the intruding
fluid must be determined to calculate
0 this reduction in hydrostatic pressure
9.0 9.6 10.011.0 12.0 13.0 14.0 15.0 above the shoe.
Mud weight (lb/gal)
Figure 10 indicates that as the mud
Figure 10: Example maximum allowable weight approaches the fracture weight,
casing pressure graph. the maximum allowable shut-in casing
pressure is reduced. Therefore, casing
be calculated each time the mud programs should be planned to provide
weight changes. a safe maximum allowable shut-in cas-
The CPL… The MACP should be monitored ing pressure in excess of the expected
pressure while a well is shut in on a kick and mud weight. Many problems can be
is the while a kick is being circulated out of avoided or minimized by utilizing a pro-
the well. The casing pressure should not gram of testing casing seats, evaluating
sum of the be allowed to exceed the MACP until the results and making good decisions
pressure the gas bubble reaches the casing shoe, based on these results.
losses in the
drillstring,
the bit and Pressure Loss
the annulus.
For this manual, pressure loss will be from the BOP stack to the adjustable
defined as the pressure expended in choke. For wells with surface Blowout
causing a fluid to flow through a pipe Preventers (BOPs), this pressure loss is
or other device, such as a downhole minimal. However, it is significant
motor. The pressure loss is a function of and must be taken into account on
the fluid’s properties and the flow rate. deepwater wells with subsea stacks.
The CLPL is The choke line friction pressure
CIRCULATING PRESSURE LOSS (CPL) should be determined and recorded
the frictional The CPL is the pressure required to every tour or whenever there is a major
pressure pump a fluid of given properties at a change in the depth of the well or in
given flow rate through the circulat- the mud properties. The choke line
required to ing system. This pressure is the sum friction pressure is determined when
move the of the pressure losses in the drillstring, circulating at the slow pump rate by
drilling fluid the bit and the annulus. It is impor- comparing the pressure of circulating
tant to remember that when the pump through the riser with the pressure of
from the rate, well depth or mud properties circulating through the choke line with
BOP stack change, the circulating pressure loss the BOP closed and the choke fully
to the also changes. open. The choke line friction pressure
adjustable CHOKE LINE PRESSURE LOSS (CLPL) is equal to the difference in these pres-
sures. The back pressure on the for-
choke. The CLPL is the frictional pressure
mation while circulating through the
required to move the drilling fluid
choke is equal to the casing pressure
CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Surge gauge reading plus the choke line fric- forces of the mud flowing upward. The
pressures tion pressure. Subsea-well-control sum of these frictional forces of flow
schools discuss choke line friction and the hydrostatic pressure is called
from pipe pressures in detail. the surge pressure. Surge pressures from
movement pipe movement can fracture formations
ANNULAR PRESSURE LOSS (APL) and cause lost returns.
can fracture The pressure loss through the annulus When pipe is pulled from a well
formations from the bit to the bell nipple is the filled with mud, the mud column in
and cause annular pressure loss. The APL depends the annulus falls to displace the pipe
on the flow rate, mud properties and
lost returns. hydraulic diameter. APL is expressed
taken from the well. The hydrostatic
pressure is reduced by the frictional
as psi and is an imposed pressure on forces of the mud flowing downward
the hole when circulating under nor- to displace the pipe. The hydrostatic
mal conditions. The APL is calculated pressure minus the reduction in pres-
using the equations in the chapter on sure caused by pulling pipe from the
Rheology and Hydraulics in this man- well is called the swab pressure. The
ual or in the API bulletin on rheology reduction in hydrostatic pressure from
and hydraulics, API RP 13D. swabbing can “swab” formation fluids
EQUIVALENT CIRCULATING DENSITY into the wellbore and cause the well
The reduction The ECD is the pressure exerted on the to kick.
in hydrostatic formation by the hydrostatic pressure When tripping, the pipe is picked
of the drilling fluid plus the annular up from the slips and accelerated to a
pressure from maximum velocity and then slowed
circulating pressure losses, expressed as
swabbing… the mud weight which would provide to a stop while the slips are reset. Swab
cause the a hydrostatic pressure equal to the sum and surge pressures are calculated for
the maximum velocity which is diffi-
well to kick. of these pressures.
cult to determine. Most swab and surge
ECD (psi) = calculations assume the maximum
APL (psi) velocity of pipe movement to be 50%
MW (lb/gal) +
0.052 x TVD (ft) greater than the average pipe velocity.
Example: Under these assumptions, if it takes
MW: 10.0 lb/gal one minute to run or pull a 90-ft
TD: 10,000 ft (27-m) stand of pipe, the average pipe
APL: 15 psi/1,000 ft velocity is 1.5 ft/sec (90/60) and the
maximum pipe velocity would be
What is the ECD at 10,000 ft? assumed to be at least 2.25 ft/sec
Total APL = (1.5 x 90/60).
15 After the velocity of the mud from
x 10,000 = 150 psi
1,000 the pipe’s movement has been deter-
ECD (lb/gal) = mined, the swab and surge pressures
150 can be determined using the standard
10.0 + API hydraulics calculations.
0.052 x 10,000
= 10.3 lb/gal TRIP MARGIN
SURGE/SWAB PRESSURES Trip margin is the amount the mud
When pipe is run into a well filled with density is increased to offset the loss in
mud, the mud is displaced upward in bottom-hole pressure resulting from
the annulus from the bit. The hydrosta- swabbing when the drill pipe is tripped
tic pressure is increased by the frictional from the hole. The trip margin will
change with conditions, but should

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
be kept as low as possible. Excessive When using a mud motor, it may not
mud weights increase the surge pres- be possible to read the SIDPP from the
sures and reduce the penetration rate standpipe pressure gauge. There are
when drilling. three ways for formation pressure to be
A simple equation for estimating the communicated to the column of mud
trip margin is: in the drillstring when using a mud
Trip margin (lb/gal) = motor: (1) through the dump valves;
YP (2) through the rotor, if it is bored; and
11.7(Dh – Dp) (3) through the motor.
Many companies do not use dump
Where: valves. Even when they are used, how-
YP = Yield point (lb/100 ft2) ever, it is estimated they will fail to
Dh = Hole diameter (in.) open about 50% of the time after being
Dp = Pipe diameter (in.) subjected to temperature and pressure
Example 6 while drilling.
YP = 17 lb/100 ft2 Bored rotors allow direct mud flow
Dh = 8.5 in. from the drillstring to the bit. Bit jets
Dp = 4.5 in. or blanks are run in the rotors. A blank
will prevent formation pressures from
What is the needed trip margin? being communicated to the drillstring
Trip margin (lb/gal) = through the rotor.
17 If the formation pressure is less
= 0.36 lb/gal
11.7(8.5 – 4.5) than 150 psi (10 bar) greater than
the hydrostatic pressure, it may not
SHUT-IN DRILL PIPE be communicated through the motor
PRESSURE (SIDPP) to the drillstring. The pressure required
Shut-in drill Shut-in drill pipe pressure is the pres- for communication through the motor
pipe pressure sure recorded on the drill pipe (stand- may be higher than 150 psi (10 bar) for
pipe gauge) when the well is shut in some motor designs and conditions.
is the with a kick. SIDPP is the amount of The process of equalizing the pressure
pressure pressure required to balance the for- past the rotor may take time.
recorded on mation pressure due to insufficient Whenever a kick is taken or suspected,
hydrostatic pressure in the drill pipe. drilling should not be resumed until it
the drill The kick is always assumed to be in is determined that the mud weight is
pipe…when the annulus due to the direction of mud adequate to control the well.
the well is movement while circulating. This leaves
an uncontaminated drilling fluid col- SHUT-IN CASING PRESSURE (SICP)
shut in with umn in the drill pipe. With this assump- The shut-in casing pressure is the pres-
a kick. tion, a direct calculation of formation sure recorded on the casing when the
pressure (Pform) can be made: well is shut in with a kick in the hole.
Pform (psi) = PHYD (psi) + SIDPP (psi) The SICP is similar to the SIDPP in that
it is the amount of pressure required to
Example 7 balance the formation pressure due to
TVD = 12,000 ft insufficient hydrostatic pressure in the
MW = 14.0 lb/gal annulus. As mentioned earlier, it is
SIDPP = 500 psi assumed that the kick volume is in the
What is the formation pressure? annulus. This will result in fluids of
Formation pressure (psi) = (0.052 x unknown, differing densities and vol-
14.0 x 12,000) + 500 = 9,236 psi umes in the annulus. Since the density

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
of the kick fluid is generally less than Example 9

the density of the drilling fluid, the SIDPP = 400 psi
SICP will be greater than the SIDPP MW = 12.0 lb/gal
due to the lower hydrostatic pressure TVD = 13,200 ft
in the annulus.
What is the mud weight needed to
The SIDPP and the SICP can be equal
balance the formation pressure?
under conditions where the invading
fluid has the same density as the drill- Kill MW (lb/gal) =
ing fluid, or if the kick volume is zero 400
12.0 +
or a negligible amount. 0.052 x 13,200
= 12.6 lb/gal
Example 8
TD = 10,000 ft WEIGHT-UP FORMULA
MW = 10.0 lb/gal This formula shows the number of
SIDPP = 400 psi pounds needed to weight-up one
Kick information = 5.0 lb/gal (1,000 ft barrel of mud:
in the annulus) 1,471 (MW2 – MW1)
Barite (lb/bbl) =
What is the SICP? 35.0 – MW2
1. Formation pressure = Where:
0.052 x 10.0 x 10,000 + 400 MW2 = Mud weight desired (lb/gal)
= 5,600 psi MW1 = Starting mud weight (lb/gal)
2a. PHYD (mud in annulus) = VOLUME-INCREASE FORMULA
0.052 x 10.0 x 9,000 This formula can be used to deter-
= 4,680 psi mine the volume increase when
2b. PHYD (intrusion in annulus) = adding barite:
0.052 x 5.0 x 1,000 Volume increase (bbl) =
= 260 psi barite added (lb)
2c. PHYD (total annulus) = 1,471
4,680 + 260 Example 10
Kill-weight = 4,940 psi Starting mud weight = 14.0 lb/gal
mud is the Therefore: Desired mud weight = 15.2 lb/gal
SICP = Pform – PHYD (annulus) Mud volume = 350 bbl
mud weight
= 5,600 – 4,940 How many pounds of barite does it
required to = 660 psi take to weight up this mud system?
balance the What would be the resulting volume
KILL-WEIGHT MUD
formation Kill-weight mud is the mud weight
increase?
pressure. required to balance the formation Barite (lb) =
pressure. 1,471 (15.2 – 14.0)
350 bbl
Kill MW (lb/gal) = 35.0 – 15.2
SIDPP (psi) = 31,203 lb
MW (lb/gal) +
0.052 x depth (ft) Volume increase (bbl) =
31,203 lb
1,471 lb/bbl
= 21.2 bbl

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
DENSITY OF INTRUDING FLUID Where:

Any gas or fluid that enters the well FW = Density of kick fluid (lb/gal)
has a density, but the well can be con- MW = Mud weight (lb/gal)
trolled without knowing the density SICP = Shut-in casing pressure (psi)
of the intruding gas or fluid. The pro- SIDPP = Shut-in drill pipe pressure (psi)
cedures for circulating the fluid out L = Length of kick in annulus (ft)
are the same for all formation fluids. Example 11
The formation fluid is always assumed Kick volume = 10 bbl
to be gas, since this is the worst case SIDPP = 400 psi
for well control. As it approaches the SICP = 500 psi
surface, the gas expands, producing Hole size = 8.5 in.
high casing pressures. Gas requires DP = 4.5 in.
more adjustments of the choke to MW = 12.0 lb/gal
control bottom-hole pressures than
either oil or saltwater. If the density Find the length of the kick.
of the fluid is determined, the fluid Annular volume =
can be isolated at the surface to pre- 8.52 – 4.52
= 0.05 bbl/ft
vent contamination of the drilling 1,029
fluid system with saltwater or oil. In Length =
all cases, the primary objective is to 10 bbl
regain control of the well. = 200 ft
0.05 bbl/ft
Several assumptions must be made FW =
to calculate the density of the invad- 500 – 400
ing fluid. The first is that the kick 12 – = 2.38 lb/gal
0.052 x 200
remains a homogeneous mixture in
the annulus. The second is that the PRESSURE/VOLUME RELATIONSHIP
kick is on bottom. An accurate kick Gases are compressible. The volume of a
The volume volume also is required to ensure the confined gas is inversely proportional to
of a confined accuracy of the calculation. After the the pressure. If the pressure is doubled,
height of the column is calculated the volume is halved. The volume of a
gas is from the annular volumes around the confined gas is proportional to the
inversely drill collars and drill pipe, the density absolute temperature (absolute tempera-
proportional of the formation fluid can be calculated ture degrees Rankine = ° F + 460). When
to the with the following equation: a well is shut in with gas at the bottom,
SICP – SIDPP the gas volume is controlled by the
pressure. FW = MW – hydrostatic pressure of the mud, the cas-
0.052 x L
ing pressure and the temperature. If gas

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
is circulated to the surface without being It is difficult to predict surface pres-

allowed to expand, the confining pressures and final volumes when circulat-
sure will be the same as it was when the ing a gas kick out because the physical
gas was on bottom, but there will be no properties of the gas and intruding
hydrostatic pressure to confine the gas, fluid are not known. The intruding
and the pressure will be on the casing. fluid may be a mixture of gas, oil and
The compressibility law requires some saltwater, which will change the results
knowledge of the particular gas under of the calculation.
The behavior pressure to make an exact calculation of The behavior of gas is important
of gas is the gas volumes. The equation has been when a well is shut in on a gas kick.
simplified to eliminate the unknown Because of its low density, gas tends to
important data. The simplified equation for gas migrate, or move upward, in a well. If
when a well compressibility is: the gas volume remains the same, the
is shut in on P1V1 PV pressure also will remain the same based
= 2 2 on the gas compressibility equation, but
a gas kick. T1 T2
the casing pressure will increase as the
Where: hydrostatic pressure decreases due to the
P1 = Initial pressure upward movement of the gas. If the gas
P2 = Final pressure is allowed to expand, the pressure in the
V1 = Initial volume gas kick will decrease (NOTE: A more
V2 = Final volume complete discussion of gas migration can be
T1 = Initial temperature (°R) found later in this chapter). Gas expansion
T2 = Final temperature (°R) is controlled on a shut-in well by con-
Example 12 trolling the backpressure with a choke
P1 = 10,000 psi while circulating.
V1 = 20 bbl
T1 = 750°R
P2 = 500 psi
T2 = 540°R
What would be the calculated gas
volume V2?
PTV
V2 = 1 2 1
P2T1
10,000 x 540 x 20
V2 = = 288 bbl
500 x 750

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
U-Tube Analysis
The concept of pressure control can be Virtually all pressure-control work is
related to a balanced U-tube. The basic based on the application of this simple
It is essential relationships can be seen readily in the equation. It is essential to know how to
to know how following examples, which demonstrate calculate each of these pressures and
several conditions of U-tube behavior understand how they relate to control-
to calculate that relate to wellbore conditions. ling pressures. Figure 11 shows the pres-
each of these Sources of pressures under which a sure profile for a well, which illustrates
pressures well can be controlled can be broken how the equation predicts the total
down into three basic types. They are: pressure vs. depth for both static and
and 1. Hydrostatic pressures (PHYD). dynamic conditions.
understand 2. Pressures losses (PL).
BALANCED STATIC CONDITION
how they 3. Imposed pressures (PI).
Figure 12 shows a balanced U-tube sit-
relate to Imposed pressures are more com- uation with fluid of the same density
controlling monly called back pressures. Using in the annulus and drill pipe sides.
these three basic pressures, a simple The drill pipe side and annular side of
pressures. equation can be written that will the U-tube are balanced because each
always hold true under both static contains the same height of fluid of
and dynamic steady-state conditions. the same density. Since both columns
The equation is: are balanced, no imposed pressures
PT = PHYD + PL + PI are shown on the drill pipe or casing
pressure gauges.
Where:
PT = Total pressure at some point 0 0
of interest in the system at a
specific time
Drill pipe Annulus
PT = Total pressure
PH = Hydrostatic pressure
1 Pi = Imposed pressure
PL = Annular pressure loss Depth 10 lb/gal 10 lb/gal
5,000 ft
2 Example: 10,000 ft
10 lb/gal mud
Pi = 600 psi
3
PL = 200 psi
2,600 psi
Depth (ft x 1,000)
Pi ESD =
4
10 lb/gal
5 PL
5,200 psi
6 Dynamic
PH PT = PH +Pi +PL Figure 12 : Balanced static U-tube.
7
Static
8 PT = PH +Pi
10
0 2,000 4,000 6,000
Pressure (psi)
Figure 11: Pressure profile.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________ 0 Imposed pressure Circulating pressure 0

1,300 psi 2,600 psi
________________________
________________________
Drill pipe Annulus Drill pipe Annulus
________________________
________________________
Depth 10 lb/gal 10 lb/gal Depth 10 lb/gal 10 lb/gal
________________________ 5,000 ft 5,000 ft
10,000 ft 10,000 ft
________________________
________________________
3,900 psi 2,730 psi
5 lb/gal Circulating (2,600 + 130)
________________________ ESD =
direction ECD =
15 lb/gal
________________________ 10.5 lb/gal
5,460 psi
5,200 psi (5,200 + 260)
________________________ (APL = 26 psi/1,000 ft)
ECD = 10.5 lb/gal
________________________
Figure 13: Unbalanced U-tube with imposed pressure. Figure 14: Circulating U-tube.
________________________
UNBALANCED STATIC CONDITION to move the mud from the pump to
________________________
Figure 13 shows an unbalanced U-tube the flow line. The circulating pressure
________________________
situation with two fluids that have is the sum of the pressure losses in the
different densities in the annulus. In surface equipment, drill pipe, mud
this situation, there is a difference in motor, MWD, drill collars, bit nozzles
the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid in and the annulus. The bottom-hole cir-
the drill pipe and the fluid in the annu- culating pressure (5,460 psi) is the sum
lus. The hydrostatic pressure of the of the annular hydrostatic pressure
fluid in the annulus is the sum of the and the 260 psi annular pressure loss.
hydrostatic pressures of the 10.0 lb/gal Similarly, the casing shoe circulating
mud (2,600 psi) and the 5 lb/gal fluid pressure (2,730 psi) is the sum of the
(1,300 psi) or 3,900 psi. The hydrosta- hydrostatic pressure and the 130 psi
tic pressure of the 10.0 lb/gal fluid in annular pressure loss between the cas-
the drill pipe is 5,200 psi. If the well is ing shoe and atmospheric pressure.
shut in, a pressure of 1,300 psi will be These pressures cause the ECD to be
imposed on the casing pressure gauge 10.5 lb/gal at the shoe and on bottom
because of the difference in the hydro- for this example.
static pressures in the two parts of CIRCULATING (ANNULAR DENSITY
the U-tube. LESS THAN DRILL PIPE DENSITY)
NOTE: The pressure at the casing shoe Figure 15 shows a U-tube diagram
is 3,900 psi (the sum of the imposing of an unbalanced circulating system
casing pressure (1,300 psi) and the using the combined examples from
hydrostatic pressure of the 10.0 lb/gal Figures 13 and 14. The hydrostatic
mud (2,600 psi). pressure is unbalanced in the U-tube.
The Equivalent Static Density (ESD) In order to maintain a bottom-hole
at the casing shoe would be 15 lb/gal. pressure of 5,460 psi, an imposed cas-
STANDARD CIRCULATING SITUATION ing pressure of 1,300 psi is necessary
Figure 14 shows a standard U-tube dia- (5,460 psi – 3,900 psi (hydrostatic
gram for a circulating situation. A circu- pressure) – 260 psi (annular pressure
lating pressure of 2,600 psi is required loss)). The pressure at the casing shoe
is 4,030 psi, with an ECD of 15.5 lb/gal.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________ Circulating pressure Imposed pressure Circulating pressure 0

2,600 psi 1,300 psi 2,600 psi
________________________
________________________
Drill pipe Annulus Drill pipe Annulus
________________________ Open flow
________________________
Depth 10 lb/gal 10 lb/gal Depth 10 lb/gal 10 lb/gal
________________________ 5,000 ft 5,000 ft
10,000 ft 10,000 ft
________________________
________________________
4,030 psi 2,730 psi
________________________ (1,300 + ECD =
5 lb/gal 2,600 + 130) 10.5 lb/gal
________________________ ECD =
5,460 psi 15.5 lb/gal
(5,200 + 260)
________________________ (APL = 26 psi/1,000 ft)
ECD = 10.5 lb/gal (APL = 26 psi/1,000 ft) 5,720 psi Pressure
________________________ ECD = 11 lb/gal
Figure 15: Unbalanced circulating U-tube
________________________ situation with imposed casing pressure. Figure 16: Circulating U-tube with
________________________ influx of formation fluids.
CIRCULATING
________________________ (FORMATION FLUID INFLUX) Shut-in drill pipe Shut-in casing
pressure pressure
Figure 16 illustrates a U-tube diagram of 520 psi 1,820 psi
a kicking circulating well with the BOPs
open. The bottom-hole hydrostatic pres-
Drill pipe Annulus
sure is only 5,460 psi (as in Figure 12). A
formation with a pressure of 5,720 psi
bottom-hole pressure is encountered. Depth 10 lb/gal 10 lb/gal
5,000 ft
An unbalanced pressure of 260 psi 10,000 ft
exists (5,720 psi (formation pressure) –
5,460 psi (bottom-hole pressure)). As a 5 lb/gal
4,420 psi
result, formation fluids will begin to ESD =
enter the annulus, causing a kick. It 17 lb/gal
should be noted that as formation fluid

enters the annulus, the hydrostatic 5,720 psi
pressure in the annulus will begin to 5,720 psi

ECD = 11 lb/gal
decrease due to the reduced density
of the intruding fluid. Reducing the Figure 17: Shut-in kick pressures.
volume of the influx will reduce the
pressure (see Figure 17). Shutting the
surface pressures required to balance
well in will allow both sides of the
the pressure.
U-tube to equalize. As shown, if 5,000 ft
SHUT-IN FORMATION PRESSURE of 5.0-lb/gal formation fluid is allowed
If the well in Figure 16 is shut in, the into the well, the shut-in casing pres-
shut-in casing pressure and the shut-in sure would be 1,820 psi, with a casing
drill pipe pressure will reflect the pres- shoe ESD of 17 lb/gal.
sures necessary to balance the formation

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Pressure Control
KICK DETECTION A good well plan requires looking at

Early Early detection of a kick is important. all of the available information about
It can reduce the size of the kick, lower an area — from offset wells to deter-
detection mine the casing program, mud weight
the quantity of pressure exerted on the
of a casing shoe and simplify regaining schedule and depths where potential
kick…can… control of the well. problems may occur.
There are distinct warnings during Good drilling practices involve main-
simplify tenance and testing of all of the rig com-
drilling that indicate a kick is possible
regaining (some of them were mentioned earlier ponents. They also involve unscheduled
control of in this chapter). The first warning is an drills to practice the procedures for shut-
the well. indication of increases in pore pressure. ting a well in. The drills are determined
Failure to compensate for pore pressure by company or government regulations,
increases with increasing mud weight depending upon where the well is being
can lead to a kick. Other warnings are: drilled. To increase rig crew vigilance,
1. Increases in penetration rate. the frequency of such drills may be
2. Increases in torque and drag. increased as an abnormal pressure zone
3. Increases in the size, shape and is approached.
amount of cuttings. SHUT-IN PROCEDURES
4. Increases in background gas.
When the warning signs of a kick are
These are not direct kick indicators; recognized, steps should be taken
rather, they are changes in bottom- immediately to determine if the well
hole conditions that could result in is flowing and to shut the well in as
a kick if appropriate measures are quickly and safely as possible, to pre-
not taken. vent any further influx into the well-
Reducing the Indications that a kick has entered bore. Reducing the size of the influx is
size of the the well are: a high-priority objective. A kick can
1. Increases in flow at the flow line. occur while drilling or while tripping.
influx is a 2. Increases in pit volume. Due to the nature of each operation,
high-priority 3. Flow with the pump off. different procedures are necessary to
objective. 4. Hole taking insufficient mud shut the well in safely. The following
volume on trip. are recommended procedures for a
shut-in operation
When any of these indicators are
NOTE: Separate procedures are listed
recognized at the surface, immediate
for surface and subsea BOP stacks due
action must be taken to prevent the
to differences in well-control equipment.
further influx of fluid. Failure to
take appropriate actions can lead WHILE DRILLING
to a blowout. Surface BOP stacks
Knowing and recognizing the stages 1. Raise the drillstring until the lower
of kick indication is important for every kelly cock is above the rotary table
member of the drilling crew. It is impor- and there is no tool joint across
tant on every well, since every well has the BOPs.
the potential to kick. Using good well 2. Shut down the pumps and check
planning and following good drilling for flow. If the well is flowing,
procedures will minimize the potential continue with Step 3.
for a kick. 3. Open the hydraulic valve on the
choke line at the BOPs.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
4. Close the designated BOP. This that the intruding fluid can be circu-
could be the annular preventer or lated out of the well on the first circu-
the topmost pipe ram with the lation. But kicks do occur when the
appropriate ram size for the drill drill pipe is out of the hole or is being
…it is easier pipe inside the BOP stack. tripped. Since it is easier to control a
to control a 5. Close the adjustable choke on the well when the bit is on or near bottom,
choke manifold. the drill pipe should be run back into
well when NOTE: Closing the well with the the hole if it is possible to do so safely.
the bit is adjustable choke precludes the possibil- This may be done if the well is not flow-
on or near ity of imposing surge pressures on the ing or the rate of fluid flow is very low
BOP equipment. and the size of the influx is very small.
bottom… 6. Record the influx volume and the Extreme caution should be taken when
shut-in pressures on the casing and tripping into the well under these con-
drill pipe. It may take several min- ditions. When the bit is run into the top
utes for the pressures to stabilize. of the kick fluid influx, the influx will
Check visually for leaks. It is also be rapidly displaced upward. This can
a good practice to double-check reduce the hydrostatic head sufficiently
the position of all standpipe and for the well to “unload” the mud and
choke-and-kill manifold valves. blow out if the well is not closed in
Subsea BOP stack on floating units quickly. Do not risk losing control of
equipped with motion compensator the well in order to get the bit all the
1. Raise the drillstring until the lower way back to bottom. Once it has been
kelly cock is above the rotary table determined that the well should be shut
and there is no tool joint across the in, the following steps should be taken:
pipe rams. 11. Install the drill pipe safety valve in
2. Shut the pumps down and check the open position. It may be nec-
for flow. If the well is flowing, essary to install this valve with
continue with Step 3. mud flowing “through” it.
Do not 3. Open the outer fail-safe valve in 12. Close the safety valve.
risk losing the choke line at the BOP stack. 13. Open the hydraulic choke line
(Normally, the inner valve should valve or outer choke line valve.
control of be in the open position.) 14. Space out the drillstring so that
the well in 4. Close the designated BOP. there is no tool joint opposite
order to get 5. Land the drillstring on the top pipe the BOPs.
rams and close the ram locks. 15. Close the (upper) annular BOP or
the bit all top pipe rams.
6. Close the second-from-top pipe rams.
the way back 7. Close the adjustable choke on the 16. Close the adjustable choke.
to bottom. choke manifold. Set the motion com- 17. Install the kelly or circulating head.
pensator to mid-stroke. Record the 18. Open the drill pipe safety valve.
influx volume and pressures on both 19. Re-align the standpipe manifold
casing and drill pipe. Check visually and choke-and-kill manifolds.
for leaks. Double-check the position 10. Record shut-in pressures on both
of all standpipe and choke-and-kill the casing and drill pipe. Take
manifold valves. readings at one-minute intervals
until the pressures stabilize.
KICKS OFF BOTTOM 11. Measure pit gain in the mud
Well control is simplified when the bit is tanks. On floating rigs, the drill-
on bottom. The maximum column of string should be hung on the pipe
drilling fluid can be conditioned to con- rams using normal procedures.
trol the formation pressure and ensure

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
WELL-CONTROL METHODS especially with high-density drilling

Once the Once the well has been shut in, steps fluids. To maintain a constant bottom-
should be taken to circulate the intrud- hole pressure, the choke opening will
well has have to change as the hydrostatic
ing fluid out of the well. Also, the den-
been shut in, sity of the drilling fluid should be pressure in the annulus changes
steps should increased to provide sufficient hydro- due to gas expansion.
static pressure to control the formation All recognized well-control methods
be taken to use a constant, but slow, pump rate
pressure. Over the years, several meth-
circulate the ods have been developed to circulate when circulating a kick out of the hole
intruding the kick out and weight up the drill- and replacing the light mud with kill
fluid out of ing fluid. All of these methods use a mud. Additional formation fluids must
system of controlling the Bottom- be kept from entering the wellbore
the well. Hole Pressure (BHP) through the use while the kick is being circulated out of
of hydrostatic pressure (PHYD) and the well and the weighted kill mud is
back pressure exerted by an adjust- being circulated. Formation fluids will
able choke (PCHOKE). The back pres- not enter the wellbore if sufficient pres-
sure exerted by the adjustable choke, sure is maintained on the formation
along with the hydrostatic pressure while circulating the kick out. If the
in the annulus, will prevent addi- pressure on the casing plus the hydro-
tional formation fluid from entering static pressure of the fluid in the annu-
the annulus. lus is equal to or greater than the
formation pressure, additional forma-
BHP =
tion fluid will not enter the wellbore.
PHYD (annulus) + APL + PCHOKE
Unfortunately, the hydrostatic pressure
An adjustable choke is a valve that can of the mud in the annulus cannot be
be adjusted to vary the size of the open- calculated accurately. The volume of
ing through which the fluid flows. At a gas after expansion, and the density
constant flow or pump rate, decreasing of formation liquids (oil and saltwater)
the size of the choke opening will in the annulus cannot be determined
increase the casing and drill pipe pres- with sufficient accuracy to accurately
sures. Increasing the size of the choke calculate the pressures needed to kill
opening will decrease them. The pres- the well properly.
sure loss through an adjustable choke If the kick has not been allowed to
is similar to the pressure loss through flow back through the drill pipe and the
the nozzles of a drill bit. The pressure bit is on bottom, the shut-in drill pipe
loss through the choke is dependent pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure
upon the density and velocity of the (PHYD) of the mud in the drill pipe is
mud, and the size of the opening. equal to the formation pressure. If the
Maintaining a constant bottom-hole adjustable choke is used to maintain a
pressure is difficult with these three fac- constant drill pipe pressure equal to the
tors, which constantly change during recorded slow pump rate circulating
the circulating process, contributing to pressure plus the SIDPP, a constant
the pressure loss through the choke. The bottom-hole kill pressure will be main-
process can be simplified by maintain- tained. Although the annular pressures
ing a constant pump rate during the will fluctuate as the gas is displaced
well-control procedure. The density will from the annulus, but additional forma-
change as the formation fluids are circu- tion fluids will not flow into the well-
lated through the choke. The effects of bore. The kick can be circulated out in
saltwater and oil will not be as dramatic this manner, but the well will not be
as those of gas, but will be noticeable — killed. When the drill pipe pressures are

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
used, the well can be killed without hav- 4. Mud weight consistency. To kill a
ing to compensate for gas expansion in well successfully, the mud weight
the calculations. When weighted mud is must be increased to a density that
being pumped down the drill pipe, the will balance the formation pressure.
use of a schedule to decrease the drill At high flow rates, equipment limi-
pipe pressure as the hydrostatic pressure tations may make it impossible to
in the annulus increases, will lessen the add weight material fast enough to
likelihood of fracturing the formation. maintain the proper kill-mud weight.
After the kill-weight mud reaches the Reduced pump rates give the rig crew
bit, a constant pressure is held on the more time to maintain the correct
drill pipe while displacing the annulus mud weight and fluid properties
with kill-weight mud at the slow pump during the well-control operation.
rate. Two methods are used to deter-
The RCP mine this pressure. These calculations
The Reduced Circulating Pressure
should be (RCP) should be measured at a slow
will be discussed in the well-control
pump rate and recorded every tour
measured at method to which they apply.
for all mud pumps in the event that
a slow pump Usually, well-control operations are
a pump breaks down during a well-
conducted at a reduced pump rate of 1⁄3
rate and control operation. The RCPs should
to 1⁄2 the normal circulating rate. There
be measured and recorded whenever
recorded are many reasons for doing this. Among
well changes occur that will affect the
every tour… them are:
circulating pressure. Some of these
1. Improved reaction time. The bottom-
changes are mud density, drilling
hole pressure is controlled by open-
assembly or nozzle changes, pump
ing or closing an adjustable choke. At
repairs, and a high quantity of new
high flow rates, small adjustments in
hole drilled.
the choke opening can result in large
Several calculations are necessary
pressure changes. This may permit
for each of the well-control methods.
additional formation fluids to enter
Some of them are common to all of
the annulus or fracture the forma-
the well-control methods. They are:
tion. Reduced flow rates allow more
…well- time to analyze changes and recog- Kill-weight mud (lb/gal) =
SIDPP (psi)
control nize equipment problems such as MW (lb/gal) +
pump failure, choke failure and 0.052 x TVD (ft)
operations plugged bit nozzles. Surface-to-bit strokes =
are conducted 2. Pressure limits. The pump pressure drillstring capacity x measured depth
at a reduced used to circulate a kick out is the cir- pump output
pump rate culating pressure at a known pump
NOTE: Calculations necessary for a par-
rate plus the SIDPP. In most drilling
of 1⁄3 to 1⁄2 ticular well-control method will be described
operations, the pumps are operated
in the discussion of that method.
the normal near their maximum pressure limits.
circulating Under these conditions, the pumps When a kick occurs and the well is
would not be capable of operating at shut in, basic information should be
rate. the required kill rates and pressures. recorded. This information will be used
3. Equipment failure. When equip- to kill the well and can be used in future
ment is run at or near its maxi- analysis of the operation. To assist rig
mum rating, the higher stress levels personnel, worksheets have been devel-
increase the likelihood of failure. oped for the various well-control meth-
ods. The worksheets usually include all
of the information about the well, kick

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
and rig needed to kill the well using a NOTE: The Driller’s Method is not
specific well-control procedure. The recommended for most offshore wells.
necessary calculations are included
The procedure for circulating a kick
with a description of the well-control
out using the Driller’s Method is:
method. The worksheets are good tools
11. Shut the well in and record the
for guiding rig crews through the neces-
pertinent kick information.
sary well-control procedures.
12. Calculate the Initial Circulation
NOTE: A worksheet for each of
Pressure (ICP):
the approved well-control procedures
is included in this chapter with a ICP = RCP + SIDPP
discussion of the procedure. 13. Open the adjustable choke and
The information that should be start pumping at the preselected
recorded after taking a kick are: slow pump rate. Adjust the choke
11. Measured depth. to obtain a pump pressure equal
12. Total vertical depth. to the ICP.
13. Mud weight. 14. Circulate the kick out by main-
14. Shut-In Drill Pipe Pressure (SIDPP). taining the ICP using the adjust-
15. Shut-In Casing Pressure (SICP). able choke. Maintain a constant
16. Kick volume. pump rate throughout the circu-
17. Fractured gradient. lating process.
18. Casing TVD. 15. Once the kick has been circulated
19. Reduced Circulating Pressure (RCP). out of the well, the well can be shut
10. Reduced Circulating Rate (RCR). in. The SIDPP and the SICP should
11. Reduced Pump Output (RPO). be equal, since the intruding fluid
has been circulated out of the well.
If off-bottom: 16. Calculate the kill-mud weight and
12. Measured depth of bit. weight up the fluid in the surface
13. TVD of bit. system.
Items 1 through 6 are taken at the 17. Open the adjustable choke and
time the kick is taken and the well is start pumping at the preselected
shut in. Items 7 through 11 should be slow pump rate. Adjust the choke
known or measured prior to taking a to maintain the casing pressure at
kick. They must be used to make the the SICP.
necessary calculations to circulate the 18. Maintain the mud weight in the sur-
kick out of the hole and to kill the face system at the kill-mud weight.
well. Items 12 and 13 apply if the 19. Once the kill mud reaches the bit,
kick occurs while tripping. record the pump pressure. Maintain
this pump pressure by adjusting the
THE DRILLER’S METHOD choke until the kill mud is observed
The Driller’s The Driller’s Method is the simplest of at the surface.
Method is the approved well-control methods. It 10. Stop pumping and shut the well
was developed to circulate the kick out in to check for pressures. If shut-
not recom- of the well and circulate the kill mud in pressure exists, additional mud
mended into the well (in two circulations) with weight and circulation will be
for most a minimum number of calculations. required. If no shut-in pressures
The method’s original purpose was to exists, the well is under control.
offshore control wells with minimal supervision, At this time, one or two circula-
wells. poor mixing capabilities or insufficient tions may be made to condition
weighting material on location. the mud and increase the mud
weight to provide a trip margin.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________ The following information has been Pit volume

________________________ used to fill out the Driller’s Method increase = 15 bbl
well-control worksheet as shown in Kill pump rate = 4.75 bbl/min
________________________
Figures 18 and 19. (30 stk/min)
________________________
Given: RCP at
________________________ Depth = 14,000 ft (TVD) 30 stk/min = 800 psi
Mud weight = 15.0 lb/gal Drill pipe = 41⁄2 in. x 16.6 lb/ft
________________________
SIDPP = 900 psi (capacity
________________________ 0.01422 bbl/ft)
SICP = 950 psi
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Figure 18: Driller’s Method well-control worksheet – procedure.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
Figure 19: Driller’s Method well-control worksheet – calculations.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Calculations: • Increase the mud weight in the

• Calculate initial circulating pressure mud pits to 16.3 lb/gal (2 kg/L)
(Step 4). (kill-mud weight).
• Open the choke and start circulating
ICP = RCP + SIDPP
the kill mud at 30 stk/min. Adjust
ICP = 800 + 900 = 1,700 psi the choke to maintain the casing
• Calculate kill-mud weight (Step 5). pressure at 900 psi (62 bar).
Kill-MW = • Once the kill mud reaches the bit
SIDPP (psi) x 19.25 (1,256 stk), record the pump pressure.
MW (lb/gal) + Adjust the choke to maintain this
TVD (ft)
pump pressure until the kill mud is
900 x 19.25 observed at the surface.
= 15.0 +
14,000 • Shut the well in and determine if it
= 15.0 + 1.24 = 16.3 lb/gal is dead.
• Calculate circulating time to bit The Driller’s Method requires two cir-
(Step 7). culations to control the well success-
Circulating time to bit = fully. One circulation is required to
DP capacity (bbl/ft) x MD (ft) circulate the kick out of the hole and
kill pump rate (bbl/min) the second increases the density of the
0.0142 x 14,000 fluid in the well to the kill-mud weight.
=
4.75 THE WAIT-AND-WEIGHT METHOD
= 41.85 min
After the The Wait-and-Weight Method of well
well is shut • Calculate the strokes to bit (Step 8). control is explained by its name. After
Strokes to bit = the well is shut in, the rig crew “waits”
in…the kill pump rate (stk/min) x while the drilling fluid in the pits is
drilling fluid time (min) “weighted” up to the kill-mud weight.
in the pits is = 30 stk/min x 41.85 min In order to use this method success-
= 1,256 stk fully, sufficient weight material must
“weighted” be on location and the mixing capac-
up to the • Calculate final circulating pressure ity must be sufficient to maintain the
(Step 9).
kill-mud kill mud weight
kill-mud weight while circulating at
FCP = RCP x the slow pump rate.
weight. original mud weight This procedure is more complicated
16.3 than the Driller’s Method. In the
= 800 x
15.0 Driller’s Method, weighted mud is
= 869 psi not pumped into the well until the
Procedure: kick has been circulated out of the well.
• Open the adjustable choke and start The gas expansion is compensated for
pumping at 30 stk/min. by maintaining a constant drill pipe
• Adjust the choke to obtain a pump pressure while circulating the kick out.
pressure of 1,700 psi (117 bar). When weighted mud is pumped into
Maintain this pressure until the kick the well, the casing pressure is held con-
has been circulated out of the hole. stant until the weighted mud reaches
• Shut the well in and record the shut- the bit. This compensates for the chang-
in pressures. The SIDPP and the SICP ing hydrostatic pressure in the drill pipe.
should be equal at 900 psi (62 bar) In the Wait-and-Weight Method, gas
if the kick has been completely is expanding in the annulus while the
circulated out of the annulus. hydrostatic pressure is increasing in the
drill pipe. This requires that the pump

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Once the pressure needed for maintaining a hydrostatic pressure in the annulus due to
kill-weight constant bottom-hole pressure must the intruding fluid moving up the annulus.
change as the fluid is circulated. A chart Once the kill-weight mud reaches
mud reaches of the scheduled pump or drill pipe the bit, the pump pressure is held con-
the bit, pressure changes simplifies the kill pro- stant at the Final Circulating Pressure
the pump cedure and reduces the chance of error. (FCP) until the kill mud reaches the
The pressure schedule or graph deter- surface. This FCP is calculated with the
pressure mines the pump pressure while the kill following equation.
is held mud is being pumped down the drill kill-mud weight
constant pipe. As the hydrostatic pressure in the FCP = RCP x
original mud weight
drill pipe increases, the pump pressure
at the FCP necessary to maintain the correct This equation calculates the reduced
until the kill bottom-hole pressure is reduced. circulating pressure using the kill-mud
mud reaches Well-control worksheets for the weight as the circulating fluid. The cal-
Wait-and-Weight Method contain a culations for pressures through these
the surface. two sections of the circulating system
pressure schedule graph. The schedule
is drawn on standard rectangular coor- are based on turbulent pressure losses
dinates. The vertical axis is for the and energy changes. Since the only
pump pressure and the horizontal axis significant change to the drilling fluid
is for the pump strokes. At zero (0) properties used to calculate these pres-
pump strokes, plot the ICP on the sure losses is the mud density, the cir-
pressure scale. Plot the surface-to-bit culating pressure is increased by the
strokes and plot the FCP on the graph. ratio of the kill-mud weight to the
Draw a straight line between the two original mud weight.
points. It is not practical to try to The Initial Circulating Pressure (ICP)
maintain too fine a control on the is calculated the same way as in the
drill pipe pressure while killing the Driller’s Method:
well. Instead, make a chart that shows ICP = RCP + SIDPP
the pump pressure from the schedule at
The pressure schedule is drawn
a selected stroke interval (i.e. 100, 150,
using the ICP, FCP and the surface-
200 etc.). The pump pressure is main-
to-bit strokes.
tained according to this pressure until
the selected number of strokes is The procedure for circulating a
pumped. The pump pressure is then kick out using the Wait-and-Weight
reduced to the next pressure until the Method is:
stroke interval is pumped. This stair- 11. Shut the well in and record the
step fashion is continued until the kill pertinent kick information.
mud reaches the bit. At that time, the 12. Calculate the kill-weight mud.
pump pressure is held constant until 13. Begin increasing the mud
the kill mud is observed at the surface. weight in the surface pits
NOTE: The pump pressure will decrease on to the kill-weight mud.
its own as the kill-mud weight is pumped 14. Calculate the ICP.
down the drill pipe. This is due to the 15. Calculate the FCP.
increase in hydrostatic pressure in the drill 16. Calculate the surface-to-bit strokes.
pipe. As a result, few, if any, choke adjust- 17. Construct a pressure schedule.
ments are required while pumping kill mud 18. Open the adjustable choke and
down the drill pipe. Some adjustments will start pumping at the preselected
be required to account for the changing slow pump rate. Adjust the choke

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________ to obtain a pump pressure equal • Calculate the kill-mud weight (Step 4).
________________________ to the ICP. Kill-MW (lb/gal) =
19. Circulate out the kick following SIDPP (psi) x 19.25
________________________ MW (lb/gal) +
the pressure schedule using the TVD (ft)
________________________ adjustable choke. Maintain a con- 400 x 19.5
________________________ stant pump rate throughout the = 13.3 +
9,000
circulating process. = 14.1
________________________
10. Maintain the mud weight in the sur- • Calculate FCP (Step 8).
________________________ face system at the kill-mud weight.
11. Once the kill mud reaches the bit, kill-mud weight
________________________ FCP = RCP x
maintain the FCP until the kill original mud weight
________________________ 14.1
mud is observed at the surface. = 600 x
________________________ 12. Stop pumping and shut the well in 13.2
________________________ to check for pressures. If shut-in = 641 psi
________________________
pressures exist, additional mud • Calculate circulating time to bit
weight and circulation will be (Step 9).
________________________
required. If no shut-in pressures
Circulating time to bit =
________________________ exist, the well is under control. At
DP capacity (bbl/ft) x MD (ft)
________________________ this time, one or two circulations
kill pump rate (bbl/min)
can be made to condition the mud
and increase the mud weight to • Calculate time to bit (Step 10).
provide a trip margin.
0.01422 (bbl/ft) x 9,000 (ft)
=
The following information has been 4.17 (bbl/min)
used to fill out the Wait-and-Weight = 30.7 min
Method worksheet as shown in Strokes to bit = kill pump rate
Figures 20 and 21. (stk/min) x time (min)
Total depth: 9,000 ft (TVD) = 30 x 30.7 = 920 stk
Hole size: 81⁄2 in.
Prepare drill pipe pressure schedule.
Casing: 95⁄8 in. (43.5 lb/ft) set
to 5,000 ft (capacity Procedure:
0.0744 bbl/ft) • Open the adjustable choke and start
Mud weight: 13.2 lb/gal pumping at 30 stk/min.
SIDPP: 400 psi • Adjust the choke to obtain a pump
SICP: 500 psi pressure of 1,000 psi (69 bar).
Pit volume • Follow the pressure schedule pre-
increase: 15 bbl pared in Figure 21 as the kill mud
Drill pipe: 41⁄2 in. (16.6 lb/ft) is pumped down the drill pipe.
(capacity = • After the kill mud has reached the
0.0142 bbl/ft) bit (920 stk), maintain the pump
RCP pressure at 641 psi (4 bar) (FCP)
(at stk/min): 600 psi until the kill mud is observed at
Kill pump rate: 4.17 bbl/min the surface.
• Shut the well in and determine if
Calculations the well is dead.
• Calculate ICP (Step 7). • If the well is dead, the mud can be cir-
ICP = RCP + SIDPP culated either through an open choke
ICP = 600 + 400 or with the BOPs open. The mud can
= 1,000 psi be conditioned and/or a trip margin
can be added at this time.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
Figure 20: Wait-and-Weight Method well-control worksheet – procedure.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
Figure 21: Wait-and-Weight Method well-control worksheet – calculation.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
DRAWING THE DRILL PIPE The Circulate-and-Weight (Concurrent)

PRESSURE SCHEDULE Method is more complex than either
• Plot initial circulating pressure = the Driller’s Method or the Wait-and-
1,000 psi (69 bar) on the left-hand Weight Method due to the various den-
Y-axis. sities of drilling fluid in the drill pipe.
• Plot final circulating pressure = The number of different densities and
641 psi (44 bar) on the right-hand the volumes of each depends upon the
Y-axis. mixing capability and circulating rate
• Label time across the X-axis. of the drilling rig used. A complicated
• Label strokes below each time interval. pressure schedule is necessary, as is a
• Plot the final circulating pressure precise knowledge of when a mud den-
at the time-to-bit time and connect sity was achieved and pumped down
the initial and final pressures to the drill pipe. Excellent communica-
this point. tions between the choke operator and
the mud pits is required.
As we pump the kill-weight mud A pressure schedule similar to that of
down the drill pipe, we have to lower the Wait-and-Weight Method must be
the drill pipe pressure according to developed. The difference between the
the graph. For example, after we have schedules is that the circulating pressure
pumped 8 min, or 270 strokes, the will be plotted vs. the mud weight. Use
pressure should be adjusted to about the Y-axis for the pressure and the X-
Three 900 psi (62 bar) on the drill pipe gauge. axis for the mud weight. Three calcula-
Corrections should be made every few tions will be required to complete the
calculations minutes. The final circulating pressure of schedule: Kill-mud weight, ICP and FCP.
will be 641 psi (44 bar) should be held constant The equations for these are the same as
required to until the 14.1 lb/gal (1.7 kg/L) reaches for the Wait-and-Weight Method.
the surface. After the well is killed, we To construct the schedule, plot the
complete the could continue to drill, but we would ICP at the original mud weight. Then,
schedule: have to add an additional trip margin to plot the FCP at the kill-mud weight.
Kill-mud the mud weight before we trip the pipe. Use a straight edge to connect the two
weight, ICP THE CIRCULATE-AND-WEIGHT points. Start circulating at the reduced
and FCP. (CONCURRENT) METHOD circulating rate. Adjust the choke to
The Circulate-and-Weight (Concurrent) reach the ICP. While circulating, begin
Method is used to circulate the kick out increasing the density of the mud in
of the hole while increasing the density the pits. When an increase of 0.1 lb/gal
of the drilling fluid gradually to the (0.01 kg/L) is achieved in the pits,
kill-mud weight. The well is shut in determine the time it will take to reach
only long enough to obtain the perti- the bit. When this density reaches the
nent information about the kick situa- bit, decrease the circulating pressure
tion. The calculations and techniques to the value associated with the density
used in the Wait-and-Weight Method on the pressure schedule. Maintain this
are used in the Circulate-and-Weight pressure until a new density reaches
(Concurrent) Method. When using the the bit. At this time, reduce the pres-
latter method for killing a kick, start sure according to the pressure schedule.
circulating with the initial circulating Continue this process until the mud
pressure and begin adding barite to the weight at the bit has been increased
system until you reach the kill-weight to the kill-mud weight. Maintain the
mud. This method uses a gradual FCP until the kill-mud weight has
increase in mud weight as the kick been observed at the surface.
is circulated out.
CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
The following information has • Start adding weight material to the

been used to fill out the Circulate- surface system. When a 0.1 lb/gal
and-Weight (Concurrent) Method (0.01 kg/L) weight increase is
well-control worksheet as shown achieved, make a note of the pump
in Figures 22 and 23. strokes. When this mud weight
Given: reaches the bit, reduce the circula-
Total depth: 8,000 ft tion pressure as per the pressure on
Hole size: 81⁄2 in. the pressure schedule.
Casing: 95⁄8 in. (43.5 lb/ft) set • Continue this procedure until the
at 3,500 ft mud weight has been increased to
Mud weight: 12.6 lb/gal the kill-mud weight (13.4 lb/gal
SIDPP 300 psi [1.6 kg/L]). When the kill-mud
SICP 400 psi weight reaches the bit, the pump
Pit volume pressure should be maintained at
increase: 20 bbl the FCP (638 psi) until the kill-mud
Drill pipe: 41⁄2 in. (16.6 lb/ft) weight is observed at the surface.
(capacity = • Shut the well in and determine if
0.0142 bbl/ft) the well is dead.
RCP (at
• If the well is dead, the mud can be cir-
30 stk/min): 600 psi
culated either through an open choke
Triplex pump
or with the BOPs open. The mud can
#1 output: 6 in. x 8 in., 100% effi-
be conditioned and or a trip margin
ciency at 120 stk/min
can be added at this time.
RCP pump
#2 at CONCLUSIONS
60 stk/min: 500 psi The three methods outlined in this
Knowing the Triplex pump chapter have advantages and disad-
specifics #2 output: 51⁄2 in. x 8 in., vantages. Knowing the specifics about
about the 100% efficiency the well will determine the appropriate
at 120 stk/min method to be successful in circulating
well will
Calculations: the intruding fluid out of the well and
determine the circulating the kill-mud into it. A brief
• Calculate ICP (Step 4): 900 psi.
appropriate • Calculate kill-mud weight (Step 6): list of advantages and disadvantages
method… 13.4 lb/gal. for each method is listed below.
Driller’s Method
• Calculate FCP (Step 7): 638 psi.
Advantages
• Calculate circulating time to bit
a. Involves a minimal number of
(Step 8): 27.28 min.
calculations (3).
• Calculate surface-to-bit strokes b. A simple procedure that can be
(Step 9): 818 stk. understood by most rig crews.
• Prepare drill pipe pressure schedule c. Removes the intruding fluid from the
(see Figure 23). well in a minimum amount of time.
Procedure: Disadvantages
a. Requires two circulations to kill
• Open the adjustable choke and start
the well.
pumping at 30 stk/min.
b. Subjects the casing shoe to the max-
• Adjust the choke to obtain the ICP imum amount of pressure due to no
of 900 psi. additional hydrostatic pressure from
additional mud weight.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
Figure 22: Concurrent Method well-control worksheet — procedure.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
Figure 23: Concurrent Method well-control worksheet — calculations.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Wait-and-Weight Method b. Requires more calculations than the

Advantages Driller’s Method.
a. Kills the well in one circulation. c. Requires sufficient supplies of weight
b. Subjects the casing shoe to the min- material and a good mixing system
imum amount of pressure due to to maintain the density as the fluid
additional hydrostatic pressure is circulated.
from the mud weight increase. Concurrent Method
Disadvantages Advantages
a. The well is shut in for a long period a. Removes the intruding fluid in a
of time with no circulation. A gas minimum amount of time.
kick will migrate up the hole, increas- b. Subjects the casing shoe to a
ing the pressure, unless pressures are reduced pressure due to increasing
monitored constantly. Fluids such as hydrostatic pressure.
saltwater will contaminate the fluid, c. Weight-up can be adjusted as
causing increases in fluid loss. This, weight material supplies allow.
in turn, increases the possibility of Disadvantages
sticking the drillstring. A gas kick in a. Requires a complex pressure sched-
oil- or synthetic-base fluid can strip ule. The location of the incremen-
the barite from the fluid due to the tally increased mud densities must
solubility of gas in the base fluid. Gas be known on a continuous basis to
changes phases and acts as a liquid determine the pressure schedule.
when it solubilizes in the oil-base b. Requires more than one circulation
mud. This dilutes the fluid and may to kill the well. Due to the drawn-
reduce the viscosity enough to allow out method for weighting up, the
weight material to settle and plug time required could take two or
the annulus. more circulations.
Special Problems
This GAS CUTTING This expansion of gas at or near the

expansion When a gas-bearing formation is pene- surface gives the impression that the
trated, the gas is incorporated into the well is kicking when, in fact, it is not. If
of gas at a kick were occurring, it would have
mud in the annulus. As the gas is cir-
or near the culated to the surface, the hydrostatic started when the gas-bearing formation
surface pressure above the gas is reduced. This was penetrated. When gas-bearing for-
reduction allows the gas to expand. The mations are penetrated, an increase in
gives the the ROP usually occurs. The well should
degree of expansion is greatest when
impression the gas reaches the surface, where the be checked for a flow when this ROP
that the well hydrostatic pressure is reduced to zero. increase occurs to determine if the well
As the gas expands in the mud, the den- is kicking. Gas cutting is most likely to
is kicking occur under the following conditions:
sity of the mud is decreased. Therefore,
when, in the density of the mud is the lowest at 1. Bottoms-up after trips, short trips
fact, it is the surface where the gas expansion is or connections.
not. the greatest. This phenomenon is called 2. Bottoms-up after penetrating a
“gas cutting” and the mud is referred to gas-bearing formation.
as “gas-cut mud.”

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
In many cases, when the mud NOTE: The results of this equation
becomes gas-cut, the mud density is assume that the pit volume gain is due
Increases in increased needlessly. Increases in con- specifically to the effects of the gas-cut
connection or nection or background gas should be mud. Since the drilling fluid circulating
the basis for increasing the mud density, system is in a dynamic condition, exact
background not gas cutting. Gas cutting usually has determination of this value will be diffi-
gas should be little effect on the hydrostatic head of cult. Another assumption made with this
the basis for the total column of mud in the well- equation is that the gas has no density.
bore, since the reduction of mud density This is not the case; however, using this
increasing is only at the surface. The Strong-White assumption would give you the largest
the mud equation can be used to calculate the decrease in hydrostatic pressure.
density… reduction in bottom-hole hydrostatic Figure 24 shows the effects of gas-cut
pressure due to gas cutting. The follow- mud at various depths and amounts of
ing problems are exercises in calculating gas cutting. It shows the reduction in
this reduction: hydrostatic pressure at depth for various
ΔPHYD = Reduction in PHYD (psi) percentages of gas cutting. The gas per-
centages used in the graph were 10,
PHYD = Hydrostatic pressure with
33.3 and 50%. The effects of this gas
uncut mud (psi)
cutting were shown for 10 and 18 lb/gal
N = Ratio of gas to mud (1.2 and 2.2 kg/L). Figure 24 indicates
original mud weight that an 18-lb/gal (2.2 kg/L) mud cut
= –1
cut mud weight to 9 lb/gal (1.1 kg/L) at the surface
NOTE: ΔPHYD and PHYD are expressed in (a 50% cut) reduces the hydrostatic
psi. “Δ” represents the change in pressure pressure of a 20,000-ft (6,096-m) well
or density. by only about 100 psi (6.9 bar). The
graph does not show all of the various
1. Strong-White equation: possibilities, but does show that the
P
( )
ΔPHYD = N x 2.3 log HYD
14.7
x 14.7
reduction in hydrostatic pressure
due to gas-cut mud is minimal. The
results can be extrapolated between
2. Shortcut estimation:
percentages for a close estimate in
ΔPHYD = 100 (
uncut MW
gas-cut MW ) –1 bottom-hole pressure reduction.
The following example calculates the
3. When gas expands in the annulus, reduction in bottom-hole pressure due
the volume increase is observed as to gas-cut mud using the Strong-White
a gain in surface volume. This pit equation and the short-cut equation.
gain can be depicted as occupying Use the graph to estimate the reduction
some specific annular height in the in bottom-hole pressure and compare
hole. A loss of hydrostatic pressure the results to the equation.
can be determined from this gain Example:
using the following equation: Depth: 10,000 ft
ΔPHYD (psi) = Hole size: 97⁄8 in.
pit gain (bbl) Pipe size: 5 in.
x MW (lb/gal) x 0.052 Mud weight: 14 lb/gal
VANN (bbl/ft)
Mud cut to: 10 lb/gal
Pit volume gain: 3.6 bbl

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________ 20
________________________
________________________
________________________
________________________
lb/gal
al
________________________ 10
t to 13.5 lb/g
9
lb/gal to 7.5
________________________
lb/gal
8
________________________
7
to 6.66
/gal
18 lb/gal cu
________________________
25% cut 10
5 lb
6
l
12 lb/ga
Depth (ft x 1,000)
________________________
/gal cut
t to
10% cut 10 lb/gal to 9 lb/gal
________________________ 5
al cu
18 lb/gal cut to 16.2 lb/gal
l cut to
ut 10 lb
lb/g
________________________
4
10
18 lb/ga
________________________
33.3% c
cut
________________________
50%
3
________________________
/gal
9 lb
t to
2
l cu
b/ga
18 l
1
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Change in BHP (psi)
Figure 24: Actual reduction in bottom-hole pressure due to gas-cut mud.
What is the reduction in ΔPHYD (psi)

ΔMW (lb/gal) =
hydrostatic pressure? 0.052 x TVD (ft)
1. Using Strong-White: 36.44
=
PHYD = 10,000 x 14 x 0.052 0.052 x 10,000
= 7,280 psi = 0.07 lb/gal
original mud weight
N= –1 2. Using the shortcut:
cut mud weight
14 ΔPHYD (psi) =
N= –1 uncut mud weight
10 100 x –1
gas-cut mud weight
N = 0.40
ΔPHYD (psi) =
7,280
= 100
14
10
–1 ( )
0.40 x 2.3 log x 14.7 = 40 psi
14.7
= 0.40 x 2.3 log 495 x 14.7 40
ΔMW = = 0.077 lb/gal
0.052 x 10,000
= 0.40 x 2.3 x 2.695 x 14.7
= 36.44 psi
CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
3. Using pit-volume increase: will be affected. High vicosities and fluid

ΔPHYD (psi) = losses may result in lost circulation
pit-volume increase (bbl) and/or sticking of the pipe.
… When a kick is detected, calculations
( 1,029 )
Dh2 (in.) – Dp2 (in.)
should be made to identify the intrud-
ing fluid. If calculations indicate a salt-
x MW (lb/gal) x 0.052
3.6 water flow, plans should be made to
= x 14 x 0.052 dispose of the saltwater and as much
( 9.8752 – 52
1,029 ) of the contaminated mud as possible
when they reach the surface. The mud
3.6 properties should be returned to the
= x 14 x 0.052
0.07 desired ranges as soon as possible by
= 37.2 psi dilution and treating with the appro-
ΔMW = 37.2 ÷ (0.052 X 10,000) priate chemicals. If time allows, pilot
= 0.071 lb/gal tests should be made prior to treating
the mud system.
Comments:
1. Moderate gas cutting has no major HYDROGEN SULFIDE AND
effect on hydrostatic pressure. CARBON DIOXIDE
2. Any formation fluid entering the Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) is an acid gas.
wellbore must displace mud from It is very toxic — about the same as
the hole into the pits. hydrogen cyanide. Breathing hydro-
3. A slight reduction in flow-line gen sulfide concentrations of as low as
mud weight due to water influx 500 ppm can cause immediate death.
may decrease bottom-hole pressure Exposure to even lower concentrations
far more than a larger reduction in can cause permanent brain and nerve
mud weight due to gas cutting. damage. Hydrogen sulfide has the odor
4. When in doubt, check for flow, of rotten eggs. At concentrations greater
and shut-in drill pipe pressure than 150 ppm, it deadens the sense of
and casing pressure. smell and can no longer be detected by
odor. The effects of hydrogen sulfide are
If there was no increase in pit vol- cumulative. Exposure to low concentra-
ume before the gas appeared at the tions for a long period of time can have
flow line, a blowout is not occurring. the same effect as short exposures to
The gas is expanding at the surface, high concentrations. It is very flam-
but should be handled with caution. mable and will auto-ignite at 500° F
SALTWATER INTRUSIONS (260° C). Explosive concentrations in
Any kick Any kick should be handled as a gas air range from 4.3 to 46.0%.
kick until it is known to be another type Hydrogen sulfide also has a devastat-
should be ing effect on mud properties. Chemical
of intrusion. In most cases, a saltwater
handled as intrusion is less difficult to control than reactions between hydrogen sulfide and
a gas kick a gas intrusion, but intrusions of saltwa- mud can result in very high viscosities.
ter can cause problems. The saltwater These high viscosities increase annular
until it is pressure losses, which can result in lost
usually contains sodium, calcium, mag-
known to be nesium and other ions. These ions react circulation.
another type with the mud to alter its chemistry. The Hydrogen sulfide is very corrosive. In
high-strength steels, it can cause hydro-
of intrusion. most common result of this reaction is
gen embrittlement catastrophic failure
increased viscosity and fluid loss. The
concentration and type of ion deter- without warning. Any oilfield tubulars
mines how severely the mud properties with higher strength than Grade E drill

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
pipe or N-80 tubing is considered sus- level for the fluid, with additions of
ceptible. These grades also may be sus- lime. In water-base muds, the pH
ceptible when work-hardened under should be kept at >11.5 and zinc oxide
high loads or by rough handling such or another suitable zinc scavenger
as being struck with a hammer when should be maintained (in excess).
trying to detect a wet string. Chelated zinc may be used in water-
The problems The problems associated with hydro- base muds, but zinc oxide is preferable
associated gen sulfide cannot be over-emphasized. in any fluid that can suspend it, since
It is soluble in water and liquefies at it has twice the activity of chelated
with pressures of only 350 to 400 psi (24 to zinc. Chelated zinc is especially suited
hydrogen 28 bar). Because of these characteristics, for use in clear brines and Newtonian
sulfide kicks containing a significant amount fluid systems that lack sufficient rhe-
of hydrogen sulfide are difficult to ology to suspend zinc oxide. Simply
cannot control. The phase change from a liquid raising the pH will not neutralize
be over- to a gas with large increases in volume hydrogen sulfide. It converts the
emphasized. occur rapidly, very near the surface. hydrogen sulfide to different types
Even when alerted to the presence of of soluble sulfide ion species. A reduc-
hydrogen sulfide, it is difficult to work tion in pH will allow these soluble
the choke fast enough to handle a ions to convert to poisonous hydro-
hydrogen sulfide kick properly. gen sulfide gas. On the other hand,
Once hydrogen sulfide reaches the the reaction of sulfide with zinc
surface, it presents an extreme hazard forms a stable zinc sulfide which
to personnel and animal life. These haz- will not revert to hydrogen sulfide.
ards are discussed in greater depth in It is a common practice to bullhead
the Corrosion and HSE chapters of this the hydrogen sulfide gas back into the
manual. In most areas where hydrogen formation. This involves pumping mud
sulfide is thought to be a hazard, strict down the annulus to force the kick back
It is a regulations are in place as regards to into the formation. The amount of fluid
common safety equipment, training, and evacu- pumped is equal to the amount of
practice ation zones and procedures. If hydro- influx taken. Once the intruding fluid
gen sulfide blows out, the well should has been bullheaded back into the for-
to bullhead be set on fire — even though the rig mation, procedures should be under-
the hydrogen will be destroyed — to reduce the haz- taken to restore hydrostatic control of
sulfide gas ard. It would be unusual to find an area the well.
of the world so remote that the govern- Carbon dioxide (CO2) is another acid
back into the ment, operator or drilling contractor did gas. It can be highly corrosive and cause
formation. not have plans for drilling in hydrogen severe flocculation of water-base muds.
sulfide environments. If such a condi- It is not considered to be a lethal gas.
tion should exist, regulations and proce- Carbon dioxide is treated with addi-
dures from Louisiana, Mississippi, Texas tions of lime or lime and caustic soda.
or Wyoming can be used as a guide. This precipitates the carbonates as cal-
The handling of hydrogen sulfide in cium carbonate. Additions of defloc-
drilling fluids is mentioned in other culants also are required to control
chapters in this manual. Zinc oxide or the rheological properties of the fluid.
another inorganic zinc sulfide scav- NOTE: A more in-depth discussion of treat-
enger should be maintained in excess ing CO2 and carbonates can be found in the
in oil- or synthetic-base drilling fluids. Contamination and Treatment chapter of
The POM of oil and synthetic muds this manual.
should be maintained at a suitable

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
DENSITY OF THE INTRUDING FLUID Drill pipe: 41⁄2 in., 16.6 lb/ft
The approximate density of the intrud- Drill collars: 5-in. OD — 400 ft
ing fluid can be calculated. However, SICP: 500 psi
the accuracy of the answer depends on SIDPP: 275 psi
several factors. These factors are: (1) the Pit volume gain: 20 bbl
accuracy of the shut-in drill pipe and Annular volume around drill collars =
casing pressures, (2) the accuracy of the 0.0359 bbl/ft
measured volume of influx, (3) the hole Annular volume around drill pipe =
size (allowing for washout), (4) the 0.0406 bbl/ft
assumed annular mud density above
the intruding fluid, and (5) the detection Calculate the length of the
of the kick before gas expansion occurs. intruding fluid:
Usually, the mud density in the Find the length of the 20 bbl of kick
annulus is slightly heavier than in the fluid in the annulus.
mud pits due to the cuttings concen- a. Drill collars
tration and loss of filtrate to the for- 400 ft x 0.0359 bbl/ft = 14.4 bbl
mation. This density can usually be a. 20 bbl – 14.4 bbl
determined by weighing the mud at = 5.6 bbl of intrusion above collars
the flow line, unless it is gas-cut. The
weight of gas-cut mud at the flow line b. Drill pipe
is not a true indication of the weight 5.6 bbl ÷ 0.0406 bbl/ft = 138 ft
of the mud in the annulus, because b. Total length of the kick fluid is:
gas expansion only occurs near the 400 ft + 138 ft = 538 ft
surface. If the mud is gas-cut, the
Calculate the density of the
weight should be determined with
intruding fluid:
a pressurized Halliburton scale.
The actual hole size also must be (SICP – SIDPP)
FW = MW –
determined to calculate the length of 0.052 x L
the intruding fluid. Knowledge of the Where:
degree of washout in other wells in the FW = Kick density (lb/gal)
area in which the same type fluid (as MW = Mud density (lb/gal)
the current well) was used is valuable L = Length of kick volume (ft)
in estimating hole size.
(500 – 275)
Accuracy in determining the volume FW = 10.5 –
of the intruding fluid is also necessary; 0.052 x 538
therefore, the use of accurate measur- FW = 2.46 lb/gal probable gas kick
ing equipment that totals all surface LOST CIRCULATION
pits is important, especially when
Lost large surface volumes are used.
Lost circulation is the loss of whole
circulation mud to the formation. It is more likely
To determine the density of the
to occur during well-control operations
is the loss intruding fluid, measure:
than during drilling operations. During
a. The shut-in drill pipe pressure.
of whole b. The shut-in casing pressure.
well-control operations, it can occur at
mud to the any time — from the initial shut-in
c. The pit volume increase.
until the well is dead. When lost circu-
formation. Example: lation is most likely to occur depends
Given: on the following factors:
Total depth: 6,000 ft 1. Type of kick (gas or saltwater).
Mud weight: 10.5 lb/gal 2. Length of kick (hole geometry
Bit size: 77⁄8 in. and volume of kick).

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
3. Expansion of gas kick. be assumed that formation fluids

4. Choke pressure applied. have entered the wellbore.
5. Annular pressure. Another cause of kicks while tripping
6. Casing program. is the reduction in bottom-hole pres-
sure caused by swabbing. Swabbing is
Early detection of lost circulation dur-
a function of mud properties and the
ing well-control operations is important.
speed at which the pipe is pulled out
Mud losses can usually be recognized by
of the hole. This can be intensified by
a reduction in volume in the mud pits
bit and stabilizer balling. A balled-up
or by a reduction in the drill pipe pres-
bottom-hole assembly has a diameter
sure at a constant pump rate. The pit
equal to, or very close to, the diameter
volume should increase as a gas kick is
of the hole. The action of pulling the
circulated to the surface. This is a con-
pipe out of the hole is similar to a pis-
trolled expansion of the gas. Once the
ton. Fluid is sucked in from the forma-
gas has reached the surface, the pit vol-
A major tion below the bit if mud cannot fall
ume will diminish by the same amount
in the hole and displace the pipe as
cause of as the gas removed from the fluid. When
fast as it is being pulled.
determining whether a loss is underway,
kicks while this gain and loss should be considered
Monitoring the volume of mud
tripping is required to displace the pipe pulled
relative to the original volume and the
on trips is the means of determining
the failure to current operation.
whether formation fluids have entered
fill the hole KICKS WITH THE BIT OFF BOTTOM the well. If a kick is detected early in
properly. Most kicks occur while pulling the drill- the trip, the pipe can be run back to
string out of the hole. A major cause of bottom and the formation fluid circu-
kicks while tripping is the failure to fill lated out without having too much dif-
the hole properly. The action of pulling ficulty. A small influx normally does
the pipe out of the hole results in the not reduce the hydrostatic pressure
mud column dropping to displace the enough to result in an underbalanced
length of the drillstring that has been condition. However, if undetected, or
pulled out of the hole. To control the if the trip is continued without taking
well properly, the hole must be filled with appropriate action, the volume of the
exactly the same volume of mud as the dis- intruding fluid will increase. When the
placement of the length of drillstring pulled volume is sufficient to reduce the
from the hole. This volume is critical, so hydrostatic pressure to below the
it must be metered, not merely mea- formation pressure, the well will
sured. As a general practice, the hole start flowing, resulting in a kick.
Controlling should be filled after five stands of Controlling a kick with the bit off bot-
a kick with drill pipe have been pulled. The fill-up tom is more difficult and complicated
frequency should be increased when than with the bit on bottom. If the well
the bit off pulling heavyweight drill pipe and drill starts to flow or if the hole is not taking
bottom collars due to their increased displace- enough mud on fill-ups, the primary
is more ment. The fill-up frequency also should objective should be to get the bit back
be increased whenever a “wet string” is to bottom. If the well is not flowing, the
difficult… pipe may be run to bottom without
pulled. The volume of mud required to
fill the hole should be compared to the problems. Monitor the hole periodically
volume of steel or steel and mud pulled to determine if it is static. If the well is
from the hole. If the volume required flowing, it may be possible to run the
is less than the displacement of the pipe back to bottom, depending upon
pipe pulled from the well, it should the rate of flow and how much pipe

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
is out of the hole. The longer the well drill pipe when shutting the well in
flows, the larger the volume of intrud- (see Shut-In Procedures). An inside
ing fluid. A heavy influx of formation BOP is a one-way valve that allows
fluids will result in excessive surface fluid to be pumped through it but
pressures when the well is shut in. These closes to prevent backflow when
pressures can fracture the casing shoe pumping stops.
or cause failure of surface equipment. If the pipe can be stripped back to
Shutting the well in reduces the size of bottom, the Driller’s Method kill pro-
the kick and the amount of pressure on cedure should be used to circulate the
the equipment. invading fluid out of the well. The
Caution must be exercised when run- Driller’s Method is used because the
ning pipe back into the hole after it is fluid density does not have to be
determined that formation fluids have increased to control the formation
entered the wellbore. When the drill- pressure. Some additional density
string is run into the formation fluids, may be required in order to trip out
they will be displaced up the wellbore. of the hole safely.
This displacement will quickly move In some cases, it will be impossible or
the fluids to a shallow depth where impractical to get the bit back to bot-
they will expand rapidly. This can tom, so the kick must be controlled
cause the well to flow. with the pipe in place. In such cases, the
If the well is shut in with the bit off following options should be considered:
bottom, several options are available. 1. Increase the density of the mud
One is to strip the pipe back to bottom. above the current position of the
To do this, pipe is run back into the bit by normal circulation or by
hole with the BOPs closed. If the pres- circulating through the choke.
sures are not excessive, this can be done 2. Mix and spot a high-density,
through the annular preventer without limited volume kill fluid.
severely damaging the sealing element. 3. Spot a barite plug or a cement plug.
It is a good practice to use some type of
In these cases, the sum of the hydro-
lubricant to ease the movement of the
static pressures of the mud densities
pipe through the closed preventer and
must equal the formation pressure,
prevent damage to the sealing element.
but not exceed the fracture pressure at
A bentonite slurry placed on top of the
the weakest point in the well. This is
preventer will lubricate the pipe as it
illustrated in the following examples:
passes through the element. Other
types of lubricants can be used. Before EXAMPLE #1:
An inside using a lubricant, check to see if it is Depth: 10,000 ft
BOP is a compatible with the sealing elements. Mud weight: 10 lb/gal
Some sealing elements are made of Depth of bit: 6,000 ft
one-way compounds that can be damaged by SIDPP: 150 psi
valve that lubricant compounds. Fracture gradient: 11.2 lb/gal at
allows fluid If the pipe is stripped into the hole, 2,000 ft
mud must be bled off to make room
to be Calculate the mud weight required
for the pipe as it is run into the closed
pumped well. If not, the pressure in the well to balance the kick based on the TVD
of the bit:
through it will increase and can fracture the for-
mation. The volume of mud that must 150 x 19.25
but closes Kill weight = 10 +
be bled off is equal to the displace- 6,000
to prevent ment and capacity of the pipe. An = 10.5 lb/gal
backflow… inside BOP must be installed in the

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________ In this case, option No. 1 can be and should only be used as a last resort.
________________________ used, since the kill-weight mud does If the plug is successful, gas will probably
not exceed the fracture gradient. migrate up to the plug. This can make it
________________________
hazardous to drill the plug.
________________________
EXAMPLE #2: NOTE: Barite and cement plugs are dis-
Depth: 10,000 ft cussed in greater detail in the reference
________________________
Mud weight: 10.0 lb/gal section.
________________________ Depth of bit: 4,000 ft These options are only temporary
________________________ SIDPP: 300 psi steps to balance formation pressures
________________________
Fracture gradient: 11.2 lb/gal at until the bit can be run to bottom and
2,000 ft the mud weight increased uniformly
________________________
Calculate the mud weight required throughout the wellbore.
________________________
to balance the kick: GAS MIGRATION
________________________
300 x 19.25 If a well is shut in on a gas kick, the
Kill weight = 10 +
________________________ 4,000 pressure in the gas equals the hydrosta-
________________________ = 11.44 lb/gal tic pressure of the fluid above it, plus
________________________ In this case, option No. 2 should be the Shut-In Casing Pressure (SICP). The
used, since the kill-weight mud would specific gravity of gas is significantly
________________________
exceed the fracture weight. less than that of the drilling fluid in the
When this situation occurs, heavy annulus. As a result, the gas will move
mud can be spotted below the casing upward, or migrate, toward the surface.
shoe to balance the kick pressure. The rate of migration is dependent
upon several factors, such as mud
Calculate the weight of the high- weight and mud viscosity. A widely
density, kill fluid: accepted migration rate for gas is 500
First calculate the bottom-hole to 1,000 ft/hr. When the well is shut
(kicking) pressure: in, the volumes of mud and gas in the
0.052 x 10,000 x 10 + 300 annulus will remain constant, unless
0.052 x 10,000 volume is lost to the formation or
= 5,500 psi released at the surface. Without being
allowed to expand, the confining pres-
Next calculate the length and pres-
sure of the gas will remain constant as
sure of the 10 lb/gal mud above and
it migrates up the wellbore. This has
below the heavy mud.
serious implications.
Length of 10 lb/gal mud When the well was shut in with the
= 2,000 – 0 + 10,000 – 4,000 bubble at the bottom of the well, the
= 8,000 ft gas was confined by the hydrostatic
PHYD of 10 lb/gal mud pressure of the mud column above it,
= 0.052 x 8,000 x 10 plus the SICP. When the gas migrates
= 4,160 psi to the surface, its confining pressure is
held by the casing. This confining pres-
PHYD of high-density mud from sure is added to the hydrostatic pres-
2,000 to 4,000 ft sure of the mud column at the casing
5,500 – 4,160 seat and at the total depth of the well.
= = 1,340 psi
0.052 x 2,000 If the drill pipe pressure is 1,000 psi
= 12.9 lb/gal (69 bar) and the hydrostatic pressure
An option is to set a barite or cement at TVD is 10,000 psi (689 bar) when a
plug. This option does not provide a well is shut in, the confining pressure
way to balance the formation pressures of a gas bubble at TVD is 11,000 psi

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
(758 bar). If the bubble is allowed to system is closed. Once the selected pres-
migrate to the surface without expand- sure increase occurs, open the choke
ing, the casing pressure will be 11,000 slowly and vent enough mud to reduce
psi (758 bar) and the pressure at TVD the casing pressure to a predetermined
will be 21,000 psi (1,448 bar). If this acceptable level. When this is done,
were an actual situation, it is highly close the choke and allow the pressure
unlikely that the bubble would reach to stabilize. This practice should be con-
the surface without fracturing the tinued until the mud can be circulated
formation, rupturing the casing or and the well killed.
causing the BOPs to fail. In some instances, circulation is not
There is a natural tendency to be possible due to mechanical problems
concerned when the surface volume such as:
increases and the pits run over as a gas 1. Pump failure.
bubble expands and displaces mud from 2. Failure of other rig components.
the annulus. Many wells have been lost 3. Plugged pipe or bit.
The gas
by untrained personnel who did not 4. Washout.
bubble must allow the gas to expand as it was circu-
In these instances, the Volumetric
be allowed to lated from the well in kill procedures.
Method will be required to allow the
expand as it This method of well control is contemp-
gas kick to migrate out of the hole.
tuously referred to as the Constant Pit
rises in the However, this method will not kill
Level Method of well control. Under no
the well. The well will not be killed
wellbore. circumstances should it ever be used! The
until there is sufficient hydrostatic
gas bubble must be allowed to expand
pressure in the annulus to prevent a
as it rises in the wellbore.
further influx of fluid. If necessary,
A simple method of controlling
the gas can be allowed to migrate to
the bottom-hole pressure of a well is
the surface with this procedure. Once
referred to as the Volumetric Method.
the gas reaches the surface, the proce-
The amount of mud that is vented from
A simple dure changes. Prior to venting gas to
the well represents a loss of hydrosta-
the atmosphere, a volume of mud
method of tic pressure. This loss is determined
equaling some preselected hydrostatic
by the mud weight and the height
controlling (annular height if pipe is in the hole)
pressure must be pumped into the well
the bottom- (lubricated). The mud will replace the
it occupies in the hole. This procedure
volume of gas that was vented. The
hole pressure maintains near-constant bottom-hole
increasing hydrostatic pressure will
of a well is pressure while allowing the gas to
reduce the casing pressure. This process
expand as it migrates to the surface.
referred to should continue until the gas has been
To monitor the volume of fluid vented
vented from the well and replaced with
as the from the well, returns should be taken
mud. At this time, the SICP and the
Volumetric to a small, calibrated pit, where the exact
SIDPP should be equal. Use of this
vented volume can be measured. A trip
Method. procedure will result in avoiding
tank is the best choice. A slugging pit
a dangerous well condition and
is the next-best choice.
satisfactory control of the well.
To prevent additional formation fluid
from entering the annulus, select a min- PIPE OFF-BOTTOM OR OUT OF THE HOLE
imum overbalance pressure. Then, select Another instance where this procedure
the amount of pressure increase which can be used is when a kick was taken
will be tolerated before drilling fluid is with the bit off-bottom or with no drill
vented. Monitor the SIDPP and the SICP pipe in the hole. The same procedure
as the gas migrates upward. The pres- will work as before. There will be one
sures should increase equally, since the difference, however. With the bit off

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________ bottom, the SIDPP and the SICP will Example

________________________ be equal if the kick is below the bit. If The following well is shut in on a
there is no pipe in the hole, there will kick. There is no drill pipe in the hole.
________________________
be only SICP. Determine the volume of mud that
________________________ Follow the procedure to vent mud should be vented to reduce the hydro-
________________________ as the gas migrates up the hole. When static column in the annulus by 100 psi
gas reaches the surface, mud should (6.9 bar) and to allow the gas kick
________________________
be lubricated into the well to replace to expand.
________________________ the gas as it is vented. Once all of the
gas has been vented, the well should Given:
________________________
be dead if nothing but gas entered the SICP: 300 psi
________________________ Mud weight: 10.0 lb/gal
well and there was sufficient hydrosta-
________________________ tic pressure in the annulus prior to Hole size: 83⁄4 in.
________________________ pulling out of the hole. If not, a kick 8.752
Hole volume =
________________________
would have occurred prior to the trip. 1,029
A check of the SICP should indicate = 0.0744 bbl/ft
________________________
whether the well is dead. The well Mud column length for 100 psi =
________________________ can also be checked for flow. 100 psi
________________________ If drill pipe is in the hole, gas can 0.052 x 10.0 lb/gal
be circulated out of the hole when it = 192 ft
migrates above the bit. This is done by
using the Volumetric Method and mon- A 192-ft (59-m) column of 10-lb/gal
itoring the SIDPP and the SICP. With (1.2 kg/L) mud is equal to a hydrosta-
the kick below the bit, the SIDPP and tic pressure of 100 psi (6.9 bar).
the SICP will be equal. Once the kick Mud volume for 192 ft of mud =
reaches the bit, the gas will usually 192 ft x 0.0744 bbl/ft
migrate up the annulus due to the larger = 14.3 bbl
space, compared to jet nozzles and the Following is a chart showing the
ID of the drill collars. When this occurs, change in the casing pressure as the
the hydrostatic pressure in the annulus mud is vented and the gas is allowed
will change while the drill pipe pressure to expand in the hole:
remains the same. The SICP will then be
greater than the SIDPP. If circulation is
possible, the gas should be circulated
out of the well.
SICP Volume of Mud Removed From the Hole (bbl)
Before Venting After Venting1 Cumulative Incremental
300 — 0 —
500 400 14.3 —
600 500 28.6 14.3
700 600 42.9 14.3
800 700 57.2 14.3
900 800 71.5 14.3
1
Includes 100-psi (6.9-bar) safety margin.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Once the gas has reached the sur- Actual volumes and pressures may
face, the 10-lb/gal (1.2-kg/L) mud will not coincide precisely with calculated
be used to lubricate the gas out of the volumes and pressures. Therefore, this
hole. The chart below would indicate procedure should be continued until all
the SICP reduction and the amount of the gas has been vented out of the hole.
mud pumped into the well:
SICP Volume of Mud Lubricated Into the Hole (bbl)
Before Venting After Venting1 Cumulative Incremental
900 800 14.3 —
800 700 28.6 14.3
700 600 42.9 14.3
600 500 57.2 14.3
500 400 71.5 14.3
1
Includes 100-psi (69-bar) safety margin.
Procedure bleeding off 100 psi [6.9 bar] of pressure)

Allow the SICP to build from 300 to until all the gas has been lubricated out
500+ psi (21 to 34+ bar) before vent- of the hole.
ing mud from hole. (The extra 100 psi A volumetric balance similar to the
[6.9 bar] provides a minimum of example above should be kept through-
100 psi (6.9 bar) in excess of the for- out the operation to assure that:
mation pressure at all times.) Open 1. All the gas has been removed from
the choke and vent mud until the the hole.
pressure drops to 400 psi (28 bar). 2. All the mud that was removed
Measure the amount of mud vented from the hole has been returned
from the well. The volume should be to the hole.
equal or close to the 14.3 bbl of mud 3. The volume of the gas in the hole
necessary for a 100-psi (6.9-bar) reduc- before expanding also has been
tion in hydrostatic pressure. If not, replaced by mud.
repeat this procedure until 14.3 bbl 4. No additional influx of gas was
of mud has been removed. Then, allowed to bleed into the hole
allow the surface pressure to increase during this operation.
The use of
to more than 600 psi (41 bar). Follow WEIGHT-MATERIAL PLUGS USING
high-density the same procedure as before until M-I BAR OR FER-OX
weight- another 14.3 bbl of mud has been
Application
material removed and the surface pressure is
500 psi (34 bar). Allow the pressure to The use of high-density weight-material
plugs is increase to more than 700 psi (48 bar) plugs is limited to emergency conditions
limited to and repeat the same procedure. that require that the bottom of the well
be sealed off. These plugs have applica-
emergency Continue these cycles until the gas
tion under the following circumstances:
is at the surface.
conditions When the gas has reached the sur- 1. Simultaneous kicking and loss of
that require face, lubricate 14.3 bbl of mud into the circulation.
2. Abandonment procedures to allow
that the hole and wait for the mud to settle
the safe withdrawal of the drillstring
bottom of through the gas. This should take 30 to
40 min. Then, bleed off the 100-psi (6.9- from the hole and the setting of a
the well be bar) gas pressure. Repeat this cycle (lubri- cement plug.
sealed off. cating 14.3 bbl mud into the hole and

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
3. Withdrawal of the drillstring to log, charts below should cover the opti-
set casing or repair existing casing. mum ranges for settling.
4. To plug the drillstring in an 2. Salinity. High-density fluids mixed
emergency situation. with freshwater have better settling
Function rates. Tests show that an 18-lb/gal
High-density weight-material plugs are (2.2 kg/L) fluid mixed in freshwater
designed to form a seal in the wellbore has a settling rate of 67%, while the
or drillstring when the weight material same fluid mixed in sea water has a
settles, and/or the fluid dehydrates. settling rate of only 6%. Tests show
These plugs also increase the hydrostatic that high hardness is also detrimental
pressure of the fluid in the hole. Possible to the settling rate.
side-effects include the sloughing of 3. The pH of the slurry. Fluids with
water-sensitive shales as a result of the a pH of 8.5 to 11 have the highest
high fluid-loss properties of these slur- settling rates. Fluids with a pH rang-
ing from 8 to 11 have a settling rate
For plugs to ries. This sloughing may cause a bridge
of 61 to 85%, while the same fluids
to form above the plug. In most cases
be effective, this is desirable. with a pH less than 8 have settling
more than Water-base wellbore plugs
rates of only 3 to 18%.
one-third of 4. Deflocculants, chemicals and
For plugs to be effective, more than one- surfactants.
the weight third of the weight material must settle a) Tests show that deflocculants are
material quickly. Several factors affect the settling required for settling to occur. In
rate of these materials. These factors the settling tests, SPERSENE* gave the
must settle must be considered when designing and best results, but the weight mater-
quickly. mixing the slurries. Some of the factors ial also settled out satisfactorily
to consider are: when SAPP was used.
1. Density. Settling rates will be signifi- b) Caustic soda should be used to
cantly reduced if the fluid density is adjust the pH to 8.5 to 11.
too high. Tests indicate that the opti- c) Surfactants such as D-D* and
mum density range using M-I BAR* is DEFOAM-X* enhanced the settling
14 to 18 lb/gal (1.7 to 2.2 kg/L), and in the tests.
16 to 20 lb/gal (2.4 kg/L) for FER-OX*. d) The high-temperature formulation
Heavier-density slurries settle slower that gave the best results was:
due to buoyancy and hindered set- SPERSENE 2 lb/bbl
tling. Always select the lowest den- Caustic soda 0.5 lb/bbl
sity possible when building the plug. DEFOAM-X 0.5 lb/bbl
The slurry density in the formulation D-D 0.5 lb/bbl

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
________________________ FORMULATION CHARTS FOR ONE FINAL BARREL OF WATER-BASE SLURRY:

________________________ Slurry Weight M-I BAR* Water Caustic SPERSENE* D-D*
(lb/gal) (lb/bbl) (gal/bbl) (lb/bbl) (lb/bbl) (lb/bbl)
________________________
14 312 33.2 0.5 2 0.5
________________________ 15 368 31.5 0.5 2 0.5
16 423 29.8 0.5 2 0.5
________________________
17 478 28.1 0.5 2 0.5
________________________ 18 533 26.9 0.5 2 0.5
________________________ Using M-I BAR.
________________________
Slurry Weight FER-OX* Water Caustic SPERSENE* D-D*
________________________ (lb/gal) (lb/bbl) (gal/bbl) (lb/bbl) (lb/bbl) (lb/bbl)
17 455 31.1 0.5 2 0.5
________________________
18 508 29.8 0.5 2 0.5
________________________ 19 560 28.6 0.5 2 0.5
20 613 27.3 0.5 2 0.5
________________________
21 665 26.0 0.5 2 0.5
________________________
Using FER-OX.
________________________
________________________
MIXING ORDER OIL-BASE WELLBORE PLUGS
Using a ribbon blender, the caustic Weight-material plugs can also be for-
soda should be added to the freshwater mulated in oil. As in water-base muds,
first, followed by the SPERSENE, D-D and certain products and mixing proce-
DEFOAM-X, in that order. The weight dures produce the best results. These
material should be added last. About oil-base fluids do not use water, lime
1
⁄3 of the defoamer should be added or brine. They are formulated with
initially, with the remainder added as only a wetting agent, oil and weight
needed to control foam. material. VERSAWET* is the preferred
wetting agent, but VERSACOAT* can
also be used.
FORMULATION CHARTS FOR ONE FINAL BARREL OF OIL-BASE SLURRY:

Slurry Weight M-I BAR* Diesel VERSAWET*
(lb/gal) (lb/bbl) (gal/bbl) (gal/bbl)
14 380 30.8 0.60
15 432 29.4 0.60
16 484 28.0 0.60
17 536 26.4 0.60
18 587 25.0 0.60
Using M-I BAR.
Slurry Weight FER-OX* Diesel VERSAWET*

(lb/gal) (lb/bbl) (gal/bbl) (gal/bbl)
17 516 29.3 0.60
18 566 28.1 0.70
19 616 26.9 0.80
20 666 25.8 0.90
21 716 24.6 1.00
Using FER-OX.

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
MIXING ORDER MIXING PROCEDURE

The VERSAWET (wetting agent) should be The slurry is mixed in the same man-
mixed thoroughly with the diesel in a ner as cement. The weight material
ribbon blender before the weight mate- should be mixed through the hopper
rial is mixed. If the weight material is into the ribbon blender or recirculat-
not oil-wet, the slurry will be thick and ing mixer tub and pumped directly
the settling rate will be very poor. down the hole. The weight material
should be mixed from the cementer’s
SIZE OF THE PLUG
pneumatic bulk tank if possible, for a
The length of the plug is based on the more uniform slurry weight. A recircu-
severity of the problem, but experience lating jet system is preferred because
shows that slurries which settle to form slurry weights can be adjusted before
200 to 400 ft (61 to 122 m) of plug being pumped down the hole. If a
are usually adequate. The length of the recirculating jet system is not used,
slurry should not exceed the distance the slurry will have to be mixed inter-
from the pressured zone to the lost- mittently, since the rate of the feed
circulation zone. Excessively long plugs water through the jet often exceeds
are not desirable; they increase the the required feed rate of the weight
chances of plugging or sticking the material. Batch systems have also been
pipe and are difficult to drill. used to mix plugs of high-density
After the desired length of the plug weight material, but the danger of the
has been established, the volume of weight material settling in the mixing
the slurry can be calculated as follows: tank makes this method less desirable.
Volume of plug = length of plug
(ft) x hole volume (bbl/ft)† SPOTTING OBJECTIVES
Improper † This hole volume is without the
Improper spotting techniques can
spotting destroy the effectiveness of the plug.
pipe in the hole.
Two major concerns arise when
techniques Volume of slurry = spotting the slurry. They are:
can destroy volume of plug (bbl) x SG of weight material x 350
weight material concentration (lb/bbl)† 1. Spot the slurry and pull the drill-
the effective- † Select the density of the slurry and string out of it as quickly as possible
ness of the go to the appropriate chart to deter- to avoid sticking or plugging the
mine the concentration of weight pipe. The rig crew should be ready
plug. to start pulling the pipe as soon as
material in one barrel of slurry. The
density of the slurry should be the slurry is spotted. Rapid move-
0.5 to 1.0 lb/gal (0.06 to 0.12 kg/L) ment of the drill pipe could result
higher than the mud weight in the in contaminating the slurry and
hole. This ensures that the slurry increasing settling times. Sticking
will stay in place and not migrate the drill pipe and obtaining a suc-
upward after it has been spotted. cessful plug is more desirable than
One key to a successful plug is contaminating the slurry.
that the slurry should provide suf- 2. Avoid contaminating the slurry with
ficient density to stop the flow of mud from the drillstring. To avoid
formation fluids, yet be as light as contaminating the slurry with mud,
possible. If the flow of formation it should be under-displaced by two
fluids is not stopped, the slurry barrels. This means that displacement
will become contaminated, settling volumes should be adjusted so that
times will be increased and the the height of the slurry left in the
success of the plug will be reduced. pipe is greater than the height of the

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
slurry in the annulus. This allows the 5. Determine the length that two
drillstring to be withdrawn with a barrels of slurry will occupy in
natural slug. the drill pipe.
SPOTTING PROCEDURES Length of 2 bbl of slurry x
Calculate the height at which the slurry 2 bbl
(less two barrels) is balanced in the hole drill pipe capacity (bbl/ft)
(with the drillstring in the hole): 6. Determine the height of mud above
1. Determine the volume of fluid the slurry after placing the slurry in
inside and outside the drill collars the well.
= (capacity of hole – displacement Height above slurry =
of drill collars) x length of drill total depth – drill collar length –
collars height remaining slurry (Step 3) –
length of 2 bbl (Step 6)
2. Determine the remaining volume
of slurry 7. Determine the volume of mud that
= slurry volume – volume around occupies this length or height of
drill collars (Step 1) – 2 bbl mud. This volume of mud will be
pumped behind the slurry to place
3. Height of remaining slurry =
the slurry in the correct spot.
remaining volume of slurry (from Step 2) Volume (bbl) =
(capacity of hole – displacement of drill pipe) height above slurry (ft) x
4. Check to make sure that the total drill pipe capacity (bbl/ft)
height of the slurry is less than the WELL-CONTROL COMPLICATIONS
maximum slurry length, determined
Well-control procedures, like all drill-
by well conditions. The maximum
ing operations, are subject to mechani-
slurry length is the length from the
cal failures and problems. When these
pressured zone to the lost-circulation
problems occur, they can quickly esca-
zone. If this is so, continue. If not,
late to a level where the safety of per-
adjust the slurry weight to increase
sonnel and loss of the well and rig are
the density and reduce the total
threatened. For these reasons, these
volume of slurry.
problems must be identified, and
responded to as quickly as possible.
PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
Problem Drill Pipe Pressure Casing Pressure Pump Rate

Choke plugged Increases Increases Decreases
Choke washout Decreases Decreases Increases
Jets plugged Increases Unchanged/ decreases Decreases
Lost circulation Decreases Decreases Increases
DP washout Decreases Unchanged Increases

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
Every well • Choke washout. Every well should If the mud weight between the loss
should have have two or more chokes manifolded zone and the pressured zone can be
together so that a well-control opera- increased enough, its hydrostatic
two or more tion will not depend on the operation pressure, plus that of the mud above
chokes of a single choke. When it becomes the loss zone, may be sufficient to
manifolded apparent that the choke is washed out, stop the flow. When this is tried,
the kill operation should be switched heavy mud is usually pumped down
together… immediately to the second choke. The the drill pipe. Meanwhile light mud,
washed-out choke should be replaced which the loss zone would support
immediately. normally, is pumped down the drill
• Choke plugged. Chokes can become pipe/casing annulus.
plugged when heavy muds are used. Barite or hematite plugs are often
Usually, they can be unplugged by pumped as a part of the heavy
opening the choke briefly. If opening mud/fluid. Barite and hematite plugs
the choke does not unplug it, switch will add to the hydrostatic pressure of
to a backup choke and take steps to the fluid in the annulus, but will not
unplug the first choke immediately. settle while gas is flowing into the
• Jets plugged. If one or more — but well. The flow must also be stopped
not all — of the bit jets plug while for cement plugs to hold.
Chokes can killing a well, hold the casing pressure • Drillstring washout. When a washout
become constant while adjusting the pump occurs during a well-control proce-
rate to an acceptable value that is dure, in most cases the well will have
plugged below the pump liner limits. This will to be killed with the washout in the
when heavy result in a new pump rate, slower hole. With a washout in the drill-
muds are than the recorded “slow pump” rate. string, the well will flow through the
If the kill procedure is based on drill pipe if the kelly or circulating
used. time, it will have to be recalculated. head is broken off to make a trip. This
Recalculation will not be necessary if limits the choices that can be made
the kill procedure is based on the for killing the well.
stroke count. If all of the jets become Continued circulation may enlarge
plugged, the drillstring can be perfo- the washout and allow the drillstring
rated or the bit can be removed with to part. This will raise a difficult prob-
a shaped charge. lem to an even higher level of diffi-
• Lost circulation. When lost circula- culty, if the washout is in the upper
tion occurs while killing a well, it is part of the well.
generally assumed that the losses are If it can be determined by the posi-
at the casing seat unless special condition of a “float” or other tool in the
tions or surveys indicate otherwise. drillstring that the washout is in the
Lost circulation while killing a well lower portion of the drillstring, the
will result in underground flow, com- well may be killed by pumping addi-
monly referred to as an “underground tional kill-weight mud through the
blowout.” Fluid will flow from the washout. If this is attempted, a new
pressured zone into the loss zone. “very” slow pump rate should be
Lost-circulation materials that established to reduce the erosion of
might plug the jets should not be the washout. Continued pumping,
used under these circumstances. without knowing where the washout
Lost-circulation material may be is, will be very risky.
bullheaded down the drill pipe/ The well can be shut in and the
casing annulus if needed. kick fluid allowed to migrate up the

CHAPTER
18 Pressure Control
annulus, where it will be released provide better hydrate inhibition than

using the “top kill” procedure. higher-molecular-weight glycols. In
If a packer can be snubbed down some cases, salt and glycol can be used
the drillstring on a work string or together to provide better inhibition,
on coiled tubing, it should be set but some glycols have limited solubili-
below the washout. This will isolate ties in the presence of salts. Tests should
the washout and allow the well to be made across the full-temperature
be killed in a conventional manner. range the salt-glycol mixture will be
subjected to in order to determine if
GAS HYDRATES
they are compatible for the application.
Gas hydrates Gas hydrates are a solid, ice-like mater- M-I SWACO engineering software can
are a solid, ial that may form in water-base muds. predict hydrate formation temperatures
They form under conditions of lower under a given set of conditions and can
ice-like temperatures and higher pressures in suggest the concentrations of salts and/
material water that is in contact with a gas. or glycol that will suppress hydrate for-
that may The volume of gas trapped in hydrates mation to an acceptable temperature.
may be 80 times the volume of the
form in hydrates. Vast deposits of gas hydrates GAS TRAPPED IN SUBSEA PREVENTERS
water-base exist on ocean floors throughout the After a gas kick has been circulated out,
muds. world. Gas hydrates usually are found gas may be trapped in subsea preven-
at water depths greater than 800 ft ters above the choke line and beneath
(244 m), where the temperature is less the preventer element. Before opening
than 40° F (4.4° C). They are found the preventers, the riser should be dis-
also in permafrost. Gas hydrates have placed with kill-weight mud and the
the potential to cause kicks when trapped gas removed. If the gas is not
they decompose and release gas. The removed before opening the preven-
greatest hazard gas hydrates pose to ters, it can unload the riser. This may
the drilling industry occurs when allow a second kick to enter the well
they form and plug the BOPs and and/or collapse the riser.
The greatest choke lines of deepwater wells during
kill procedures.
SHALLOW GAS SANDS
hazard gas Although methane is the gas most fre- On land, shallow gas sands that are
hydrates quently associated with hydrates, many drilled before casing is set present a spe-
cial problem. Offshore, the problem is
pose…occurs different gases, including hydrogen sul-
far more critical. “Floaters” have been
fide, can form hydrates with water.
when they Pressure increases (higher mud lost when gas-cut water failed to pro-
form and weights and deeper water) raise the vide sufficient buoyancy to keep them
plug the temperature at which hydrates form. afloat after drilling shallow gas sands.
Almost any chemical that will lower At the depths where these problem
BOPs and sands occur, the formations would not
the freezing-point of water (alcohols,
choke lines glycols, salts, etc.) will suppress or hold the kick even if it were possible
of deep- lower the temperature of hydrate for- to shut the well in. Rather than trying
mation. Of the common salts (sodium to kill the well in these cases, the flow
water wells of gas is directed away from the well,
chloride, calcium chloride, potassium
during kill chloride and calcium bromide), sodium through a diverter system, to a safe
procedures. chloride gives the best hydrate inhibi- distance, where it is flared.
tion. Low-molecular-weight glycols

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CHAPTER

Three Levels of Pressure Control

Pressure Control 18.1 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

A study of 55 blowouts during a In the 55-well study referred to earlier,

Pressure Control 18.2 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Figure 2: Example 2 — pressure.

Pressure Control 18.3 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Example 3 FORMATION PRESSURE

PRESSURE GRADIENT Example 5

Basin Type Formation Fluid (lb/gal) Pressure Gradient (psi/ft)

Pressure Control 18.4 Revision No: A-2 / Revision Date: 12·31·06

Indications of Increasing Formation Pressures

The term The term “transition zone” describes

Depth (1,000 ft)

pressure. meable sand in the geopressured 8

Pressure Control 18.5 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Pressure Control 18.6 Revision No: A-2 / Revision Date: 12·31·06

Pressure Control 18.7 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Pressure Control 18.8 Revision No: A-1 / Revision Date: 02·28·01

density correction is added. The d drillstring or a change in formation

Pressure Control 18.9 Revision No: A-2 / Revision Date: 12·31·06

Pressure Control 18.10 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

of completing a successful kill procedure as the overburden pressure increases.

Pressure Control 18.11 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Geological indicator 4: Gas an increase in formation pressure.

Pressure Control 18.12 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Geological indicator 5: Gas-cut mud mud resistivity differently. Logging com-

Pressure Control 18.13 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

7 decrease is 18 to 20°. After the seal is

Mud weight (lb/gal)

Pressure Control 18.14 Revision No: A-2 / Revision Date: 12·31·06

Pressure/Transition Zone Analysis After Drilling

Pressure Control 18.15 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

________________________ QUANTIFYING FRACTURE GRADIENTS PFRAC

Pressure Control 18.16 Revision No: A-2 / Revision Date: 12·31·06

Pressure Control 18.17 Revision No: A-2 / Revision Date: 12·31·06

1.0 when circulating a kick out. After the

MACP (psi x 1,000 )

Pressure Control 18.20 Revision No: A-2 / Revision Date: 12·31·06

Pressure Control 18.21 Revision No: A-2 / Revision Date: 12·31·06

of the kick fluid is generally less than Example 9

Pressure Control 18.22 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

DENSITY OF INTRUDING FLUID Where:

Pressure Control 18.23 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

is circulated to the surface without being It is difficult to predict surface pres-

Pressure Control 18.24 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Figure 11: Pressure profile.

Pressure Control 18.25 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

________________________ 0 Imposed pressure Circulating pressure 0

Pressure Control 18.26 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

________________________ Circulating pressure Imposed pressure Circulating pressure 0

should be noted that as formation fluid

pressure in the annulus will begin to 5,720 psi

Pressure Control 18.27 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

KICK DETECTION A good well plan requires looking at

Pressure Control 18.28 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Pressure Control 18.29 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

WELL-CONTROL METHODS especially with high-density drilling

Pressure Control 18.30 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Pressure Control 18.31 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Pressure Control 18.32 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

________________________ The following information has been Pit volume

Pressure Control 18.33 Revision No: A-0 / Revision Date: 03·31·98

Figure 18: Driller’s Method well-control worksheet – procedure.