J. agric. Engng Res.

(1997) 68, 63 75

Calculation, Validation and Simulation of Soil Reactions on

Concave Agricultural Discs
D. R. P. Hettiaratchi;* M. M. Alam
* Department of Agricultural and Environmental Science, The University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE1 7RU, UK
Department of Farm Power & Machinery, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mimensingh, 2202, Bangladesh
(Receiy ed 15 July 1996; accepted in rey ised form 19 May 1997)

There are several recently developed mathematical

models which quantify the geometry of the contact
surfaces of agricultural discs and the soil reactions
which act on them. The paper illustrates the application of these models by means of a detailed worked
example which sets out a systematic calculation procedure for estimating soil reactions generated by a
Mohr-Coulomb soil on a concave spherical agricultural disc of specified curvature and size. The tilted disc
in this example is set with a disc angle which brings
the convex disc surface into contact with the furrow
wall. From a practical standpoint, this worked example incorporates the basic steps in a general computer solution for predicting the quasi-static behaviour
of disc cutting elements.
The predictions of the mathematical models have
been evaluated against measured orthogonal force
components acting on a vertical disc and a disc with
three tilt angle settings. These investigations were
carried out under carefully controlled laboratory conditions with the discs working loam soils. The disc
angles were varied from around 108 to 808. The model
was found to predict the performance of these discs
with reasonable accuracy. The best agreement between experiment and theory was found to occur at
disc angle settings around 308, this being particularly
so for the draught and suction force components.
The mathematical models are also used to examine
the nature of the theoretical soil reaction characteristics of concave agricultural discs when operating in
typical light and heavy soils. A selection of simulated
performance curves are presented and these illustrate
the general trends in the variation of the soil forces
acting on concave discs as their angular orientation
and depth of cut are varied over a comprehensive
range of settings. Some unambiguous conclusions for
optimising disc performance can be drawn from these
simulations.
1997 Silsoe Research Institute
0021-8634 / 97 / 090063 1 13 $25.00 / 0 / ag970179

1. Introduction
There have been several recent attempts to develop
mathematical models to predict the performance of
disc cutting elements used in agricultural tillage
machines. The main purposes of these models are to
satisfy two needs: (1) the accurate evaluation of the
geometry of the complex curved contact surfaces
between soil and metal13 and (2) the evaluation of
the soil reactions on these surfaces.4,5 Rigorous mathematical solutions can be formulated for the former but
unfortunately the latter can be resolved only on a
semi-empirical basis.
All these models require a formidable number of
calculation steps and cannot be classed as being user
friendly. However, they do provide the basis for the
development of powerful computer models, which are
of considerable value to designers of disc cutting tools.
In the absence of these models, the influence of the
angular setting of a disc on its draught, suction and
side thrust can be judged either from experience or by
experiment. The paper is an attempt to use the
available theoretical background to present a systematic calculation procedure for predicting the forces
acting on a single agricultural disc having both disc
and tilt angles working a Mohr-Coulomb soil. The
equations are presented in a form suitable for hand
calculations or alternatively they can be used as the
basic steps for a computer solution. These models are
used to trace the influence of angular orientation,
depth of cut and soil type on the soil reactions acting
on a single disc cutting element.
2. Calculation strategies
2.1 . General considerations
An unattractive feature, common to all the theoretical analyses currently available, is the excessive
63

1997 Silsoe Research Institute

64

D . R . P . H ET T I AR A T CH I ; M. M . AL A M

Notation

A
c
ca
d
dS
DS

F
K

m
m0
N

NC
ND
P
q
Q
R
S
w
wS

a
aS
aW
g
G
d

adhesive force between soil and cutting

plane [N]
cohesion [N / m2]
adhesion between soil and cutting plane
[N / m2]
cutting depth [m]
depth to lower extremity of scrubbing
zone [m]
specific draught of disc [N / m2]. Pressure
equivalent to the uniform distribution of
the draught force FX over the total
contact surface area projected on to the
YZ plane.
soil reaction component [N]
non-dimensional earth pressure
coefficients; subscripts g , ca , q . Charts
for these factors are published in
Hettiaratchi and Reece.8
scrubbing depth index. Details in
companion papers.2,3
scrubbing depth index for specified l .
lS
non dimensional geometrical factors with
reference to characteristic dimension R .
Subscripts: defined in text
curvature number of disc ( 5 S / R )
operating depth number of disc ( 5 d / R )
soil reaction component on disc surface
[N]
surcharge pressure due to soil build-up
over rupture block [N / m2]
soil displacement or velocity vectors on
skew cutting surface [m, m / s]
radius of disc rim [m]
radius of disc base sphere [m]
width of a chord of a horizontal contact
circle of the base sphere [m]
width of a chord of a horizontal contact
circle of the base sphere at the soil
surface [m]
rake angle of cutting plane [8]
rake angle of a symmetrical cutting
surface [8]
rake angle angle limit for boundary
wedge formation [8]
unit weight of soil [N / m3]
general identifier for a plane surface
maximum angle of friction between
cutting surface and soil [8]

d m mobilised angle of friction between

boundary wedge and disc surface [8];
(2d , d m , 1d )
slip-line direction relative to horizontal in
a plane shear zone [8]; 5 (458 2 12 w )
k directional coefficient modifying sign of
A; k 5 1 .
l disc angle [8]
l S scrubbing limit of disc angle [8]
L scrubbing angle [rad]; L 5 (l 2 l S) ,
L$0
m tilt angle of disc [8]
r quasi-symmetrical position index 5 0 / l
w angle of internal friction of soil [8]
angle made by quasi-symmetrical plane
with direction of translation [8]
0 root of Eqn (12) in companion paper5 to
meet kinematic requirements for quasisymmetrical failure [8]
General subscripts used with a , G and w
cc refers to concave contact surface
cy refers to convex (scrubbing) contact
surface
Note: Soil force components, and values of a , d
and k which are common to both the
concave and convex contact surfaces are
identified by an as asterisk (*). Specific
values to be allocated to these symbols
are summarised in Table 1 of the
companion paper.5

number of calculation steps required to evaluate even

the simplest settings of a disc cutting tool. A detailed
calculation procedure for the estimation of the contact
surface geometry has been set out by Hettiaratchi.3
This analysis specifies the individual equations required for each step in a sequential calculation procedure. The information necessary for the user to draw
up a computer solution is therefore available.
The theoretical analysis developed by Hettiaratchi5
for predicting the forces on discs has an added
complication in that it requires an input from published earth pressure charts. Furthermore, the angular
orientation of the so-called quasi-symmetrical
failure planes associated with the equivalent skew
cutting surfaces is an integral part of this analysis and
a numerical solution of a transcendental equation in
is required to obtain this information. It is clear that a
fully free-standing computer programme for predicting soil reactions on disc elements must incorporate

SOIL REACTIONS ON CONCAVE AGRICULTURAL DISCS

two subroutines to evaluate (a) the earth pressure

coefficients for two-dimensional soil failure and (b)
the inclination of the quasi-symmetrical planes. The
former requires a routine which applies Sokolovskis
solution6 for evaluating passive earth pressure,7,8 and
is a major undertaking in itself. The latter requirement, can be dealt with in a fairly straightforward
manner, by invoking any numerical procedure for the
solution of transcendental equations.
An interactive programme, which requires the user
to supply the relevant earth pressure coefficients and
the value of from published charts, can readily be
developed from available data. If a solution routine
for is incorporated into the programme, then only
the earth pressure coefficients need be supplied.

65

Equation (1) cannot be used in the case of a clay

soil where w 5 08 or is very small.7 From practical
observations it is sufficient to set ca 5 c for these
conditions.
From careful experimental observations Godwin et
al .4 have shown that the equivalent surcharge q , due
to the soil build-up ahead of the concave disc surface,
can be represented by the following expression:
q 5 g (hC 2 d ) cos l

(2)

where hC is the height of the disc centre above the soil

surface.

3. Worked example
3.1 . Introduction

2.2. Input parameters

The calculation procedure requires an input of the
following parameters
(a ) Disc particulars
S
Radius of curvature of the disc (m)
R
Rim radius of disc (m)
d
Depth of cut of disc (m)
m
Tilt angle of disc (8)
l
Disc angle (8)
(b ) Soil and soil -metal parameters
c
Cohesion (kPa)
w
Angle of internal friction (8)
d
Angle of friction between disc surface and soil
(8)
ca
Adhesion between soil and disc surface (kPa)
g
Unit weight of soil (kN / m3)
q
Surcharge due to soil accumulation (kPa)

3.2 . Disc particulars

R 5 300 mm; S 5 600 mm; m 5 208; l 5 708
Cutting depth d 5 150 mm

(c ) Skew cutting surface parameters

Orientation of quasi-symmetrical plane (8)

aQ
Rake angle in quasi-symmetrical plane (8)
(d ) Earth pressure coefficients
Kg , Kca and Kq obtained from Hettiaratchi and
Reece8 for w , d and a Q.
(e ) Restrictions
The analysis neglects inertia forces of the system
and the calculations therefore establish the quasi-static
soil forces on the disc. Minor effects due to disc
thickness and its rotation are also not taken into
account. The adhesion ca between the soil and the
metal disc surface is usually taken as:
ca 5 c tan d cot w

The theoretical framework developed in previous

papers2,3,5 is used in the following worked example to
estimate the three orthogonal force components Fx , Fy
and Fz of the soil reaction acting on a disc cutting tool.
The positive directions of these forces and the basic
parameters of the disc are set out in Fig. 1 .
The relevant equations are reproduced here in full
and those with a prefix letter identify the particular
paper in which they have been derived, where A 5
Reference 2 and B 5 Reference 5. Thus A(11), for
example, refers to Eqn (11) in reference 2. Equation
numbers without a prefix are those set out in this
paper. The notation used in all these papers has been
standardised except for some minor dimensions which
have dual meanings and these are explained where
they occur in the text.

(1)

3.3 . Soil and soil -metal parameters

c 5 5?0 kPa; w 5 358; d 5 24?58; g 5 12?5 kN / m3
ca 5 c tan d cot w 5 3.25 kPa
(1)

3.4 . Non -dimensional factors , surcharge and scrubbing

limit
NC 5 S / R 5 600 / 300 5 2?0
ND 5 d / R 5 150 / 300 5 0?5
1
NDX 5 cos m 1 sin m [(N 2C 2 1) 2 2 NC]
A(11)
1

2
2
5 cos 208 1 sin 208[(2 2 1) 2 2] 5 0.85

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D . R . P . H ET T I AR A T CH I ; M. M . AL A M

A scrubbing zone is present at the specified disc

setting because l . l S.

3.5 . Geometry of the GCC plane

NR0 5 (N 2C 2 N 2HO)2
R

A(8)

5 (2 2 1.532 ) 5 1.286
2

NRS 5 (N 2C 2 N 2HS)2

B(3)
1

5 (22 2 1.0322) 5 1.713

a CC 5 tan21[ND / (NRS 2 NR0)]

+Fy
+Fx
wS

B(4)

5 tan21[0?5 / (1.713 2 1.286)] 5 49?58

+Fz

As discussed in Section 6 of Hettiaratchi,5 the rake

angle limit a D, below which the rupture block has a
plane of discontinuity, can be shown to be 54?68.
Because a CC , a D the rupture block developed by the
concave zone in this example is of type II [see Fig.
4 (b ) in Hettiaratchi5]. This need not concern us in the
calculation procedure because the K factors used in
Section 2.8(a) automatically allow for this change in
rupture configuration.

Fig. 1. Main parameters used to fix disc attitude and furrow

geometry. The centre of the base sphere of the disc is at O.
The direction of translation (V) is parallel to the negatiy e X
direction

NWS 5 2 sec m (2ND cos m 2 N 2D)2

5 2 3 sec 208 (2 3 0?5 3 cos 208 2 0?52)

A(5)
1

5 1.768
NWE 5 [cos m sin21( 12 NWS) 2 12 NWS(cos m 2 ND)] / ND
The soil surface is well below the hub centre level
because ND , NDX.
q 5 gR (NDX 2 ND) cos l

(2)

5 12?5 3 0?3(0.85 2 0?5)cos 708 5 0.45 kPa

1

NH0 5 cos m 1 sin m (N 2C 2 1) 2

B(1)

5 [cos 208 sin21(0?5 3 1.768)( / 180)

B(5)

2 0?5 3 1.768(cos 208 2 0?5)] / 0?5

5 1.261
wS 5 wCC 5 RNWE 5 0?3 3 1 .261 5 0 .378 m

5 cos 208 1 sin 208(22 2 1) 2 5 1.532

NHS 5 NH0 2 ND

B(2)

5 1.532 2 0?5 5 1.032

l S 5 cos21hsec m [(2ND cos m 2 N 2D) / (N 2C 2 N 2HS)] 2j

1

21

5 cos hsec 208[(2 3 0?5 cos 208 2 0?5 ) /

(22 2 1.0322)]j
5 58?98

B(6)

3.6 . Geometry of the GCV plane

L 5 l 2 l S 5 708 2 58?98 5 11?18
wCV 5 12 Rl

A(12)
B(7)

5 0?5 3 0?3 3 11?1 3 / 180?0 5 0.029 m

Estimation of scrubbing depth dS. The main
coefficients of the quadratic in m are set out in Eqn
(14) of Hettiaratchi.2 The numerical values in this

67

SOIL REACTIONS ON CONCAVE AGRICULTURAL DISCS

Because a CV . a W a boundary wedge is associated

with the GCV plane.

example are as follows:

C1 5 cos2 l cos2m
5 cos2 708 cos2 208 5 0.1033

3.7 . Orientation of quasi -symmetrical planes

C2 5 cos m 1 sin m (N 2C 2 1) 2
1

5 cos 208 1 sin 208 (22 2 1) 2 5 1.5321

(a ) Concay e zone plane

Interpolation using the charts shown in Figs 6 (b )
and 6 (c ) in Hettiaratchi2 for a 5 a CC 5 49?58 and
w 5 358 gives the following values:

A 5 (1 2 C1)N 2D
5 (1 2 0 .1033) 3 0?52 5 0.2242

l 5 608 [Fig. 6 (b )]: r 5 0.375

B 5 2(C1C2 2 cos m )ND

5 2 3 (0.1033 3 1.5321 2 cos 208) 3 0?5 5 0.7814

l 5 708: r 5 0.375 1 12 (0.385 2 0.375) 5 0.38

C 5 (N 2C 2 C 22)C1

CC 5 r 3 l 5 0 .38 3 708 5 26?68

5 (22 2 1 .53212) 3 0 .1033 5 0.1707

1

m0 5 [2B 2 (B 2 2 4AC ) 2] / 2A

A(14)

[2 3 0.2242]
5 0.234
B(8)

NH1 5 NH0 2 m0ND

B(9)

5 1.532 2 0.234 3 0?5 5 1.4150

B(9)
1

5 (2 2 1.415 ) 5 1.4134
NE1 5 [N

1N

2
R2

2 2NR1 NRS cos ( L)]

3.8 . Forces on equiy alent cutting planes

3 cos(11?1 / 2)] 2

(a ) Forces on concay e contact zone (GCC)

5 0.335

1 5 tan21[(1 2 m0)ND / NE1]

B(9)

a CV 5 1808 2 1

B(9)

Check for boundary wedge formation on GCV plane:

21

B(20)

5 [12?5 3 0.15 3 1 .71 1 5?0 3 0.15 3 2 .03 1 ....

5 1808 2 48?88 5 131?28

a W 5 1358 2 12 [sin21(sin d / sin w ) 1 d 1 w ]

PCC 5 [g d 2Kg 1 cd Kca 1 qd Kq]wCC cos l

2

5 tan21[(1 2 0.234) 3 0?5) / 0.335] 5 48?88

B(10)

5 1358 2 [sin (sin 24?58 / sin 358) 1 24?58 1 358]

5 82?18

a QCV 5 tan21[tan 558 3 cos(708 2 25?68)] 5 45?68

B(9)

5 [1.4134 1 1.713 2 2 3 1.4134 3 1.713

l 5 708: r 5 0.355 1 12 (0.375 2 0.355) 5 0.365

B(11c)
1

l 5 808 [Fig. 6 (c )]: r 5 0.375

CV 5 0 .365 3 708 5 25?68

NR1 5 (N 2C 2 N 2H1) 2

2
R1

(b ) Cony ex zone plane

Interpolation using the charts shown in Figs 6(b)
and 6(c) in Hettiaratchi2 for a 5 a W 5 (908 2 w ) 5
(908 2 358) 5 558:

l 5 608 [Fig. 6 (b )]: r 5 0.355

5 (1 2 0.234) 3 0.15 5 0.115 m

B(11c)

5 tan [tan 49?58 3 cos(708 2 26?68)] 5 40?48

dS 5 (1 2 m0)d

a QCC 5 tan21[tan a CC cos(l 2 CC)]

21

m0 5 [0.7814 2 (0.78142 2 4 3 0 .2242 3 0 .1707)2] /

l 5 808 [Fig. 6 (c )]: r 5 0.385

1 0.45 3 0.15 3 3 .35] 3 0.378 3 cos 708

5 0.289 kN
The figures in bold type are the K factors interpolated from the charts given in Hettiaratchi.8 The
relevant K factors for d 5 0 and d 5 w for w 5 358 and
a 5 a QCC 5 40?48 are read from these charts. The
interpolation calculations for d 5 24?58 are set out in
Table 1. The computed values are also shown in this
table for comparison. It will be seen that the inter-

68

D . R . P . H ET T I AR A T CH I ; M. M . AL A M

Table 1
Interpolation from Hettiaratchi and Reece8 for d 5 0.7w at
a 5 408, w 5 358
K -factor
Kg

d 50
1.05

d 5 358
2.10

K ca

[1.325]
0.75

[2.042]
3.10

Kq

[0.722]
2.10

[3.104]
4.10

[2.051]

[4.061]

d 5 24 .58

Note: Computed values are shown in square brackets.

polation for Kca, for low values of a , introduces an

error. The other interpolations, however, are of acceptable accuracy. The actual interpolated value, although clearly too low, is used in the present calculations. The computed value of PCC is 0.321 kN, which is
about 10% higher than the interpolated one.
B(19)

5 0?32 3 0?5 3 1.261 3 3.25 3 cosec 40?48

B(14)

5 0.479 kN.
B(15)

5 0.289 cos(40?48 1 24?58) 2 1?0 3 0.285 sin 40?48

B(16)

5 0.479 cos 26?68 5 0.428 kN

FY1 5 FH1 sin CC

5 29?98.
As d m , 0 , k 5 21?0 for the convex zone.
PW5 [g d 2SKg 1 cdSKca 1 qdSKq]wCV

B(21)

5 [12?5 3 0.115 3 2?4 1 5?0 3 0.115 3 4?4 1 ......

2

1 0.45 3 0.115 3 4?7] 3 0.029 5 0.092 kN

The figures in bold type are the relevant K factors
obtained from the charts given in Hettiaratchi and
Reece.8 These are for a 5 a W 5 (908 2 w ) 5 (908 2
358) 5 558 and d 5 w 5 358. Note that an interpolation
for d is unnecessary as the wedge face is fully rough
and we can read the relevant K factors directly off the
d 5 w chart. The accurate computed values are Kg 5
2?392 , Kca 5 4?431 and Kq 5 4?593 and the values
obtained off the charts agree reasonably well with
these.
B(21)

AW 5 dSwCVc (tan w 2 tan a CV)

B(22)

5 0.115 3 0.029 3 5?0(tan 358 2 tan 131?28)

5 0.031 kN
A static equilibrium analysis of the boundary wedge
leads to the magnitude of PCV. This force is inclined at
an angle d m with the normal to GCV:

j 5 a CV 1 w

B(23)

PCV 5 (AW 1 PW) cos w 2 ACV cos j ] / sin(j 1 d m) B(24)

5 (0.031 1 0.092) cos 358 1 0.014 cos 166?28] /
sin(166?2 2 9?98)

B(17)

5 0.479 sin 26?68 5 0.214 kN

FZ1 5 FV 1

5 tan [(sin 358 cos 297?48) / (sin 358 sin 297?48 2 1)]

5 131?28 1 35?08 5 166?28

5 20.062 kN.
FX 1 5 FH1 cos CC

B(13)

21

5 0.115 3 0.029 3 3.25 3 cosec 131?28 5 20.014 kN

5 0.289 sin(40?48 1 24?58) 1 1?0 3 0.285 cos 40?48

FV 1 5 PCC cos (a QCC 1 d ) 2 k ACC cos a CC

d m 5 tan21[(sin w cos ) / (sin w sin z 2 1)]

ACV 5 dSwCVca cosec a CV

5 0.285 kN
FH1 5 PCC sin(a QCC 1 d ) 1 k ACC cos a QCC

z 5 w 1 aCV
5 358 1 2 3 131?28 5 297?48

0.7

1.05(2.1 / 1 .05)
5 1 .71
[1.725]
0.75(3.10 / 0.75)0.7
5 2 .03
[2.423]
2.1(4.1 / 2.1)0.7
5 3 .35
[3.357]

ACC 5 R 2ND NWE ca cosec a QCC

mobilised. As set out in Section 8.1 in Hettiaratchi,5

the mobilised friction angle d m is estimated thus:

B(18)

5 20.062 kN
(b ) Forces on cony ex scrubbing zone (GCV)
The presence of the boundary wedge indicates that
the friction on the equivalent plane is not fully

5 0.217 kN
All the information for estimating the soil reaction
components on the equivalent convex surface GCV are
now available and the calculations follow the identical
steps used in Section 2.8(a) for the equivalent concave
surface GCC. Note that Eqns B(14) to B(18) are used
here with the relevant specific convex zone values
assigned to the generic symbols (see Table 1 in
Hettiaratchi5). The numerical value of CV must be
assigned a negative value as the Q plane is directed

69

SOIL REACTIONS ON CONCAVE AGRICULTURAL DISCS

outwards from the GT plane whilst it was directed

inwards in the concave zone.
FH2 5 0.217 sin (131?2 2 9?9)
1 (21?0 3 20.014 3 cos 131?28)
5 0.176 kN
FV 2 5 0 .217 cos (131?2 2 9?9)
2 (21?0 3 20.014 3 sin 131?28)
5 20.102 kN

(b ) Cony ex zone
To estimate the relevant projected area aCV of the
scrubbing zone it is first necessary to arrive at an
approximate value for the angle l CV made by the
equivalent convex cutting blade (the GCV plane) with
the direction of translation. This is accomplished by
solving the triangle labelled OHJ in Fig. 3 given in
Hettiaratchi.5 The steps in this derivation and the
numerical values given by the relevant equations are
as follows:
L 5 l 2 l S 5 708 2 58?98 5 11?18

FX 2 5 0 .176 cos (225?68) 5 0.159 kN

a 5 12 L 5 0?5 3 11?18 5 5?68

FY2 5 0.176 sin (225?68) 5 20.076 kN

b 5 sin21 [(NR1 sin a) / NE1]

5 sin21[(1.413 sin 5?6) / 0.335] 5 24?38

FZ2 5 FV 5 20.102 kN

3.9. Final soil reaction components on disc

A(12)

l CV 5 908 2 ( a 1 b) 5 908 2 (5?68 1 24?38) 5 60?18

(4)

The individual force components generated by the

concave and convex zones are combined to give the
total disc force components:

The width wCV and the depth (which is the scrubbing depth dS of the GCV plane) have been calculated
in Section 2.6. The area of the GCV plane (wCV 3 dS)
projected on to the YZ plane is thus

FX 5 Fx1 1 Fx2 5 0 .428 1 0 .159 5 10 .587 kN; [0.687 kN]

aCV 5 wCV dS cos l CV 5 0 .029 3 0.115 cos 60?18

FY 5 Fy1 1 Fy2 5 0 .214 2 0 .076 5 10 .138 kN; [0.134 kN]

FZ 5 Fz1 1 Fz2 5 20.062 2 0.102 5 20.164 kN;
[20.182 kN]
The final force components obtained from the hand
calculation are shown in bold type and the corresponding values of these force components obtained
from a more precise computer solution are shown
within the square brackets. The discrepancies are a
consequence of the large interpolation error in the
value of Kca used in Section 3.8 and set out in Table 1.

5 0 .0016 m2

(5)

(c ) Specific draught
The total area of the equivalent cutting surfaces,
projected on to the plane normal to the direction of
translation (the YZ plane), are obtained from Eqns
(3) and (5) and the specific draught, which is the
draught force FX distributed over this area, is given by
DS 5 Fx / (aCC 1 aCV)
5 0.587 / (0.0194 1 0.0016) 5 28 kPa.

4. Experimental data on vertical discs

3.10. Specific draught
The areas of the concave contact zone and the
convex scrubbing zone, projected on to the GF plane
(see Fig. 1 in Hettiaratchi5), are obtained from the
geometry of the two equivalent cutting blades.
(a ) Concay e zone
The concave contact area aCC for estimating specific
draught is the area wCC 3 d of the GCC plane projected
on to the YZ plane (see Fig. 1 ). The value of wCC has
been calculated in Section 3.5 so that:
aCC 5 wCC d cos l 5 0 .378 3 0 .15 cos 708 5 0.0194 m2
(3)

The published soil reactions on vertical discs9-11

obtained from a series of experiments carried out
under carefully controlled conditions at the National
Tillage Machinery Laboratory at Auburn, Alabama,
USA, have been available for some time. This data
has been of considerable value in obtaining a qualitative understanding of the influence of disc size and
shape, disc angle, depth of cut and soil type on the
forces acting on vertical discs. It has not been feasible
to use this data to evaluate the predictive performance
of more recently developed theoretical models because of the paucity of information on the MohrCoulomb properties of the soils used in the indoor
tanks. This information is available for the experiments described by Godwin et al.4 and this data,

70

D . R . P . H ET T I AR A T CH I ; M. M . AL A M

s= 623

together with experimental work at Newcastle, is used

to assess the force prediction performance of the
theoretical model discussed in this paper.
In their experiments Godwin et al.4 used two
spherical discs operating at two different depths. Their
disc (labelled deep spherical) with a 610 mm rim
diameter, a radius of curvature of 528 mm (NC 5 1.73)
and set at a depth of 100 mm (ND 5 0.33) was chosen
for the present analysis. This disc was set vertically
(m 5 08) and worked a soil with w 5 388 and c 5

FX

200

Soil reaction F(kN)

150

100

Specific draught Ds (kPa)

Ds
50
FY

FZ

10?2 kPa. The soil-to-metal friction angle d was 228.

These parameters were used in the computer model to
predict the orthogonal force components FX , FY and
FZ and the specific draught DS. These curves are
plotted in heavy lines in Fig. 2 , where the three force
components are shown in full lines and the specific
draught by long broken lines. Also shown on Fig. 2 , in
thin short broken lines, are the curves for FX , FY and
FZ predicted by Godwin et al.4 Their actual experimental observations of these three forces components are indicated on Fig. 2 by open circle, full
circle and open square symbols.
The predictions made by both theoretical models
show that as the disc angle is increased the draught
force (FX) drops steadily until the scrubbing limit
(l 5 l S 5 62?38) is reached. Beyond this limit there is a
very steep rise in draught force due to the rapid
development of the scrubbing forces on the convex
side of the disc. The theory presented in this paper
predicts that the side force (FY) peaks at around
l 5 508, somewhat ahead of the scrubbing limit and
the vertical force reverses from suction ( 1 ve FZ) to a
upward lift force resisting penetration at about the
scrubbing limit. This change is clearly due to the
upward reaction developed on the scrubbing surface.
The predictions made by Godwin et al.4 follow the
general trends predicted by the present theory but the
side thrust FY, in particular, is several magnitudes
larger. In general, the experimental values shown in
Fig. 2 lie closer to the curves predicted by Godwin et
al.4 than those derived from the present analysis.
The specific draught DS calculated from the present
theory (see Section 3.10) is shown in Fig. 2 by the long
broken lines. The values presented by Godwin et al.4
for specific draught are, by comparison, very small
(about 5% of the present values) and are not shown in
the diagram. Characteristically, the specific draught is
not very sensitive to changes in disc angle below the
scrubbing limit and falls rather slowly to a minimum
near the scrubbing limit itself. It then rises very
steeply as the scrubbing action is initiated and spreads
over the convex side of the disc.

1
0

20

40

60

80

Disc angle

Fig. 2. The performance characteristics of a y ertical concay e

disc operating in a sandy loam soil. Thick lines indicate
predicted y alues using the model discussed in this paper; full
lines: soil reaction components (FX , FY , FZ ) , long broken
line: specific draught (DS). Thin short broken lines represent
the soil reaction components predicted by Godwin et al.4 and
their experimental obsery ations are indicated by the symbols
d FX , h FY and s FZ. Disc: R 5 305 mm , S 5 528 mm ,
d 5 100 mm , m 5 0 8 , l S 5 62 .3 8; Soil: c 5 10.2 kPa , w 5 38 8 ,
d 5 22 8 , g 5 12 .8 kN / m 3

5. Experimental data on inclined discs

The results of an experimental investigation carried
out by Alam12 on the performance of a 600 mm rim
diameter disc having a radius of curvature of 600 mm
(NC 5 2?0) operating at a fixed depth of 100 mm
(ND 5 0.33) but with changes to both disc and tilt
angles are summarised in Fig. 3 . The disc was tested
under carefully controlled conditions in the indoor
tank in the Soil Machine Mechanics laboratory at

SOIL REACTIONS ON CONCAVE AGRICULTURAL DISCS

=0

FX

=5

these forces with disc and tilt angles are predicted

reasonably well. However, the predicted draught
component is consistently flatter than the experimental one and the side thrust and suction components are
generally slightly under-predicted. The agreement is
best for disc angle settings around 308. Fortuitously,
this setting is close to the range of l commonly
encountered in disc implements in commercial production. It will also be noticed that the main consequence of changes in tilt angle is its influence on the
suction component. In the middle (and practical)
range of values for the disc angle the suction force
assists penetration but this feature is clearly absent in
the vertical disc where an external load or weight is
required for disc penetration at all settings of the disc
angle l.

s= 651

FX

FY

6. Simulation

FY

6.1 . Scope of predictions

0

FZ

=10

FX

s= 627

Soil reaction F(kN)

s= 641

FZ

71

FY

FZ
1
0

20

40

60

80

Disc angle

Fig. 3. Performance characteristics of a disc with tilt angle.

Experiment , full lines: s FX; h FY; D FZ. Predicted , short
broken lines. Disc: R 5 325 mm , S 5 600 mm , d 5 100 mm.
Soil: c 5 11 kPa , w 5 32.5 8 , d 5 24 .8 8 , g 5 13.5 kN / m 3

Newcastle. The soil in the tank was a sandy loam with

w 5 32?58 and c 5 11?0 kPa. The best fit curves to the
draught (FX), the side thrust (FY) and the suction force
(FZ) are shown in solid lines in the diagram. The
broken lines represent these force components as
predicted by the present theory.
Once again the general trends in the variation of

The mathematical models of the interaction of a

concave agricultural disc with soil presented in this
series of papers2,3,5 are, at best, only a rough representation of the behaviour of real disc implements
operating in the field. The models have received only
cursory validation, and that too under ideal controlled
conditions. Nevertheless, the models can be used to
predict in broad terms, the influence of disc size, type,
setting and furrow depth on the contact zone geometry and the forces acting on them when operating in a
wide variety of soil types. This type of information can
normally be obtained from expensive and time consuming experimental work and theoretically simulated
performance characteristics would therefore have a
useful supporting role to play. On this basis, it is
proposed to present the predicted performance curves
of a disc of fixed size and type operating at variable
disc angle settings and depth in two soil types (a sandy
loam and a medium clay).
To cover the soil reaction characteristics in its
entirety it would be necessary to investigate the
influence of six parameters (c , w , d , l, m and d ) on
four force components (Fx , Fy , Fz and DS). Clearly, an
impracticably large number of performance charts are
required to display all the possible variations. The
simulation will therefore deal, in the first instance,
with the variation of the soil reaction on a disc
working at a fixed depth and subsequently the influence of the variations in cutting depth, for a limited
selection of disc attitudes, will be investigated.
The particulars of the disc and the properties of the
two soil types chosen for the simulation are as follows

72

D . R . P . H ET T I AR A T CH I ; M. M . AL A M

Disc

=0

Size
R 5 300 mm; S 5 600 mm; d 5 150 mm
Attitude 08 # l # 908; 08 # m # 308

Soil

10

Sandy Loam
c 5 5 kPa; w 5 358; d 5 24?58; g 5 12?5 kN / m3
Clay c 5 30 kPa; w 5 58; d 5 3?58; g 5 12?5 kN / m3

20
30
1

The cutting depth d at which the soil surface is level

with the disc centre varies from 300 mm for a vertical
disc to 220 mm when the disc is set at a tilt angle of
308. The value of 150 mm chosen is thus well within
this limit.

The variation of the orthogonal force components

with changes in disc and tilt angles is shown in Figs 4
and 5 . The general trends in these variations, in both
soil types, are very similar. The draught component
(FX) decreases as l is increased and reaches a minimum value near the scrubbing limit, which is identified on each curve by the vertex of an inverted
triangle. It will be seen that draught is sensitive to tilt
angle, particularly in a loam soil, where there is a clear
falling off in the draught force component as the disc
is tilted away from the vertical. This sensitivity is most
marked with the disc set at low values of the disc
angle. As the disc angle approaches the scrubbing
limit this advantage in lower draught is lost and in the
clay soil the position actually changes around with the
vertical disc having a lower draught.
The variations of both the side thrust FY and the
suction force 1FZ with the disc attitude are almost
identical in both the loam and clay soils. In the loam
soil the maximum value of FY, for all tilt angle
settings, is attained just before the scrubbing limit is
reached and in the clay soil this force peaks almost at
the scrubbing limit itself.
Clearly the side thrust is not very sensitive to
changes in the tilt angle. In contrast the vertical force
FZ is sensitive to both tilt and disc angle settings. For
small tilt angles this force tends to lift the disc out of
the soil (2ve FZ) but reverts to a suction force as the
disc is set away from the vertical, thus assisting
penetration. The lift forces (opposing penetration)
become quite severe as the setting moves into the
scrubbing range of disc angles. It is interesting to note
that in the case of a vertical disc (m 5 08) the curve for
FZ lies entirely in the negative zone of the graph for
all disc angle settings. This indicates that such discs

Soil reaction F(kN)

6.2. Fixed depth characteristics

FX
04
04
FY

=0
30

04

30

=0

FZ
1
0

20

40

60

80

Disc angle

Fig. 4. Simulated soil reaction characteristics of a concay e

disc working at a fixed depth in a loam soil. Disc: R 5
300 mm , S 5 600 mm , d 5 150 mm. Soil: c 5 5 kPa , w 5 35 8 ,
d 5 24.5 8 , g 5 12 .5 kN / m 3. = Identifies scrubbing limits
whose numerical y alues are: m 5 0 8 , l S 5 63 .4 8; m 5 10 8 , l S
5 61.8 8; m 5 20 8 , g S 5 58.9 8; m 5 30 8 , l S 5 54.9 8

will ride out of work unless an external penetrating

force is provided to overcome the lift force.
The characteristics of the specific draught DS shown
in Fig. 6 are similar for both soil types and this
parameter is relatively insensitive to changes in disc
angle. A minimum value is reached at the scrubbing
limit of l but DS rises very steeply thereafter as the
disc passes into the scrubbing mode.
6.3. Influence of depth of cut
The influence of depth of cut on the soil reaction
characteristics for a single setting of the disc angle at

73

SOIL REACTIONS ON CONCAVE AGRICULTURAL DISCS

400

=0

(a)

300
200

3
30

=0

100

FX
Soil reaction F(kN)

=0

1
FY

30

Specific draught Ds(kPa)

2
30
20

400

(b)

300

0
200

05
100

=0

=0
30

40

20

40

60

80

Disc angle

Fig. 6. Simulated specific draught characteristics of a concay e

disc working at a fixed depth of 150 mm. Disc: R 5 300 mm ,
S 5 600 mm. (a) Loam soil: c 5 5 kPa , w 5 35 8 , d 5 24 .5 8.
(b) Clay soil: c 5 30 kPa , w 5 5 8 , d 5 3 .5 8 , g 5 12.5 kN / m 3

30
3
FZ
4

20

40

60

80

Disc angle

Fig. 5. Simulated soil reaction characteristics of a concay e

disc working at a fixed depth in a clay soil. Disc: R 5
300 mm , S 5 600 mm , d 5 150 mm. Soil: c 5 30 kPa , w 5 5 8 ,
d 5 3.58, g 5 12.5 kN / m3. = identifies scrubbing limits whose
numerical values are: m 5 0 8, lS 5 63.4 8; m 5 10 8, lS 5 61.8 8;
m 5 20 8, lS 5 58.9 8; m 5 30 8, lS 5 54.9 8

l 5 408 in a loam soil is shown in Fig. 7 . The disc

angle chosen is well within the scrubbing limit which,
for the range of m (08 # m # 308) under consideration,
extends from 63?48 to 54?98. The profiles of the curves
for the clay soil are generally similar to those of the
loam soil for equivalent settings of below the scrubbing limit. The main difference lies in the magnitude
of the forces, which are much higher in the clay than

those for the loam soil. The companion curves for the
clay soil are not reproduced here.
It will be seen from Fig. 7 that the draught
component FX varies almost linearly with depth of cut
d , and the rate of increase in this component with
depth of cut is particularly sensitive to the tilt angle
and becomes less severe as the tilt angle is increased.
The side thrust is less responsive to changes in tilt
angle but the vertical force alters direction very
rapidly from lift to suction as the disc is tilted away
from the vertical (m . 0).
The effect of tilt angle on specific draught DS (for
fixed l) exhibits an interesting trend. The specific
draught DS of discs with high tilt angles is almost
completely insensitive to changes in depth of cut. The
gradient of the DS versus d curve reduces from a
rather steep value for a vertical disc to almost nothing
at m 5 308. Extensive computations show that these
trends are duplicated for other disc angle settings
within the scrubbing limit.

74

D . R . P . H ET T I AR A T CH I ; M. M . AL A M

appropriate, a similar set is needed for the convex

scrubbing zone. These are obtained from charts
given in Hettiaratchi and Reece.8 As for (a)
above the rake angles aQCC and aW required for
this assessment are also known at this stage.
Intervention for step (a) can be avoided if a
standard numerical solution to Eqn (12) given by
Hettiaratchi5 is incorporated into the programme.
This step will then provide the necessary accurate
values of within the programme itself. Alternatively,
an average global value for the ratio r 5 / l of about
0.35 can be used as a convenient approximation.
There is no simple way of circumventing the intervention required at (b).

4
FX
FY

Soil reaction F(kN)

=0

FZ

=30
2

=0

=30
0

=30
=0

7. Discussion

40

DS (kPa)

=0
30

=30
20
15
50

100

150

200

250

300

d(mm)

Fig. 7. Simulated y ariable depth characteristics of a concay e

disc working a loam soil at a fixed disc angle of l 5 40 8.
Disc: R 5 300 mm , S 5 600 mm. Soil: c 5 5 kPa , w 5 35 8 ,
d 5 24 .5 8 , g 5 12.5 kN / m 3

6.4. Dey elopment of software

The calculation steps used in the worked example,
set out in some detail in Section 2, can be used to
develop a computer programme of the model in any
chosen computer language. The example is carefully
structured so that the equations, which are set out in
full at the head of each calculation step, can be
converted into appropriate code. A programme, developed on this basis, would require operator intervention at the following two points.
(a) Section 3.7. Values are required for the angle
made by the quasi-symmetrical planes with the
direction of translation (XY plane) for the concave zone and, where appropriate, for the convex
zone. The data required for this exercise are set
out in Fig. 6 in Hettiaratchi.5 The necessary
interpolations have to be carried out for values of
aQCC and aQCV, both of which are known at this
stage of the computation.
(b) Section 3.8. Three K factor values for Kg, Kca and
Kq are required for the concave zone and, where

The simulations set out in Figs 4 7 provide some

useful design pointers. It is clear from Fig. 6 that the
specific draught DS is relatively insensitive to the disc
angle l and becomes somewhat sensitive to the tilt
angle m only when operating in a frictional soil.
Referring to Figs 4 and 5 , the optimum angular
alignment of a disc for reducing draught forces is to
set the disc angle as close to the scrubbing limit lS as
possible. It can be seen that the tilt angle m does not
influence the draught component very much at this
setting of the disc angle. However, the tilt angle has a
profound influence on the vertical force component FZ
and we can maximize the penetration forces required
to keep the disc in the ground by increasing the tilt
angle as much as possible.
It will also be seen from Figs 4 and 5 that the side
force FY peaks at the above settings for l and m ,
which were chosen to minimise draught and maximise
penetration. Unavoidably, this force, which acts towards
the disc concavity, has to be carried either by the disc
supporting system, as in a disc plough, or by using
opposite throws in the disc angle, which is an arrangement used in disc harrows.
The simulation also shows that there is a considerable disadvantage in allowing the disc angle to
encroach into the scrubbing range. The specific
draught and the draught and suction forces increase
rapidly as the disc angle is increased beyond the
scrubbing limit. The only beneficiary, at this setting, is
the side thrust, which is partly taken up by the
scrubbing zone reaction. A somewhat risky design
strategy would be to encourage a little scrubbing
action to stabilise the side thrust without at the same
time overtly increasing the draught force too much
and interfering with the penetrating force of the disc.
It will be seen from Fig. 7 that, for a given disc

SOIL REACTIONS ON CONCAVE AGRICULTURAL DISCS

angle, draught force is particularly sensitive to furrow

depth and tilt angle. In contrast both working depth
and tilt angle have only a minimal effect on specific
draught. This effect has been employed to develop an
approximate method for predicting the draught of
discs.13 The diagrams also show that draught increases
with depth much more rapidly for a vertical disc than
for one having a tilt angle. As discussed earlier tilt
angle improves disc penetration and hence for a
specified depth of cut it is advantageous to provide the
disc with a tilt angle.

7. Conclusions
The overall performance of the theoretical model
investigated in this paper shows that it can be used to
provide useful quantitative estimates of the forces
generated by a Mohr-Coulomb soil on concave agricultural discs set at the commonly encountered
angular configurations and depth of cut. It is important to recognise that the numerical values obtained
from this model are essentially order of magnitude
solutions to a complex modelling problem. Practical
experience leads us to accept, without difficulty, the
validity of modelling the soil strength properties in
terms of the Mohr-Coulomb parameters. In contrast
the representation of the complex curved contact
surfaces between the disc and the soil by plane areas is
not founded either on any theoretical grounds or on
extensive practical experience. The fact that these
equivalent cutting surfaces operate with appreciable
skew angles has been an added complication.
In spite of these difficulties the model has been
shown to be a useful device for investigating the way
the theoretical soil reactions on a typical disc cutting
tool changes both with its setting and the soil type it is
working. The simulation capability provides a flexible
and practical approach for understanding the behaviour of such soil working elements operating under
a wide range of field conditions. It is hoped that this

75

facility would provide a rapid route for making initial

design decisions on the selection of disc parameters to
carry out a particular soil cutting task.

References
1

10

11

12

13

ODogherty M J; Godwin R J; Hann M J; Al-Ghazal A

A A geometrical analysis of inclined and tilted spherical plough discs. 1996 Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 63, 205 218
Hettiaratchi D R P The soil contact zones of concave
agricultural discs: Part 1, Theoretical analysis. Journal
of Agricultural Engineering Research, 1997, 67, 113
125
Hettiaratchi D R P The soil contact zones of concave
agricultural discs: Part 2, Calculation procedure. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 1997, 67,
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Godwin R J; Seig D A; Allott M Soil failure and force
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Hettiaratchi D R P Prediction of soil forces acting on
concave agricultural discs. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 1997, 51 62
Sokolovski V V Statics of Soil Media. London: Butterworths Scientific Publications, 1960
Reece A R; Hettiaratchi D R P A slip-line method for
estimating passive earth pressure. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 1989, 42, 27 41
Hettiaratchi D R P; Reece A R The calculation of
passive soil resistance. Ge otechnique 1974, 24, 289 310
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geometric parameters on disk forces. American Society
of Agricultural Engineers, Winter Meeting, Chicago
1978, Paper No. 78 1535
Reaves C A; Gill W R; Bailey A C Influence of width
and depth of cut on disk forces. Transactions of the
ASAE, 1981, 572 578
Gill W R; Reaves C A; Bailey A C The influence of
harrow disk curvature on forces. Transaction of the
ASCE, 1981, 579 583
Alam M M Soil reaction forces on agricultural disc
implements PhD Thesis 1989, University of Newcastle
upon Tyne
Hettiaratchi D R P Predicting the draught requirements
of concave agricultural discs. Journal of Terramechanics, 1997 (in press)