Professional Documents
Culture Documents
doi:10.1006/jare.2002.1101
Joseph E. Mbaiwa*
Harry Oppenheimer Okavango Research Centre, University of Botswana,
Private Bag 285, Maun, Botswana
(Received 22 July 2002)
The Okavango Delta is one of Botswanas leading tourist destination areas,
mainly because of the rich wildlife resources it sustains and its scenic beauty.
Tourism has stimulated the development of a variety of allied infrastructure
and facilities, such as hotels, lodges and camps, airport and airstrips, in the
Okavango region. Through its backward linkages, wholesale and retail
businesses have also been established, especially in Maun, to offer various
goods to the tourist industry. Tarred roads and other communication
facilities have also been developed in Ngamiland District partly to facilitate
tourism development. Tourism in the Okavango Delta also provides
employment opportunities to local communities and it is a significant source
of foreign exchange for Botswana. Despite its positive socio-economic
impacts, the industry is beginning to have negative environmental impacts in
the area such as the destruction of the areas ecology through driving outside
the prescribed trails, noise pollution and poor waste management. This,
therefore, suggests that tourism in the Okavango Delta has socio-economic
and environmental impacts, issues which are addressed by this paper based
on the concept of sustainability.
# 2003 Elsevier Science Ltd.
Keywords: socio-economic and environmental impacts; tourism; enclave
tourism; community-based tourism; eco-tourism; sustainability and sustainable development
Introduction
This paper discusses the socio-economic and environmental impacts of tourism
development in the Okavango Delta located within Ngamiland District in northwestern Botswana. Because of its rich wildlife diversity and scenic beauty, the
Okavango Delta has in the past two decades attracted tourists from various countries
such as those of North America, Western Europe, Australia, New Zealand and South
Africa. The growth of tourism in the Okavango Delta has also resulted in the
establishment of tourist facilities in the area. Tourism in the Okavango Delta is
characterized by both consumptive and non-consumptive wildlife uses. As a result,
significant tourist activities in the delta include safari hunting, game viewing, walking
*Corresponding author. Fax: +267-661-835. E-mail: mbaiwaje@hotmail.com
0140-1963/03/020447 + 21 $30.00/0
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J. E. MBAIWA
trails, dug-in canoe or mekoro safaris and several other photographic tourist activities.
The nature of tourism development in destination areas such as the Okavango Delta
(a natural wetland) make it have socio-economic and environmental impacts, an
aspect that this study aims at addressing. These issues are assessed based on the
concept of sustainability, which is anchored on the three main principles of social
equity, economic efficiency, and ecological sustainability.
Generally, it is difficult to accurately quantify tourism, it is arguably, the worlds
largest industry, accounting for about 5?5% of the worlds Gross National Product and
6% of the employment, and it is growing fast (Glasson et al. 1995). Most governments
encourage the growth of tourism in their respective countries in order to support
economic development. For poor countries, regions, towns and cities, tourism is seen
as the fast track to development. Hall (1995) states that the main reason why
governments, particularly in developing countries encourage tourism investment is
because of the expectations that it will contribute to economic development. It is also
argued that tourism should be seen as a means of development in a broader sense (see,
for example, Krapf, 1961; Kaiser & Helber, 1978; Mathieson & Wall, 1982; Murphy,
1985; McIntosh et al.,1995; Wahab & Pigram, 1997; Cooper et al., 1998). These
analysts describe the broader sense of tourism to mean the potential of the industry to
have direct socio-economic impacts on destination regions. This issue is made more
clear by Binns (1995), who states that development should not only refer to economic
matters but should encompass social, economic, environmental and ethical
considerations such that its measurement may incorporate indicators of poverty,
unemployment, inequality and self-reliance. Carter (1991) notes that there is a
cumulative relationship between tourism development, the environment and socioeconomic development. This means that if tourism is to contribute to sustainable
development, then it must be economically viable, ecologically sensitive and culturally
appropriate (Wall, 1997). This suggests that an economic initiative such as tourism
should be based on the idea that economic development should conform to the
concept of sustainable development. The basic principle of this concept is that of
intergenerational equity, which says that our development is sustainable only to the
extent that we can meet our needs today without prejudice to those of the future
generations. Therefore, the present generation should leave for the next generation, a
stock of a quality of life assets no less than those we have inherited (Pearce et al.,
1989). The main thrust of the concept of sustainable development is the utilization
and management of renewable resources for the benefit of todays generations and at
the same time making the same resources available for future generations (WCED,
1987). However, Chambers (1986) state that sustainable development appears to be
the terminology of managers, and is not as yet, the terminology of the managed. As a
result, in many parts of the world, the growing numbers of poor people have inevitably
led to the degradation of the environment each day just to make ends meet. This
suggests that the development of tourism in environments such as those of the
Okavango Delta should be designed such that it does not lead to an environmental
trade-off but to an improved environmental and human welfare. It must give priority
to the livelihoods of the poor (Redclift, 1987; WCED, 1987).
Despite the positive assumptions of the concept of sustainable development, there
are those who feel that sustainable development involves contradictory goals (e.g.
Redclift, 1987; Arnold, 1989; Lele, 1991; Warren, 1996), but in spite of this, it has
come to be generally accepted that real development cannot be achieved unless the
strategies are sustainable and consistent with social values and institutions. Related to
the issue of sustainability in tourism development, is the new concept of eco-tourism.
Ceballos-Lascurain (1996) states that eco-tourism is a type of tourism that promotes
conservation, has low visitor impact, provides for beneficially active socio-economic
involvement of local populations and promotes visitor awareness in environmental
conservation. According to Carter (1991), green or eco-tourism focuses on the need
449
450
J. E. MBAIWA
1995
1996
1997
1998
Botswana
Arrivals (000)
Share in Africa (%)
Receipts (%)
644
3?2
2?2
707
3?2
2?1
734
3?2
2?0
740
3?0
1?9
Namibia
Arrivals (000)
Share in Africa (%)
Receipts (%)
399
2?0
3?8
405
1?9
3?4
502
2?2
3?7
510
2?0
3?5
South Africa
Arrivals (000)
Share in Africa (%)
Receipts (%)
4488
22?0
21?7
4944
22?7
22?8
5437
23?5
25?5
5981
24?0
24?8
Zimbabwe
Arrivals (000)
Share in Africa (%)
Receipts (%)
1539
7?6
1?8
1746
8?0
1?8
1495
6?5
1?9
1600
6?4
1?7
Okavango region in recent past implies that the area is bound to have socio-economic
and environmental impacts resulting from tourism activities.
451
Table 2. Types of Fees tourists paid at Moremi Game Reserve, 1998 and 1999 (in Pula)
4564
7776
12340
2157
4241
6398
PARRO
(Camping)
Total
475,796
508,095
983,891
4,373,452
4,175,012
8,548,464
Type of fee
Landing fees
Parking fees
Temporary air service permit
Passenger service fee
En route charges
Other
170,107?00
6,353?00
44,380?00
69,743?00
205,310?60
71,977?40
Totals
567,871?00
government from the tourism sector includes import duties, taxes (income and sales
tax) and licence fees.
In addition to the various taxes paid to government by tour operators, revenue is
also collected from tourists visiting protected areas and is in the form of user fees.
Revenue collected from Botswanas protected areas increased from P5,835,051 in
1995 to P9,280,987 in 1999. Much of this revenue was collected from the northern
parks of Chobe National Park and Moremi Game Reserve which are located in the
area due to the influence of the Okavango Delta. The Chobe National Park in 1999
generated P4,492,505 while Moremi Game Reserve generated P4,175,048 (DWNP,
2000). Out of Botswanas nine protected areas, Moremi Game Reserve is the second
largest in terms of revenue generation after Chobe National Park. As shown in
Table 2, some of the user fees charged in protected areas include park entry fees,
vehicles, camping, boats and aircraft fees.
Maun international Airport, which is the main airport used by tourist who visit the
Okavango Delta has also become a major source of government revenue in Ngamiland
District. Table 3 shows that in 2000, the Department of Civil Aviation (DCA)
collected P567,871 from the various fees charged to passengers, aircrafts and tour
operators for using airport facilities.
The economic contribution of the tourism sector to the national economy shows
that the sector provides the potential of diversifying Botswanas economy and reduce
its dependence on diamonds. At present, diamond exports and revenue earned from
mining leases and taxes accounts for over 50% of government revenue (Government
of Botswana, 1997). The role that tourism development in the Okavango Delta play
also shows that the sector is an important economic activity not only in the Okavango
but in Botswana as a whole.
At a micro-economic level, the development of the tourism in the Okavango has led
to the establishment of community-based tourism initiatives which have resulted in
income generation and employment of the local people. Local communities in the
Okavango have been allocated land by the Tawana Land Board on which through joint
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J. E. MBAIWA
venture partnerships with tour operators have been able to generate revenue for
themselves through hunting and photographic tourism activities. Table 4 shows some
of the community-based organizations (CBOs), type of tourism activities they are
engaged in and the amount of revenue that each community has managed to generate
on annual basis ever since inception of the projects in their respective community
areas.
Although the idea for adopting community-based tourism was purely based on
achieving conservation needs, it has become one of the main employment and revenue
earners for the people of Ngamiland District. Community-based tourism is built upon
the ideals of Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) which
was adopted to halt the decline and degradation of natural resources through the
involvement and participation of local communities in resource management (Ashley,
1995). CBNRM assumes that once local communities obtain benefits from natural
resources around them, especially from wildlife resources, they are likely to use them
sustainably (Mbaiwa, 1999).
While it has been possible to involve local communities in the tourism business and
that some of the revenue have been accrued to them, indications are that most of the
community tourist projects are performing poorly. There is no meaningful reinvestment of the tourism revenue into other tourist projects. This is mainly a result of
lack of entrepreneurship and marketing skills in the tourism business and that the
concept of CBNRM is still new and generally lack understanding amongst the various
communities (Mbaiwa, 1999). Informal interviews with CBO Board members in the
Okavango Delta pointed out that benefits (e.g. revenue) that local communities obtain
from community-based tourism are insignificant when compared to those obtained by
the private tour operators or by government. For example, local communities sell a
single elephant to a safari operator at P40,000 (US$ 8000), the same elephant is sold
to an overseas safari hunter by the operator at US$ 80,000 (P400,000). This means
tourism in the Okavango Delta does not have substantial and meaningful economic
benefits to the local people, hence its sustainability in terms of socio-economic
benefits becomes questionable.
Impacts on employment
The primary concern with tourism in the Okavango is its potential to create
employment for the people of Ngamiland District. The extent at which employment is
created is influenced by the degree of linkages between tourism and other sectors of
the economy. Tourism in the Okavango Delta has influenced the establishment of
tourist facilities such as camps, lodges, transport, wholesale and retail industries in the
region. In a sample of 30 safari camps and lodges in the Okavango Delta carried out in
March 2001, there were 923 people employed. A similar study conducted at the same
time but on different camps and lodges revealed that 735 people were employed in 20
camps and lodges in the Okavango Delta (Scout Wilson, 2001). This suggests that in a
total of 50 tourist camps and lodges, there were 1658 people employed in 2001. In
Maun, about 727 people were employed in 35 tourism-related businesses such as
wholesales and retail businesses in the same period. However, the BTDP (1999) states
that in 1997, the total number of formal jobs generated by the tourism sector in the
whole country was 9900, which is about 4?5% of the total employment in Botswana.
BOB (1999) states that this figure is an underestimate and puts the figure at 10,015
people which is also supported by the 1995/96 Labour Force Survey (CSO, 1998).
The number of people supported (e.g. financially) by people employed in tourismrelated activities such as hotels, airlines, safari companies, handcrafts and transport in
Botswana is estimated at 27,000 people (Government of Botswana, 1997). This is
about 2?1% of Botswanas population of 1.3 million people.
Village(s) involved
Tourism activity
Sankuyo Tshwaragano
Management Trust
(STMT)
Sankuyo
Okavango Community
Trust (OCT)
Seronga, Eretsha,
Gunotsoga, Beetsha,
Gudigwa
Mababe
Khwai Development
Trust(KDT)
Cgaecgae Tlhabologo
Trust (CTT)
Khwai
Cgaecgae
Amount
% Increase
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2000
285,000
285,000
345,000
562,800
595,000
446,000
468,050
625,650
652,340
686,240
675,000
F
0
21?1
63?1
5?7
F
4?9
33?7
4?3
5?2
F
1998
1999
2000
2000
680,000
710,000
1,100,000
954,000
F
4?4
54?9
F
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
70,750
105,000
315,000
420,336
430,336
48?4
200?2
33?4
2?4
Table 4. Community-based tourism organizations in Ngamiland district and annual revenue generated in Pula
453
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J. E. MBAIWA
455
(i) The road network in northern Botswana. Northern Botswana was prior to the
1990s, very much inaccessible, tarred roads were virtually non-existent. The situation
gradually changed in the 1990s as government began to realize that tourism in northwestern Botswana has the potential of significantly contributing to the economy of the
country. Infrastructure development such as the construction of tarred roads to
facilitate the tourism industry in the Okavango and Chobe regions in northern
Botswana became one of the major government pre-occupation. Tarred roads such as
the 505 km road linking Francistown and Kasane were constructed during this period.
The FrancistownKasane road is important in that it provides a link between
Botswanas Chobe National Park and the Okavango Delta with Namibias Caprivi
Strip and Zimbabwes Victoria Falls. As a result, it is easier for tourist to drive from
South Africa passing through Francistown to visit the Okavango Delta and the
Victoria Falls. Other tarred roads completed after the 1990s include the 304 km Nata
Maun road completed in 1992. The NataMaun road is important in that it also
provides a link between Maun and Francistown, most of the supplies for the wholesale
and retail sectors are provided through this link (most of the tourism supplies in the
delta are provided from Maun).
The MaunMohembo road covers about 500 km and was completed in 1995. This
road provides a link between north-western Botswana and northern Namibia. The
200 km SehitwaGhanzi road that provides a link between Maun and Namibia
through Ghanzi and the Mamono Border Post in the west was completed in July 2000.
The total tarred road network in northern Botswana is over 2500 km. The tarred road
network in northern Botswana facilitates the easy movement of mobile and self-drive
tourists into the delta as well as promoting the quick delivery of tourist supplies to
camps and lodges in the delta. Although the road network in northern Botswana is an
important factor in the development of tourism in the Okavango, it is also important
in that it has made it possible for Ngamiland to be easily connected to the rest of the
country.
While infrastructure development such as roads is an important socio-economic
development to the Okavango region, informal interviews with tour operators and
local people in Maun indicate that the development is also associated with negative
socio-cultural impacts as well. Some of the impacts mentioned include crime,
prostitution and the western influence on local language and dress especially on young
people. Glasson et al. (1995) note that socio-cultural impacts of tourism in destination
areas are associated with changes in traditional ideas and values, norms and identities
of the local people. These changes are beginning to affect Ngamiland district, hence it
can be noted that tourism is not only carrying positive developments in the area, but
also has negative aspects, hence need to be controlled such that negative impacts are
minimal.
(ii) Maun International Airport. The development of infrastructure to promote
tourism in the Okavango Delta is also in the form of airports, such as the Maun
International Airport. The extension of the terminal and runway for Maun
International Airport was completed in May 1993. The Maun Airport play a major
role in the facilitation of tourism development in the Okavango Delta. The
improvement of the Maun Airport and air transport system in Maun has resulted in
international flights linking Maun to Johannesburg, Windhoek, Harare, Victoria Falls
and Gaborone. These links form the main air routes that are used by tourists who visit
the Okavango Delta. The Maun Airport is one of the busiest airports in Botswana and
Africa especially during tourist peak seasons. According to the Ngami Times (2001, p.
1), yMaun Airport is also regarded as the second busiest international in Africa in
terms of aircraft movements after the combined Johannesburg area (South Africa)
airports of Johannesburg International, Lanseria, Rand and Grand Central. Based on
aircraft movement data from the Maun International Airport for 2000, the airport has
an average of 256 aircrafts landing and taking off each day during the tourist peak
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J. E. MBAIWA
Description
Total movements
Percentage
Commercial
International
Domestic
Non-commercial
2846
34,666
2786
7?0
86?1
6?9
Totals
40,246
100?0
457
especially in Maun. About 83?6% of the households and 68?6% of the tourism-related
businesses in Maun acknowledge that most of the socio-economic facilities
and infrastructure development in Maun and Ngamiland are a direct result of
the influence the region gets from tourism. To these respondents, Maun is perceived
to be a tourist centre where most of the tourist offices for tourists facilities in the
delta are located and that tourist supplies for these facilities are obtained. Maun is
also the main departure centre for tourists who visit the Okavango Delta. Based
on these results, it has, therefore, been necessary for government to ensure the
provision of social facilities and improve infrastructure development in Ngamiland
District.
The wholesale and retail trade in Maun provides a variety of services to tourists
and the people of Ngamiland District. This includes various types of foods in
restaurants, spare parts in garages, petrol-filling stations and beverages in bars and
bottle stores. However, most of the products are imported from outside Botswana
especially from South Africa and Zimbabwe. For example, petroleum products used
as the main source of energy in the Okavango are imported in refined form mainly
through South Africa. Chain shops and supermarkets such as Spar, Shoprite and
Score have also been established in Maun after the 1990s to provide food suppliers to
tourist camps and lodges in the Okavango Delta. Interviews with managers of
supermarkets and chain shops in Maun indicate that most of the food supplies
especially perishables such as vegetables are either obtained from eastern Botswana in
the Tuli Block or are imported from South Africa. Dairy products used in the
Okavango region are also imported from either Namibia or South Africa. Poultry
production, especially eggs and meat are also imported either from eastern Botswana
or outside the country. This also applies to furniture shops and other related trade
centres established in Maun which also obtained their products from South Africa or
Zimbabwe. The craft industry is also not fully developed, apart from baskets, most of
the craft products are either obtained from Zimbabwe (e.g. wood cravings), South
Africa (e.g. clothing) or from other parts of Botswana such as Ghanzi and Serowe (e.g.
bushmen craft).
These findings indicate that the development of tourism in the Okavango Delta
has been unable to influence agricultural production and the manufacturing sectors.
A factor that has resulted in the industry depending on products produced elsewhere
in the country or outside Botswana. In addition to this problem, the small villages in
and around the Okavango Delta remain relatively remote characterized by the absence
of social facilities which are only found in Maun. The reliance of the tourism industry
in the Okavango Delta from products produced outside the Okavango region
especially from South Africa, Zimbabwe and Namibia indicates that it has not yet
become economically efficient, hence cannot sustain itself without outside economic
influence.
While most materials, equipments, spare parts, energy and food products used in
the tourism industry in the Okavango Delta is obtained outside the region and
country, tourism has been able to influence the established social facilities such as
international banks in Maun. Maun has three commercial banks, namely Standard
Chartered Bank, Barclays Bank and the First National Bank. The banks are
international and are equipped with modern facilities and services to enable tourists
obtain the necessary assistance they require on financial transactions while in the
country. Other services that are provided in the region include post offices which are
also equipped with modern facilities to meet the demands of tourist clients. Maun is
also connected to the national electric grid for the provision of power and the
telecommunication systems has improved in the last decade. However, while these
services are important for the promotion of the tourist sector in the region, they have
also encouraged local development in Ngamiland District and are of significant
benefit to the people of the region as well.
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J. E. MBAIWA
Ownership
Citizen owned
Jointly owned
Non-citizen owned
Totals
Totals
Safari companies
Tourism business
7 (23?3%)
10 (33?3%)
13 (43?3%)
5 (14?3%)
8 (22?9%)
22 (62?9%)
12 (18?5%)
18 (27?7%)
35 (53?8%)
30 (100?0%)
35 (100?0%)
65 (100?0%)
459
making between the local people and the tour operators. This is not in line with
sustainable development since the concept presupposes equal access and opportunities to all user groups. Glasson et al. (1995) and Ceballos-Lascurain (1996) note
that tourism should be sensitive to the needs and aspirations of the host population. It
should provide for local participation in decision-making and the employment of local
people in order to make it sustainable.
Butler (1980), Prosser (1994) and Ceballos-Lascurain (1996) note that resentment,
antagonisms and alienation often emerge between the host communities and the
foreign tourism investors if efforts are not made to include local communities in the
tourism business. The suspicions and mistrusts between the local communities and
tour operators in the Okavango Delta have since developed into another problem of
racism between the two groups. Racism in the tourism industry between the local
black population and white tour operators was confirmed to be in existence by 53?3%
of the managers and 73?1% of workers in safari camps and lodges in the delta and
60.0% of the managers and 47.6% of workers in tourism-related industries in Maun.
Racism was explained to be characterized by failure on the side of tour operators to
employ local people in top management positions, hence the assumption that
management positions in the tourism industry are reserved for expatriate workers.
Racism was also explained to be characterized by the unpleasant working conditions
for local workers in the delta (e.g. working long hours without compensations, poor
accommodation in camps, unfair dismissal of local workers and the use of abusive
language often used by employers towards local workers). This accusations were,
however, confirmed to be true by the Department of Labour, the Ngamiland District
council and by the Minister of Trade, Wildlife and Tourism.
The development of enclave tourism in the Okavango Delta is a result of the
pursuance of Botswanas Tourism Policy of 1990. The policy emphasizes the
promotion of high-costlow-volume tourism. This strategy was adopted to raise
the needed revenue for the industry to sustain itself. As a result, from 1990, there has
been a shift from encouraging casual tourist campers in favour of tourist who occupy
permanent accommodation. The policy also presumed that low volumes of tourists
are more consistent with the need to protect the environmental basis of the industry.
As a result, the Tourism Policy was implemented through targeted marketing and
imposition of high fees for the use of public facilities. High-spending tourists have as a
result been encouraged to visit the Okavango Delta while low-budget tourists are
indirectly being discouraged by the high fees charged. As Ceballos-Lascurain (1996)
notes, enclave tourism is characterized by high prices charged in tourist facilities and
services, such prices become unaffordable to the majority of the local people. In the
Okavango Delta, on average, a tourist is expected to pay 400 United States Dollars as
accommodation charge per night in a tourist camp or lodge. A 1-h flight in the
Okavango Delta costs on average about 220 US $ (Mbaiwa, 2002). These charges
make the Okavango Delta a very expensive resort area for locals to visit. This is shown
by a low figure of 8?1% of the citizens who managed to visit Moremi Game Reserve in
1999, while 91?9% of the visitors are non-citizen tourists (DWNP, 2000). Rich
foreign tourists from North America and Western Europe, therefore, mostly use the
Okavango Delta.
However, it can also be argued that the low level of Botswanas economic
development, a great deal of capital needed for tourism development and high levels
of management in the tourism sector also contribute to tourism in the Okavango Delta
being under the control of foreign investors. The exclusive nature of tourism in the
Okavango Delta has tended not to be of direct benefit to the people of Ngamiland
District. The facilities are operated with minimum commercial trading including local
agriculture and social links with existing local communities. This situation has,
therefore, made it possible for a lot of money that is paid for tours by visitors to never
arrive in the Okavango or Botswana, since bookings is mostly done outside Botswana
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J. E. MBAIWA
Environmental impacts
According to Butler (1980), Prosser (1994), Ceballos-Lascurain (1996) and Glasson
et al. (1995), tourism contains the seeds of its own destruction, tourism can kill
tourism, destroying the very environmental attractions which visitors come to a
location to experience. Most tourism development places additional pressure on the
environmental resources upon which it is based, compromising the future prospects of
the local population and, indeed, the expectations of tourists themselves (Carter,
1991). Glasson et al. state that tourism is, by its very nature, an agent of change. Some
of the impacts of change may be controlled, regulated or directed. If properly
managed, tourism has the potential of being a renewable industry, where resource
integrity is maintained or even enhanced. If mismanaged, or allowed to expand within
short-term goals and objectives, it has the capability of destroying the very resources
upon which it is built. Carter (1991) notes that the concept of sustainable
development is thus important to tourism development since the destruction of
tourism resources for the short-term gain will deny the benefits to be gained from
mobilization of those resources in the future.
Based on secondary data and through observations and informal interviews with key
players, the development of tourism in the Okavango Delta was found to have negative
environmental impacts to the wetland (these impacts were found to be at a small
scale). Some of the negative environmental impacts identified include the following:
(i) creation of illegal roads in protected areas. The high numbers of tourists in the
Okavango Delta create problems of efficient monitoring of tourist activities by
government officials especially from the Department of Wildlife and National Parks
and Department of Tourism. This has resulted in the creation of illegal roads by
461
tourist vehicles in some environmental sensitive areas such as the Xakanaxa. The
creation of illegal roads affects vegetation and reduces the scenic beauty of the
Okavango. Roodt (1998) states that there are 178 tourist vehicles that use
the Xakanaxa area every day in the tourist peak season. However, the number might
be more if other additional vehicles are taken into consideration. This includes supply
trucks, official vehicles, research and filming vehicles. She states in page 6 The actual
number is closer to 250 or more vehicles per day during the busy seasony I have
personally counted 63 vehicles in the Xakanaxa camping sitey. Apart from the
overutilization and creation of illegal roads by tourist vehicles in the Xakanaxa area,
they are also a source of noise pollution and a disturbance to the wildlife of the area.
The Department of Tourism, DOT (2000), states that overutilization of certain zones
in conserved areas occur when such zones are used by all the tourist groups
particularly in high tourism seasons. The DOT further notes that this occur in the
Xakanaxa area in Moremi Game Reserve. The creation of illegal roads is exacerbated
by the fact that tourist camps and lodges are generally concentrated within small areas
in various parts of the delta. The DOT also notes that the concentration of tourist
facilities in the western part of the Xakanaxa triangle means that the various categories
of tourist outlined before are mostly concentrated in a narrow street of the reserve
between Xakanaxa and Third Bridge. The concentration of camps and lodges with a
small radius indicates failure by government to diverse a proper management plan for
tourism development in which the radius between each facility is determined based on
ecological impacts of such facilities in the Okavango Delta. The creation of many
illegal roads and trails also indicates failure by government to implement the countrys
rules and regulations in controlling tourist traffic and numbers in environmental
sensitive and protected areas.
(ii) Noise pollution. Noise pollution from engine boats, small engine aircrafts, road
vehicles and tourists is also a problem in the Okavango Delta. The noise is disturbing
to hippo populations, nesting birds and other wildlife species in the delta. Roodt
(1998) notes that 10 years ago when there were fewer boats in the Xakanaxa area, the
islands in the fringes of the Xakanaxa lagoon were favourite nesting spots but today
only a few birds nest in the lagoon area. Roodt further states that the increase in boat
traffic in the Gedikwe/Xhobega area has already shown a decreasing effect on the
numbers of nesting sites over the last 7 years.
The influx of tour operators in the delta has simultaneously led to an increase in the
number of small engine airplanes and establishment of airstrips in the delta. Airstrips
have a number of small engine aircraft landing and taking off time and again, hence
they are a source of noise pollution which alarm the animal and bird life. Aircraft are
used to carry supplies and tourists on guided tours around the delta. There are about
23 privately owned airfields in and around the Okavango Delta registered with the
Department of Civil Aviation. In addition to the 23 privately owned airstrips in and
around the Okavango Delta, government has seven airstrips in the area, this excludes
those owned by the Botswana Defence Force. Interviews with the Department of Civil
Aviation (DCA) in Maun indicate that some of the airstrips in the Okavango Delta are
crowded and did not necessarily warranted their construction. However, the DCA
notes that the problem was created by the zonation of the delta into concession areas
which were each allocated to different concessionaires who prefer separate and
individual airstrips than on sharing with neighbours. In addition to the problem of
crowded airstrips in the Okavango Delta, it has already been noted that there are
roughly eight privately owned air companies with a total of 44 small engine aircraft
operating in the Okavango Delta. The presence of too many aircrafts in the Okavango
Delta which in most cases fly at very low altitude cause a disturbance to the wild
animals and nesting birds.
Noise pollution by small engine aircraft is also related to that caused by engine boats
in the area. Roodt (1998) states that a total of 32 power boats of which 26 belong to
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safari operators and six to government officials are currently licensed to use the
Xakanaxa area. The fast movement of engine boats creates waves which disturb
nesting birds, mammals and reptiles which live in water. Crocodiles and hippos seek
undisturbed areas and the presence of too many engine boats in the Okavango Delta
disturbs these species. Roodt (1998) states that hippos, which were in large numbers 7
years ago, have already moved out in to the Xanaxanaxa lagoon. The disturbance of
the animal habitats negatively impacts on the wildlife numbers of the delta. The
breaking of eggs by birds as noise disturbs them means the species decline in numbers
in the long run.
While impacts of boats at Xakanaxa show the effects of tourism in the lower parts of
the Okavango Delta, in the upper parts, that is, in the panhandle, engine boats are also
causing noise pollution (NRP, 2001). The boat traffic in the area amounts to 15 20
boats that passes a day in most parts of the river. There is an estimated 111 engine
boats owned by the various tour operators in the area (NRP, 2001). According to
Matthews (1982) and NRP (2001), noise pollution by motor boats and by people can
disturb waterfowl, leading to higher infantile death rates in sensitive populations.
However, Gall (1995) notes that waterfowls in the Okavango Panhandle are not only
disturbed by the wakes and noise from motor boats but also by the frequency of other
more general boating and tourism-related activities. For example, the fishermen in the
panhandle area note that boat noise is disturbing fish at nesting sites (NRP, 2001).
The problem of noise pollution in the Okavango Delta also shows poor planning or
failure to implement existing management plans by the government. The crowding of
tourist facilities and the noise pollution generated in these areas suggest that Okavango
Delta is likely to be environmentally degraded in the near future if measures are not
taken to address the problem.
(iii) Impacts on the sanitation system and water resources. Littering especially
plastic bags, pieces of paper, cans and bottles are a common sight along the roads
and on campsites in the Okavango Delta. The high volume of tourists visiting the
Okavango Delta has reached levels where the amount of garbage generated has
increased and is beginning to negatively impact on the delta environment (Masundire
et al., 1998; DOT, 2000). The problem of waste is characterized by failure to dispose
domestic waste following proper waste-disposal procedures in tourist camps. The
DOT (2000) states that the large number of tourism enterprises licenses that have
been issued for mobile safari operators results in most of the mobile operators
sites permanently occupied and solidly booked. This has led to mobile operators
spilling over to public campsites, and occupying these sites with many people than
permitted thus exceeding carrying capacities and design capabilities of ablution
blocks. This, therefore, negatively impacts the sanitation systems and the environment
in the area.
The proliferation of tourist camps in the Okavango Delta, each with its septic tank
for wastewater collection, is likely to increase the potential for ground-water pollution.
Septic tanks for human waste are not constructed following any environmental
standards, and in some camps such tanks do not exist except for the pit latrines.
McCarthy et al. (1994) state that many tourist camps in the Okavango Delta rely on
borehole water to supply camp needs, and moreover discharge waste and sewage
effluent into the ground-water. This situation creates the potential for contamination
of drinking water supplies. The water table in the Okavango Delta is high and the soils
are sandy with a high permeability. Pollutants can thus travel much greater distances
into the soils. According to McCarthy et al. (1994), the water table in the Okavango
Delta is usually less than 1 m below the surface during flood seasons; as a result,
discharge of effluent into ground-water is unavoidable. NRP (2000) states that bluegreen algae (Microcystis sp.) have been recorded in the Okavango system, and these
can be toxic under bloom conditions. The report further notes that the potential for
ground-water contamination with nitrate from septic tank drainage in areas where
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obtain meaningful benefits from the tourism business. As mentioned earlier, issues of
local empowerment especially the provision of entrepreneurship skills and the control
of tourism resources in the Okavango Delta need to be given priority. While lack of
skills amongst the local people to manage large-scale tourism businesses remains a
problem, efforts should be directed towards advising local communities to come up
with tourist projects that use locally available knowledge, skills and materials. These
projects can include leatherworks, curio shops, campsites, community tour operations, cultural tourist activities that may involve provision of traditional accommodation, traditional dishes, music, dances, walking and boat (mokoro) safaris. This means
that local communities can benefit from the booming tourist industry in the
Okavango Delta if they engage in small-scale and simple projects that match their
capabilities and require local skills and knowledge. Britton & Clarke (1987) note that
small-scale projects, locally controlled, can have a significant impact on raising living
standards of the local people. Carter (1991) states that large-scale tourism
development is often the precursor to small-scale development. This suggests that
as tourism development proceeds, indigenous firms and locals gain knowledge and
experience in the tourism business. Carter also notes that government planners should
co-ordinate investment infrastructure with the needs of small-scale entrepreneurs and
the needs of local communities, paying careful attention to the environmental
component. This approach if adopted has the potential of making tourism
development in the Okavango Delta socially, economically and environmentally
sustainable.
The tourism industry in the Okavango Delta is such that it is predominately
foreign owned, hence can be described as enclave tourism or internal
colonialism. There are socio-economic and environmental problems associated with
enclave tourism. This includes a tendency by operators to desire to maximize
profit within a short period of time even at an environmental cost (Butler, 1980;
Carter, 1991; Prosser, 1994). However, once the resources are depleted, tour
operators and tourist usually re-locate elsewhere where there is a tourism boom and
the cycle starts all over again (Butler, 1980; Prosser, 1994). Ecological sustainability
thus becomes vital to avoid the negative environmental impacts of tourism in
destination areas such as the Okavango Delta. Ecological sustainability stresses the
need to preserve the integrity of ecological subsystems viewed as critical for the overall
stability of the global ecosystem. Ecological sustainability stress that the use of
renewable natural resources should not be faster than the rate at which the
natural process renews them (Serageldin, 1993). The establishment of tourist
infrastructure such as camps and lodges in the Okavango Delta is such that they are
crowded in specific areas. This has resulted in tourists and tourist activities having
negative environmental impacts such as the creation of illegal roads and noise
pollution. These impacts suggest that carrying capacities of tourism infrastructure
and of tourists as well as their activities should be controlled to avoid the
environmental degradation of the wetland. This can be possible through the
implementation of existing management plans and efforts being made to come up
with a comprehensive land use and integrated management plan for the Okavango
Delta. This management plan should be designed such that the use of tourism
resources in the Okavango Delta benefits the present generations while at the same
time not jeopardizing chances of future generations to benefit from the same
resources. As the Okavango Delta does not have an integrated management plan, thus
carrying capacity levels are often exceeded by tourist activities in some areas (DOT,
2000). An integrated land-use policy should therefore ensure that the carrying
capacity levels of tourist activities are not exceeded. In coming up with such a policy
all stakeholders especially local people should be involved in policy formulation,
implementation and monitoring for it to be effective and to ensure the sustainability of
tourism in the Okavango Delta.
465
My sincere gratitude to the University of Botswanas Research and Publications Committee for
having funded this study. My gratitude also goes to Mr Moseki Motsholapheko (Social Science
Technician) at the Harry Oppenhiemer Okavango Research Centre (University of Botswana) for
the role he played in this study. He was involved in data collection, data entry as well as driving
in the harsh Okavango Delta environment. Lastly, many thanks to the numerous respondents
we interviewed, this study was partly possible because of the valuable information they
provided.
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