5 GUIDE NO. 2. THE DESIGN OF BRICKWORK RETAINING WALLS eo IC FEng FICE FiStructE FiCeram MCons E ees el oe —— ———— >‘Accommodation works for a road widening scheme ina General Improvement Area involved the provision of new car parking bays to serve existing houses, located ata level of some 4m or 5m above the carriageway. Retaining walls approximately 3m high were required and pocket reinforced brick retaining walls offered the following advantages: Simplicity of design Ease of construction Economy of construction and material Versatility of size and form Attractive appearance without secondary decoration or surface treatment Robustness The design and supervision of construction were undertaken by W AJ Sketch, BSc, CEng, FICE. FIHT, County Engineer, Bucks County Council ‘The General Improvement Area project was undertaken by Wycombe District Council 1. General shot of Phase 1 walls with parking bays. Steps between, lead up to the houses. 2. Example of 3 car bays showing retaining wall. 3. Construction of wall 13 bricks thick with pockets on rear face to accommodate reinforcing bars, anchored into concrete foundations at 900mm centres, (maximum) - irregulanty of pockets is intentional to improve eying of infill concrete grout. 4, Completed wall - pockets cleaned out Preparatory to grouting. 5. Temporary shuttering placed against pockets and strutted, 6. Shuttering struck after infill concrete has fully matured. Usually super plasticised, pea gravel, high slump infill concrete is used — (885628: Part 2). 5 7. Back of wall primed with bituminous emulsion. 8. Selfadhesive damp proof membrane. ‘Note land drain at base of wall 9. Completed retaining wall after back filing.CONTENTS Editor: J, Morton BSc Ph.D. CEng MICE MiCeram MCIM First published August 1977 Revised edition February 1979 Reprinted August 1981 Revised Edition September 1991 10 INTRODUCTION 20 ‘TYPES OF BRICKWORK RETAINING WALLS 2A Mass 22 Grouted Cavity 23 Pocket 24 Special bonds 30 DESIGN OF BRICKWORK RETAINING WALLS 34 Derivation of lateral loads 32 Overall stability 33 Permissible stress design 331 Mass brickwork retaining walls 332 Reinforced brickwork retaining walls 333 Examples 34 Limit state design 344 Principles 342 ‘Mass brickwork retaining walls 343 Reinforced brickwork retaining walls 3.44 Examples 40 DETAILS OF CONSTRUCTION 4A Durability 42 Reinforced walls 43 ‘Movement joints 44 Construction 44a Grouted cavity 442 Quetta bond 443 Pocket-type 5.0 ECONOMY OF BRICKWORK RETAINING WALLS 60 ‘ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 70 REFERENCESra DT EDITOR'S NOTE The 1991 revision of this design guide is similar tothe 1981 edition. The opportunity has been taken during the revision to update the publication with respect to changes in the Building Regulations, and with respect to the publication BS5628Part 2 in 1985. Similarly, a fuller treatment is given to soil mechanics aspects in this edition. While the answers obtained from this design guide should be broadly similar to answers obtained using the previous edition, the method of calculation presented here complies with the recommendations of BS5628Part 2 (see Introduction for further comments). Research has indicated that values of the characteristic flexural strength of brickwork given in Table 3 of BS5628 Part 1 may be too high for walls of 215 mm thickness or greater. ‘Atthe time of going to press, it was understood that an amendment tothe Code ‘was being considered in the light of a paper by RLovegrove “The effect of thickness and bond pattem upon the lateral strength of brickwork”, in Proc. Brit. Mas. Soc. 2, 95, April 1988. Readers are referred to this, High Lift Grouted Cavity Construction Top Grouted cavity wall ready for ining. Note wall tes to BS5628:Part 2, Appendix B. Middle Boarding guide for placing infill concrete sheeting to avoid splashing and staining of fair faced brickwork Lower Compaction of infill concrete with vibrator.SYMBOLS Poorepp> — plan cross-section area of wall — cross-section area of reinforcement — cross-sectional area of reinforcement resisting shear forces — lever arm factor — length of wall under consideration, usually 1.0m (width of section) — total compressive force — cohesion — shear strength (cohesion) at zero normal load — effective depth: limit state design — effective depth of reinforcement: permissible stress design = eccentricity ~ forces due to prsete — frictional force under base ~ characteristic anchorage bond strength between mortar or concrete infill and reinforcement — characteristic compressive strength of brickwork. — characteristic flexural strength of brickwork — characteristic shear strength of brickwork characteristic tensile strength of reinforcement — acceleration due to gravity — height of retaining wall — overall depth of toe to base — depth of water table surface below top of wall active ground pressure coefficient — active ground coefficient for cohesive soils ~ coefficient of passive resistance of soils possessing friction ~ coefficient of passive resistance of soils possessing cohesion — length of retaining wall base — applied bending moment: permissible stress design design bending moment: limit state design — design moment of resistance - limit state design — moment of resistance - permissible stress design = modular ratio — depth of neutral axis: permissible stress design — total active lateral load on retaining wall — lateral load due to active earth pressure — lateral load due to passive earth pressure — lateral load due to water pressure = Afod — combined ground pressures — horizontal component of active earth pressure — permissible compressive strength of brickwork in flexure — permissible compressive strength of brickwork in direct compression — passive earth pressure — permissible tensile stress in reinforcement» Pe MNM HX e< Fate \ sda cosy ‘oso ‘Top: grouted cavity wall hat 100 ee Toh WR dy = 3275 + 22 37.5mm sommaers ‘secant omen {L) - CBetoetcata dy = 440 - 40 - 10 = 390mm 215mm 12m Fw24 = sign? 40m we lf: po A) ees Kat Fiowe25 To obtain the area of reinforcement: From Table 5, a; = 0.908 Hence, for grouted cavity wall * 55.2 x 10° “ o97 x 3775 x21 ~ 7OSmm’/m and for pocket wall 58.2 x 10° “O91 x 390x210” “*mmvm Grouted cavity wall; use 12mm diameter bars at 100mm centres, to give the minimum area of reinforcement, see Section 4.2. Pocket wall; use pockets at 900mm centres each reinforced with 4 x 16mm diameter bars. Choosing a grouted cavity wall; Shear force on wall = 41.4 kN/m 44 x 10" therefore, shear stress = St ST = 0.08 N/mmé Permissible shear stress = 0.1 N/mm?, This exceeds the actual stress and, is therefore, satisfactory. Note, had a pocket wall been chosen, it would have been necessary to increase the thickness of the wall at the bottom to reduce the actual shear stress to the permis. sible value ~see Example 3.Design of Base Assume base to be 350mm deep and length of toe to be 1.0m, Resistance to sliding: 0.33 x 9.81 x 1600 Sar en ao N om w= 1600 x 4.0 x Ly x 981 ab = 628L kW/m 2000 x 40 x 053 x 9.81 eo = 416 kN/m W, = 1.0 x 035 x 24 W, = 035 x24xL, =_84LKN/m Total W TAZLKN/m + 500kN/m ‘As base isin situ, coefficient of friction = tano = 057 Force causing sliding, P,, = 49 kN/m Thus, equating the resisting force to the lateral force, multiplied by a factor of safety of 2.0 and solving for L,: 49x20 Hence, L, = 84kN/m (7121, + 50.0)0.57 L7im, say 1.75m Resistance to overturning: 188m 7m 36m Figue27 Taking moments about A, overturning moment = 49 x 145 = 711 kNm/m, Righting moment from W, = 628 x 1.75 x 188= 206.6 W.=416x0.735 = 306 W, = 84x05 = 42 W, = 8.4 1.75 x 188 = 27.6 Therefore, total = 269.0 kNm/m 269.0 thus, the factor of saety is 772 = 3-8 ‘This exceeds 2.0 (see section 3.2a) and is there- fore satisfactory. Ground bearing pressure: total vertical load = 628x175 + 416 + 8.4 + 84x 175 = 1747 kN/m, nett moment on base about point A = 269.0 - 711 = 197.9 kNm/m. Thus, the resultant acts 127-9 = 113m froma. P a7 Therefore, eccentricity = 1.38 - 113 25m, ww and maximum ground pressure = "+ te W47_ | WAT x025x6 27Sx10* 10x 2.75" = 635 + 34.7 = 98.2kN/m? This is less than permissible and therefore satisfactory, Base reinforcement: The design of the base isin accordance with cena3.4 LIMIT STATE DESIGN 3.44, Principles — 3.4.2. Mass brickwork 22 retaining walls (a) Partial for materials: ty factors ‘The limit state design philosophy {s based upon the principle that there must be an acceptable probability that a structure, or any ofits parts, will not become unfit or its pur pose, i, that it will not reach a limit state. ‘The use of the limit state approach for the design of brickwork has been adopted in §8§5628 inline with current policy for other structural codes. BS5628:Part 1:1978, Structural Use of Unreinforced Masonry", gives requirements for ensuring that there is an adequate margin ofsafety against the ultimate limit state being reached. Generally there will be an adequate ‘margin of safety against the serviceability limit states of cracking (and deflection) being reached when the design satisfies the ultimate limit state. 1855628:Part 21985, Structural Use of Rein- forced and Prestressed Masonry’ defines three limit states to be examined, These are the ultimate limit state and the two serviceability limit states of deflection and cracking. n the case of reinforced brickwork cantilever retai ing walls the serviceability limit states are sald to be satisfied by ensuring that the wall has a height to effective thickness ratio of not more than 18 when there is vertical reinforcement of upto0.5% of the width times the effective depth of the brickwork section. For greater amounts of reinforcement, deflection should be checked. The method for this is beyond the scope of this document; Imorder to ensure that the ultimate limit state is not reached, partial safety factors are applied to material strengths and loads, so that design must satisfy the relationship: sy x Toad x SHensth of brickwork where and y,,are partial safety factors. Design will be generally in accordance with BS5628:Part 1.1978" ‘The following partial safety factors for material strength are suggested in BS5628:Part 1 Brickwork in shear ny = 25 Brickwork in compression and flexure - from Table 6 (below) TABLES. Values of Yq: ‘The categories given in Table 6 may be inter: preted as follows: Category of construction control ‘Normal - this category should be assumed whenever the work is carried out in accordance with the recommendations for workmanship given in section four of BS5628:Part 3,°! includ: ing appropriate supervision and inspection. Special - this category may be assumed where, additionally to the ‘normal’ require ‘ments, the specification and site supervision standards justify the lower partial safety fac: tors given in Table 5 and preliminary and site testing of the mortar is cartied out in accord- ance with Appendix A1 to the code. Category of manufacturing control Special - the manufacturer must agree to meet an ‘acceptance limit’ for the compressive strength of his bricks, ie, not more than 2:% of the bricks may fall below this limit, and he must operate a quality control scheme enabling the ‘acceptance limit’ to be met ‘Normal-the supplier can meet the compres- ‘sive strength requirements for the bricks, but not the ‘acceptance limit’ category of construction control special normal category of spedal 25 at mufactut ———— —— eee normal 28 35 control(b) Partial safety factors forload (0) Safety factors for overall stability (a) Design of stem {e) Design of base The partial safety factors for loads, y, vary according to the load to which they are applied and the design case being considered, The following values are given in BS5628:Part 1 for the dead and imposed load case. Stem design lateral earth loads = 14 water pressure = 14 vertical dead loads = 1.40r0.9 passive pressure = 14 imposedloads = = 16 NB BS5628:Part 1 states that for earth retain- ing and foundation structures ‘when applying ‘y, no distinction is made between adverse and beneficial loads’. Thus the same partial safety factor is used for all earth loads. However, the value on beneficial dead loads other than from earth loads remains 0.9. '8S5628:Part 1 suggests that design for overall stability should be carried out by appropriate geotechnical procedures, ie, by using characteristic loads without the application of partial safety factors, such that the require~ ments of section 3.2 are satisfied with regard to overall factors of safety. For mass brickwork walls, the design moment due to the lateral load on the stem is resisted by the dead weight of the wall combined with the flexural strength of the brickwork ‘The design moment is Px (see figure 28), ‘The design moment of resistance of the walls: given by: fx 4 YW) & +h which must be greater than ;Px where fis the characteristic flexural strength of brickwork for bending causing failure paral lel to the bed joints, given in Table 7. Zis the section modulus. The stem must also be checked to ensure that the design horizontal shear stress, v, due to the design lateral loads does not exceed the ‘characteristic shear strength of the brickwork, {, divided by the partial safety factor for brick ‘work in shear, ny thus: f Yow where f, may be taken as 0.35 N/mm? provided the brickwork has a characteristic compressive strength (f,) ofnot less than 7.0N/mm? t = thickness of wall b = width of section considered, usually 1.0m. =We Y= or ‘As with the permissible stress approach, the base must be proportioned so that tension does not occur in the concrete, no uplift of the heel of the wall occurs, and the safe bearing capacity of the soil is not exceeded. Ifa rein- forced concrete base is used it should be designed in accordance with BS8110:1985!"!, Structural use of concrete. Fawn 20ma 3.4.3 Reinforced brick work retaining walls (a) Partial safety factors for loads: (b) Partial safety factors for materials. TABLE 7. Characteristic flexural strength and permissible tensile stress for brickwork permissible characteristic tensile stress flexural strength fay direction of | type of brick fa(N/mm?) came bending _ ‘mortar designation ow about clay with water ‘less than 7% 0705018 on horizontal axis | absorption between 7%andi2% | 05 04 on 009 between 12%and30% | 04 03 009 007 paralleltobed | _ joints calcium silicate 03 07 aboutvertical |claywithwater less than 7% 20° «15 044 038 axis absorption between 7%and12% | 15 M033 G24 between 12%and30% | 11 09 024 02 perpendicular tobed joints | calcium silicate 09 02 Mortar () is 1:0~1:3 cementilime:sand Mortar (is 1:1:4—4) cementlimesand ‘The values off, and p, for the mode of failure perpendicular to the bed joints are used only where ‘unreinforced brickwork spans partly or wholly horizontally. e.g. where the wall is buttressed. Design will be generally in accordance with BS5628: Part 2 ‘The partial safety factors for loads, +), used in the design of reinforced brickwork are the same as those in the design of nteinforced brickwork, as given in 3.4.2 (b), since ideally they should be independent of whatever structural material is being used. 855628: Part 2 gives partial safety factors for each aspect of material strength which affects the strength of reinforced brickwork, namely, “Yom for compressive strength of brick, Yny for shear strength of brickwork, Ye, fot bond strength between infill concrete or mortar and reinforcement, and ¥., for strength of reinforcement. Different values are given in the code for the ultimate and serviceability limit states. How: ever, as.no calculations are required for the serviceability limit states of deflection and cracking for cantilever retaining walls, provided. the height to effective thickness ratio and percentage area of reinforcement, given in 3.43, are not exceeded, only values for the ultimate limit state are given here ‘The values of Ya assume that all the recom- ‘mendations given in clause 40.1 and 40.2 of 1855628: Part 2, dealing with the quality control of workmanship and materials, wll be followed. ‘These recommendations correspond generally tothe special category of construction control referred to in 3.4.2 and include frequent visits tosite by the designer ar the presence of his permanent representative on site and pre- liminary and site testing and sampling of bricks, ‘mortar and infill concrete ‘The normal and special categories of manu facturing control are as for unreinforced masonry (see 3.4.2). Ifthese recommendations cannot be met then the values of Yn etc given in Tables 8 and 9 below must be increased accordingly.(c) Safety factors for overall stability (4) Design of Stem TABLES. Partial Safety Factors, Yin {or reinforced brickwork in direct compression and bending: ultimate limit state. Category of Manufacturing Control Value of Yn (see3.42) special 20 normal 23 TABLE 9 Partial Safety Factors, nA Ys {or reinforced brickwork. Partial Safety Factor Value “ow shear strength of brickwork 20 “Yo Bond strength between concrete infllor mortar andreinforcement = 15 “You Strength of reinforcement 115 {As for unreinforced brickwork retaining walls, the requirements of section 3.2 should be satis fied, using characteristic loads throughout to calculate overall factors of safety. For reinforced brickwork retaining walls, the moment due to the design lateral load is resisted by the stem of the retaining wall in flexure. Equation 9 given below for the design ‘moment of resistance of brickwork in flexure is taken from BS5628:Part 2 andis based on the strain diagram and stress block diagram ‘shown in Figure 29. The strain compatibility method is used for its derivation The depth to the neutral axis, x, is calculated by equating the compressive and tensile forces. The value of yisthen found and, thus, te lever arm, z, < 098d. 8 where is the characteristic tensile strength of the reinforcement given in Table 10 and f, is the characteristic compressive strength of brickwork given in Table 11. ‘The design moment of resistance of the wall, ‘based on the strength of the brickwork is given by: me? t bet . : ‘The design moment of resistance of the wall, ‘based on the reinforcement is: Ate 10 = Me ‘The required value of A, may be obtained iteratively by initially assuming 2 = 0.75d, substitution of this value of zinto equation 10 enables a value of A, to be calculated which is then substituted back into equation 8 to obtain ‘a more accurate value of z. This process is repeated until no further iteration is required. ‘Amay be calculated explicitly from the following equation: bd fi, Yins a= bition F Yeon Fag 1 bet, } a In both cases itis necessary to check that z does not exceed 0,95d and that the design ‘moment does not exceed the value of M obtained from equation 9, Alternatively, the design chart given in 1BS5628Part 2 may be used. Inthe case of pocket type walls, the brick- work between the pockets is assumed to behave as a flange to the reinforced section ‘The thickness of the flange, t,, may be taken as ‘equal to the thickness of the brickwork up toa ‘maximum of 0.5d. The width of the flange may be taken as the least of 2a) the spacing ofthe pockets }) the width of the pocket plus 12 times the flange thickness ) one third of the wall height ‘The design moment of resistance is calcu- lated in the same way as for a continuously reinforced wall, but it must not exceed bot, (d - 0.5) 2 fi Me Where the spacing of the pockets exceeds ‘Im, the ability of the masonry to span horizon- tally between them should be checked. The shear stress, v, in the stems calculated from a v Y= bd ‘Where V is the shear force due to design loads, e.in the case of cantilever retaining walls, 41 P (total design active lateral load) ‘v must be less than the shear strength of the stem, f, Yow Where isthe characteristic shear strength cf brickwork Where the reinforcement is wholly surrounded in mortar fi taken as 0.35 N/m: where its wholly surrounded by infil concrete f= 0.35 + 17.5p provided it does not exceed 0.7 N/mm?() Design of Base Where p = A,/bd If shear resistance is inadequate, shear rein- forcement may be provided or the thickness of the section increased, assuming that in the case of reinforcement surrounded by concrete, Increasing A, does not permit a sufficient increase inf, ‘The normal solution will be to increase the thickness of the section, as shear reinforce- ‘ment is not easy to incorporate. ‘The reinforcement inthe base should be the nett ground pressure, represented by the designed to BSB110 so that the design bending _ground pressure diagram in Figure 19, isless ‘moment at the face ofthe retaining wall, dueto than the design moment of resistance. 008 yee [Oe compas ect = sess bck gram Teele TABLE 10. Characteristic tensile strength of reinforcing steel, f, Designation Nominal Size Characteristic tensile strength, f, N/mm? Hot rolled plain steel bars complying with 884449 all 250 Hot rolled deformed high yield steel bars complying with BS4449 lll 460 Cold worked steel bars complying with BS4461 all 460 Hard drawn steel wire complying with BS4482 and up toand 485, steel fabric complying with BS4483 including 12 Stainless steel complying with BS970: all 460 Part 1 grades 304S15,316S31 or 316533 TABLET! Characteristic compressive strength, f, of brickwork (A) Constructed with bricks or other units having a ratio of height to least horizontal dimension of 0.6 Mortar Characteristic compressive strength of brickwork f,(N/mm?) designation Compressive strength of brick (N/mm?) 7 0 1% 20 25 3 50 70 100 @ 34446074 sCsASC«CS‘OSC«*C:SC«O (i 32 42 53 64 7922S ‘Mortar (i) is 1:0— $:3cementlime:sand Mortar (i) is 1: 4:4 — 43 cement:lime-sand3.4.4 Example 3 ‘The brick dimensions used in this example are ‘work sizes as defined in 853921:1985""" A vertical grouted cavity brickwork retaining wall, using 50.0 N/mm? bricks in 1:1:3 mortar, 4.0m high, supports partially saturated soft clay soil, the surface of which is level with the top of the wall. Assume special control of brick ‘manufacture and normal control of construc- tion, The saturated density of the soilis 1950 kg/m, its shear strength at zero normal load is. 25 kN/m# and its angle of internal friction 0, is 5. The soil beneath the wall has a safe bearing capacity of 150 kN/m?. The water table is 3m below the top of the wall. Design the wall, neglecting wall adhesion. moment Neceei yh Sf Or sini } om aoe" aon NY Le by Af) artes ti i i HL. Fam 20 Lateral pressure ‘This is less than 4.8H Which equals 19.2 kN/m? From CP2", the horizontal pressure at the base (see section 3.1) ofthe wall Therefore use an active pressure of 19.2 kN/m? an — P= LA + lH — HI Ky — Py = M0098! (43) = 9.81 KN/m# Coke + a,AH — hn) ‘Where Pay = horizontal component of active Te l@teralloads: earth pressure P= 192%5 = 384kN/m By = water pressure ‘Ac = Saturated density of soil hh. = depth of water table below top = _9KN/m of wal (fs = submerged density of soil = 43.3kN/m Ky = cohesive soil coefficient, see Table 5 CP2 Kyo = cohesive soil coefficient, see Table 5 CP2 shear strength at zero normal load eight of wall Au = density of water From Table 5, CP2: .85 for zero adhesion 83 for zero adhesion 1950.x 9.81 x 3.0 — 00 go sak a) —000 085 - 25 x 183 = 10 kN/m? and Fou,(a) Design of Stem Foe 32 The design lateral forces YP, = 14x 38.4 = 538kN/m Py 14x49 = 69KN/m andP = 60.7 KN/m Therefore, the design moment, M, = 53.8 x 133 + 6.9 x 0.33 = 73.8kNm/m. From BS5628Part 2, Table 8: the maximum. H/d=18 thus, the minimum d = “90° = 222mm ‘Assume a one brick leaf (thickness 215mm} on the compression face of the wall, and high ten- sile stainless steel, 20mm diameter, reinforce- ‘ment placed to give 20mm (min) cover. This arrangement gives a d of 285.0mm. From Table 11, for 50.N/mm? bricks in 1:1:3 mortar, f, = 15 N/mm? From Table 8, Yigg, = 2.0 Using equation 9, Section 3.4.4(a), the design ‘moment of resistance 04 x 0.2857 x 15.0 x 10? <-> 243.7 KNm/m This exceeds the design moment and is there- fore satisfactory. My From Table 9, Yi. = 2.0, Ym = 15 Using equation 11, Section 3.4.3 (d), the area of reinforcement pw BSR 15 = q60x20— 2x 20x 738 x 10° = 0.693mm?/mmn run = 693 mm?/mrun Use 16mm diameter high tensile reinforcing bars at 250mm centres, giving 804mm? /m = 0.37% of bd. Use 10mm diameter high tensile distribution bars at 300 mm centres giving 261mm?/m= 0.09% of bd. Shear: ‘The design shear force on the base of the wallis, ‘equal to the total lateral load on the wall= P= 60.7 KN/m. ‘The shear stress due to design loads 60.7 x 10° 1000 x 285 = 0.21 N/mm? ‘The design shear strength ofthe wall = Yow Ss = 0.2N/mm? As the design shear force exceeds this, elther a higher design shear strength must be made available or the effective depth of the wall must be increased. Assuming no increase in the design shear strength, the effective depth d, to the reinforcement must be increased by thick- ening the wall. The minimum d required for a design shear strength of 0.2 N/mm? _ 607 © 1000 x 0.2 ‘Therefore the thickness should be increased by half a brick to givead of 407mm, = 0.304m = 304mm ‘The design shear force reduces rapidly as the depth below retained ground level reduces and 50 the thickness of the wall may be reduced accordingly. Check the design shear force at 3.85 below the top of the wall 1000 x 9.81 48 x 3.85" = Bia O85" 14 = 49.8 + 5.0 = 548kN/m gp 7 019 N/m Therefore v = 5 ‘Thisis less than the design shear stress in the ‘main wall; therefore the additional ha brick ‘may be stepped back at this level as shown in Figure 33, a | 112500 25mm 10250 Fee 33, 00mm(6) Design of Base Alternatively the design shear strength of the wall can be increased by increasing the amount of tension reinforcement, Increased area of reinforcement required to provide design shear strength of 0.21 N/m 1000 x 285 A, = (0.21 x 20 - 0,35) OOO 288 = 140mm?/m Therefore increase reinforcement to 1mm diameter bars at 175mm centres giving 1150mm#/m, Assume thet a 400mm deep base will be ade- quate for bending, the design of the base rein forcement being to BS8110. For the purposes of this section, the thickening required to meet the shear requirements has been ignored Heel length -sliding analysis {assume toe length= 1.2m) 48x44" P, = 46.5 kN/m 1000 x 9.81 1.47 _ Py gaa Xa 7 OS KNAn ‘Therefore, force causing sliding = 465 + 9.6 = 561 kN/m. ‘To provide an adequate factor of safety against failure by sliding, the force resisting sliding ‘must exceed the force causing sliding by a fac tor of at least 2.0 Force resisting sliding = Area of base x adhesion (25 kN/rn*) =(12 +L) 10x 25, Equating these forces, including the factor of safety, and solving for L; 12x 28 _ = = 33m This is excessive, therefore providea key to the base and consider passive pressure. ‘Make heel 2.0m long. Therefore the passive force required, neglecting the ground above the toe = 2.0.x 561 - (12 + 2.0) x 25 = 32.2kN/m, ‘Load (kN/m) 4.0 x 1950 x 9.81 x 20 Mc a wis 40 x 0.42 x 2000 x 9.81 2 7900 Ww. = 12x04x 24 Wee 20x 04x 24 R= 465 Py = 96 ‘Assume water levels atthe top of the base (e,,awaterproof slab over the base and natural drainage prevents it rising higher) Therefore, from CP2 Pr + Pa = KASH, + Kt + AnH, and Py + Py = Kya + hc, + gt AS and from Table 7, CP2, for zero adhesion: kK, = 12 Ke= 22 Lap ‘Therefore, 12. x 950 x 9.81 ~~ 1000 1000x981 He DO 822 My asazzatit Re-arranging and solving for Hy: H, = 053m, ‘Therefore make toe project 0.15m below base. Resistance to overturning Overtuming analysis: factor of safety against overturning of 2.0 required. Use characteristic Toads. ‘Taking moment about c (see figure 34) Lever arm(m) Moment about C(kNm/m) 1530 +22 +3367 330 «+099 + 326 ns +06 + 69 w2 +22 + 422 -15 — 09.8 — 05 48 2157 +4184 — 746case A Factor of safety against overturning = | ‘Therefore the toe length chosen is satisfactory. I f--04 - Ground bearing pressure For both horizontal and vertical loads use char- > acteristicloads. Taking moments about B (see Refi asia Figure 36) Feat Load (k/m) Lever arm(m) Moment about B(kNm/m) 1530 +190 +1530 330 02 - 69 11s —06 — 69 192 +10 + 92 45-15 698 96 = -05 — 48 WeR= 2167 +1722 — 884 Therefore, the nett moment on the base = 172.2 — 88.4 = 83.8 kNm/m ‘Thus the vertical component ofthe resultant, R, acts: 838 eT Eccentricity = 0.4 — 0.39 = 0.01m, R, is therefore within the middle third of the base and there will be no uplift of the heel, ‘The maximum bearing pressure = iw nett moment ‘rea ofbase * —Z— = 0.39mto the right of B. 2167, 216-7 x00 x6 7 “a2xt0*— ix aa ~ OF 0kN/m: ‘This is less than 150 kN/m? and, therefore, satisfactory. Design of base reinforcement ‘The base reinforcement is designed in accord: ance with BS 8110" ‘The maximum bending moments on the base are obtained from the bearing pressure dia- ‘gram modified by the appropriate y, values as follows (see Table 2.1, BS 8110): Vertical beneficial deadloads % lateral earth and water pressure %) = Note that no distinction is made between adverse and beneficial earth and water pres- sure in the value of ‘Taking moments about C (see Figure 34)Design Load (kN/m) w, = 1.4 x 153.0 w= 10x 330 w.= 10x 11.5 10x 19.2 14x 465 14x 96 = 2779 WHR, = 214243304 115+ 19.2 = 277.9kN/m ‘Therefore vertical component of resultant, 553.0 — 104.4 Ry from A, giving an eccentricity of 0.01m, and a pressure diagram as shown in Figure 37 161m See Figure 37 (opposite) ‘Thus the maximum design pressure 2779, 2779 K001 4 2x10 32 = 868 + 16 = 88.4kN/m? and the minimum pressure = 868 — 16 = 852KN/me ‘The pressure at the compression face of the well, from similar triangles, (88.4 ~ 85.2) (3.2 — 2.24) =85.2+ = 16.0 N/m? Therefore, the bending moment for which the toe must be designed = 95.2277 + (86.0 — 95.2) x 277 x +_ ove 4-078 04x24 =259 +01 -29 wall 20) = 86.4 KN/m? ‘Thus.the bending moment for which the heel must be designed = a2 + 192)10- a0 x22 — 20? x 2 (88.4 — 86,4) [X= = 233.4 — 1728-27 = Leverarm(m) Moment about B (kNm/m) Yaa wana 40m tha tos ee a2 baa “is -o9 -0s ta +ss0 ~~ iota Hy « oem] th sane eon ® ‘ames ae Frecase B For vertical loads yj = 1.4 ‘Taking moments about C Load (kNV/m) Leverarm(m) — Moment about 8 (kNm/m) 1.4.x 1530 +22 +4712 14x 330 +099 + 457 14x 115 +06 + 97 14x 192 +22 + 992 14x 465 = 65.1 =15 ~ 977 14x 9.6= 134 =05 = 67 = 3034 +5858 — 1044 Therefore, R, acts Thus, the bending moment for which the heel ‘must be designed 585.8 — 1044 ee a = 159m from A Stasi awaits valr aura and this is within the middle third ofthebase. ~ (953 ~ 93.0) 7-5 Eccentricity of, €,= 16—159=0.01m, = 2411, — 1860 — 15 = 53.6kNm/m. ‘The maximum bending moment for the toe is Hts plies peony due to Case B: M = 26.4 kNm/m, 3034 , 3034x001 zaxt0t toxaz *° ‘The maximum bending moment for the heel is, = 94.8 + 18 =96.6kN/m? due to Case A: M = 57.9 kNm/m. ‘and minimum pressure = 94.8 — 1.8 ‘These moments should be used to calculate the Rae areas of reinforcement required in the base. ‘Atthe compression face, from similar triangles, the pressure = 930+ (966 ~ 930) x (3:2 ~ 0.78) > = 95.7 N/m? ‘Therefore, the bending moment for which the toe must be designed = (06.6 — 95.7) O78 2 4 95.7 x 78 ae 2 0.78? Te x04 x 24 = 0.2 + 291 — 2.9 = 26.5 kN/m? Bearing pressure at the tension face of the wall (96.6 ~ 93.0)(3.2 — 1.2) = 939+ 8 ee = 95.3kN/m*4.1 DURABILITY 4.0 DETAILS AND CONSTRUCTION Brickworks a generally durable and aesthetically pleasing material. n order to maintain this durability and attractive appear: ance, itis important in the case of retaining walls, as in other types of walls, to prevent con. tinuous saturation by good detailing. Waterproofing details to prevent saturation (see figure 38) should include the following: (a) a damp proof course capable of trans- mitting tension, e.g. damp proof course 2 clay brickwork as described in 85 3921 (just above the lower ground level (b) aneffective waterproofing treatment on the retaining face of the wall, extending atleast 450mm above the finished level of the retained material (0) aneffective coping which throws water clear of the exposed surfaces of the wall ifclay bricks of moderate frost resistance (M) to BS 392) are to be used. If frost resistant clay bricks (F} to BS 3921 are specified, either a coping or capping detail may be used. (a) an effective damp proof course below the coping or capping. The dpc used should have good bonding characteristics to mortar and should be bedded on both sides. ‘The waterproofing treatment to the retain ing face may consist ofa spray or brush applied bituminous compound or an imper- vious sheet, In most cases, the former is more suitable. The lining should be protected against. damage fromthe retained material both as the fils placed and afterwards as it settles. Provided that the above details are incor- porated, a retaining wall may be constructed in clay bricks of moderate frost resistance (M) or calcium silicate bricks of Class 3 or stronger to Bs 187. Where there is arisk of saturated brickwork becomimg frozen —for instance in an area with a high driving rain index - either frost resistant clay bricks (F),or calcium silicate bricks of Class 4 or stronger should be used. ‘Where moderately frost resistant clay bricks are proposed for use in such situations, the ‘manufacturer's advice should be sought. Where aggressive sulphate ground condi tions are known to exist, sulphate ~ resisting cement in a mortar of designation () (see Table 7) should be used up to and including the ground damp proof course, and above 'if the retaining face isnot efficiently waterproofed In areas with a high driving rain index, when clay bricks of normal soluble salt content (N) are used, mortar with sulphateresisting cement should be used throughout the wall The use of lay bricks with low soluble salt con tent (L) is preferred in these areas. ‘The choice of mortar designation to be used should be made on the basis of structural and durability considerations. It should be noted that engineering brick damp proof courses are laid in mortar of designation \i), and tis there- fore advisable to use the same mortar for brick: work below that level. Where brick-on-edge copings are used, it will normally be necessary to use mortar designation (i) for durability. ‘To prevent the build up of water pressure behind a retaining wall, a land drain should be provided near the base of the stem on the retaining side. The drain must be surrounded by a granular, freedraining material preferably extending to the surface. Weep holes, if accept- able, should also be provided through the wall near the base level and at intermediate levels if necessary (see Figure 38 & 39). freeing oriental ‘i npeviasineg ——fS tghoreg rex Fee 28 Wosroaing esd pora ‘ili 200 ome ergs ‘sialon te — ‘evi in 78rd wephoks samnainun 20g — lana Fiwre38,_Preton water pes seb a4.2 REINFORCED WALLS (a) Area of main reinforcement (b) Area of secondary reinforcement (c) Spacing and size of bars (a) Cover ‘A minimum of main reinforcement is not defined in BS5628-Part 2: however, the designer is advised to consider whether design to BS5628:Part 1" would be more appropriate when only small areas of reinforcement are required. When dealing with cantilever reinforced brickwork retaining walls it may be considered sensible to provide atleast 0.15% lod for high yield reinforcement and 0.2% bd for mild steel reinforcement: ‘A minimum area of 0.05% bd secondary reinforcement is required in reinforced brick work retaining walls, except in the case of pocket walls. Secondary reinforcement may be ‘omitted from these walls unless itis specifically required to tie the concrete infil to the masonry, as may be the case, for example, where contact areas between the concrete and masonry are relatively small. The minimum spacing between parallel bars should be the greater of (i) The maximum size of aggregate plus 5mm. (i) The bar diameter. (ii) 10mm, ‘The maximum spacing of main and secondary tension reinforcement should not be greater then 500mm in grouted cavity and ‘Quetta bond walls, In Quetta bond or other ‘special bond walls only one bar, except at lap positions, is permitted in each core, Ingrouted cavity and Quetta bond walls a maximum bar size of 25mm diameter is permitted by BS5628:Part 2. In pocket walls this maximum is increased to 32mm diameter. Reinforcement located in the bed joints should not exceed 6mm diameter. Brickwork retaining walls will generally be classified under exposure situation E3 in 1855628:Part 2. Where carbon steel reinforce ment is used, the cover given in Table 12 should be provided for this exposure position. TABLE 12 Minimum concrete cover for carbon steel reinforcement Concretegrade 303540 Cover (mim) 40 35 30 In grouted cavity or Quetta bond construct tion BS5628:Part 2 suggests that galvanised (to.8S729%, minimum coating mass 940g/m") ‘carbon steel should be used for exposure situations E3 requiring a cover of 20mm of concrete or mortar. Alternatively stainless steel, or stainless steel coated, reinforcement can be used in which case there is no mink ‘mum cover requirement other than that. required for the satisfactory development of bond. Where the water absorption of the bricks exceeds 10% only stainless steel reinforcement should be used. Where bed joint reinforcement is required in situation E3 it should be stainless steel, or stainless steel coated, reinforcement, with a mortar caver of 15mm to the exposed face of the masonry. It would be normal, where bed joint reinforcement is used, to use stainless steel reinforcement for main steel also, to avoid bimetallic corrosion. For details see Figure 40. l ssncn2000 1] aie ndcenet cmd OMe seat petro RE SE stim co seat a bpnetenme Pe) ‘Sai do iene ati pit Figo Cotta ritrcaret4.3 MOVEMENTS JOINTS. 4.4 CONSTRUCTION 4.41 Grouted-cavity construction 4.4.2 Quetta bond and similar walls 4.4.3 Pockettype walls '885628:Part 3" suggests that vertical move- ‘ment joints should be provided in long runs of lay brickwork walling at a maximum of 15m centres and in calcium silicate brickwork at a maximum of 10m centres. As retaining walls are less susceptible to horizontal movements than other walls these values may be taken as appropriate for unreinforced brick retaining walls. The provision of horizontal reinforce ment in the bed joints, orn a grouted cavity, will tend to restrain movement, and providing careful consideration is given to the type of brick and the design, the distance between joints may be increased, although no guidance can be given here as to the extent of the increase. When brick on edge copings are used, ‘movement joints should be provided at about half the normal centres. A water bar, included 1n the joint, will help prevent staining of the face ofthe wall ‘The maximum height of masonry that should normally be built in a days 1.5m. ttis especially important in reinforced brick walls that cavities and pockets, etc. are carefully cleared of any mortar droppings Grouted cavity walls may be constructed either by the lovelift or high-lift methods. n the former the concrete infil is placed during the brick laying process at maximum vertical intervals of 450mm. Care must be taken to avoid damage to the wall resulting from excessive pressure from the infil, during the filling process. In the latter, high lift method, the concrete infill is placed not sooner than 3 days after the build- {ng of the wall toa maximum of 3m in height. Usually the voids around the reinforcement are filled with mortar o¢ concrete infill as the brick: work proceeds. If, hawever, the voids are suff- Gently large the lowlift or high-lft methods as described above, may be used. ‘The brickwork is usually built to full height before the infil concrete is placed. Care should. bbe taken to ensure that the formwork to the pocket is adequately propped or tied to the brickwork to avoid disturbance during the filing and compacting processes5.0 ECONOMY OF RETAINING WALLS BRICKWORK ‘There is general agreement that when brickwork is chosen as the cladding material, loadbearing brickwork can be the most ‘economic form of structure for many building types. This has been based on solid experience as opposed to cost studies. For more detailed information on costs, see BDA Engineers File Note series. The reinforced brickwork retaining wall, being a more recent development does not have this large data base andas aresult a detailed design and cost study has been made of the various types of brickwork retaining walls described in this note. The cost study has also compared the cost of reinforced concrete walls of the same height which either have a decorative ribbed or a fair faced brickwork finish to be comparable in the quality of their appearance. The fair-faced structural brickwork retaining walls were designed using up-to-date current guidance as given in BS 5628:Parts 1", 2°! and 3". The reinforced concrete walls were designed using BS 8110" Table 13 shown below is based on a ‘maximum wall height of 6 metres and on an index system where the index of 100 represents the cheapest wall for a particular height. No figure is given for a particular type (of wall when itis considered an inappropriate form of construction for that height. For walls which ate straight in planform, Which are not battered back and which are of constant height, plain reinforced concrete with no decorative finish becomes the cheapest solution at heights of 3 metres or greater. Should a decorative finish be required, however, the cost equation alters: in all cases the ribbed reinforced concrete walls, are more expensive than the appropriate brick solution - whether pocket, grouted cavity, mass brick or post-tensioned diaphragm wall. Indeed, the cost of the ribbed faced concrete walls similar to a brick clad plain reinforced concrete wall for all heights TABLE 13 Cost Index Comparison of Brickwork Retaining Walls with Reinforced Concrete Retaining Walls = WALL TYPE ‘Wall | Grouted) Mass | Post [Pocket Type| Plain | Ribbedfinish |R Wall with Height | Cavity | Brickwork! tensioned | Brickwork Concrete) Bush Hammered | Brickwork wall | wall | Diaphragm) Wall | Wall | -RC.Wall | Cladding Wall [105 | 109 | wo 5) 13t 158 161 2025 | 100 | 124 101 104 128 132 30 ma | 186 106) 100 122 124 405 4 141 10 m wo | 123 ~ 126 5025+) 171 108 115 100 121 124 6.05 +| 100 2 | 120 2 | ‘Cost comparison of stem of wall only. Although foundation costs vary slightly for each solution, the size of differences should not affect the cost comparison index by more than 1 or 2 pointsassuming, again, straight vertical walls of constant height. Itshould be remembered that comparing a plain reinforced concrete wall with a structural brickwork solution is not comparing like with lke since a brickwork solution makes it a more attractive alternative in the majority of cases. Of course, should brick cladding be required, the argument to use structural brickwork becomes very strong indeed, Itis clear from this cost exercise that brickwork retaining walls are the most appropriate in terms not only of cost but of appearance, durability and maintenance during design life. When walls are curved on plan or when the height of the wall varies along its centre line, the cost advantage of a brick solution is enhanced beyond that shown in the table below. in these circumstances, the achievable cost savings can be extremely worthwhile 6.0 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The costing comparisons were prepared by J.C. Yeadon of Rex Procter and Partners, Quantity Surveyors of Leeds on behalf of Armitage Brick Limited. Their kind permission touse these costs in this publication is duly acknowledged. if7.0 REFERENCES (1) 885628: Part 1: 1978, Structural use of unreinforced masonry (2) 885628: Part 2: 1985 Structural use of reinforced and prestressed masonry (3) P11: 1970, Structural recommendations for loadbearing walls (4) The Building Regulations 1985 (5) 855628; Part 3: 1985, Use of masonry: Materials and components, design and workmanship (6) Civil Engineering Code of Practice No, 2 (1951): Earth Retaining Structures (7) Soil mechanics literature, eg. Terzaghi & Peck, Soil Mechanics in Engineering Practice (8) External Walls: Design for Wind Loads. Brick Development Association (9) CP1I4: Part 2: 1969, The structural use of reinforced concrete in buildings (10) 853921: 1985, Clay bricks. (11) BS8TIO: Part 1:1985, Structural use of concrete (12) 88187: Part 2: 1978, Calcium silicate bricks (13) 83729: 1971, Hot dip galvanised coatings on iron and steel antcles