Calibration 101

Kim Lyon
FEV Inc. Senior Engineer
Calibration Specialist GM Powertrain
Chrysler LLC Senior Technical Specialist -Retired

Acknowledgement
Many of the following slides were originally
created by former Chrysler engineer, John
Bucknell and originally presented at the
Collegiate Roadshow in 2006.

Overview
Covers what you will need to know about the
system to be calibrated
Wont cover knob turning which is
dependent on the specifics of the control
system being used.
Topics are typical of questions encountered in
Design Judging of the engine/powertrain area.

Calibration Philosophy
Fundamentals
In order to calibrate anything, you must understand
the physics of the system.
In order to be a good calibration engineer one must
cultivate a sense of being a good engine-ear. Use
all your senses to assess.
The system defines the calibration, not the calibrator.
The system will tell you what it needs if you are
smart enough to listen.

What Is An I.C. Engine?

The primary function of an internal
combustion engine is to pump air in and out
of a combustion chamber where a
combustible fuel is mixed at a ratio which
maximizes power output and minimizes fuel
consumption under all operating conditions.
In a gas engine at full throttle, which is more
difficult to increase (control), air or fuel?

Part One Engine Fundamentals

Reciprocating Internal Combustion

Heat Engines
Characteristics
Slider-crank mechanism has high mechanical
efficiency (piston skirt rubbing is source of 50-60%
of all firing friction)
Piston-cylinder mechanism has high single-stage
compression ratio capability leads to high
thermal efficiency capability
Fair to poor air pump, limiting power potential
without additional mechanisms

Powertrain & Calibration Topics

Background

Powertrain terms
Thermodynamics
Mechanical Design
Combustion

Architecture
Cylinder Filling &
Emptying
Aerodynamics

Calibration
Spark & Fuel
Transients &
Drivability

 Reciprocating Engine Terms

Vc = Clearance Volume
Vd = Displacement or Swept Volume
Vt = Total Volume
TC or TDC =
Top or Top Dead Center Position
BC or BDC =
Bottom or Bottom Dead Center
Position
Compression Ratio (CR)

Vd Vc
CR
Vc

Further Aspects of Geometric Compression Ratio

Thermodynamics

Otto Cycle
Diesel Cycle
Throttled Cycle
Supercharged
Cycle

Source: Internal Comb. Engine Fund.

 Thermodynamic Terms
MEP Mean Effective Pressure
Average cylinder pressure over measuring period
Torque Normalized to Engine Displacement (VD)
BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure
4 Torque(Nm)
48 Torque(ftlb)

BMEP (kPa)

VD (liter )

BMEP (psi)

IMEP Indicated Mean Effective Pressure

MEP of Compression and Expansion Strokes
PMEP Pumping Mean Effective Pressure
MEP of Exhaust and Intake Strokes
FMEP Firing Friction Mean Effective Pressure

BMEP = IMEP PMEP FMEP

VD (cu.in.)

 Thermodynamic Terms continued

Work =

dV

Power = Work/Unit Time

Work Cycles / Second
Power
Re volutions / Cycle

Specific Power Power per unit, typically

displacement or weight
Pressure/Volume Diagram Engineering tool to
graph cylinder pressure

Indicated Work

TDC

BDC
Source: Design and Sim of Four Strokes

Pumping Work

TDC

BDC
Source: Design and Sim of Four Strokes

Engine Breathing
Volumetric Efficiency (or V.E.) is how we describe the engines
ability to pump air.
Stated as a percentage of the theoretical volume of air that
the engine can move for one cylinder cycle.
Well tuned engines (such as race engines) can exceed the
theoretical 100% limit because of boosting or tuning effects
(aftercharging).

Momentum Effects
Pressure loss influences dictate that duct diameter be as large
as possible for minimum friction
Increasing charge momentum enhances cylinder filling by
extending induction process past unsteady direct energy
transfer of induction stroke
Decreasing duct diameter increases available kinetic energy
for a given mass flux
Therefore duct diameter is a trade-off between velocity and
wall friction of passing charge

Pressure Wave Effects

Induction process and exhaust blowdown both cause pressure
pulsations
Abrupt changes of increased cross-section in the path of a
pressure wave will reflect a wave of opposite magnitude back
down the path of the wave

Closed-ended ducts reflect pressure waves directly, therefore

a wave will echo with same amplitude

Pressure Wave Effects cont

Friction decreases energy of pressure waves, therefore the 1st
order reflection is the strongest but up to 5th order have
been utilized to good effect in high speed engines (thus active
runners in F1)
Plenums also resonate and through superposition increase
the amplitude of pressure waves in runners small impact
relative to runner geometry

Effects of Intake Runner Geometry

Aerodynamics
Losses due to poor aerodynamics can be equal in magnitude
to the gains from pressure wave tuning
Often the dominant factory in poorly performing OE
components
If properly designed, flow of a single-entry intake manifold
can approach 98% of an ideal entrance on a cylinder head
(steady state on a flow bench).

Aerodynamics cont
Flow Separation
Literally same phenomenon as stall in wing elements
pressure in free stream insufficient to push flow along
wall of short side radius
Recirculation pushes flow away from wall, thereby
reducing effective cross-section so-called vena
contracta
Simple guidelines can prevent flow separation in ducts
studies performed by NACA in the 1930s empirically
established the best duct configurations

Induction Restriction
Air cleaner and intake manifolds provide some resistance to
incoming charge
Power loss related to restriction almost directly a function of
ratio between manifold pressure (plenum pressure upstream
of runners) and atmospheric

Compression Ratio
The highest possible compression ratio is always the design
point, as higher will always be more thermally efficient with
better idle quality
Knock limits compression ratio because of combustion
stability issues at low engine speed
Most engines are designed with higher compression than is
best for combustion stability because of the associated partload BSFC benefits

Valve Events
Valve events define how an engine breathes all the
time, and so are an important aspect of low load as
well as high load performance
Valve events also effectively define compression &
expansion ratio, as compression will not begin until
the piston-cylinder mechanism is sealed same with
expansion. VVT can change the engines effective
compression ratio as opposed to the geometric
compression ratio.

Valve Event
Timing
Spider Plot - Describes
timing points for valve
events with respect to
Crank Position

Cam Centerline - Peak

Valve Lift with respect to
TDC in Crank Degrees

Valve Events for Power

Maximize Trapping Efficiency
Intake closing that is best compromise between compression
stroke back flow and induction momentum (retard with increasing
engine speed)
Early intake closing usefulness limited at low engine speed due to
knock limit
Early intake opening will impart some exhaust blowdown or
pressure wave tuning momentum to intake charge

Maximize Thermal Efficiency

Earliest intake closing to maximize compression ratio for best burn
rate (optimum is instantaneous after TDC)
Latest exhaust opening to maximize expansion ratio for best use
of heat energy and lowest EGT (least thermal protection
enrichment beyond LBT)

Valve Events for Power

Minimize Flow Loss
Achieve maximum valve lift (max flow usually at L/D >
0.25-0.3) as long as possible (square lift curves are
optimum for poppet valves)

Minimize Exhaust Pumping Work

Earliest exhaust opening that blows down cylinder
pressure to backpressure levels before exhaust stroke
(advance with increasing engine speed)
Earliest exhaust closing that avoids recompression
spike (retard with increasing engine speed)

Centerline Effects On Torque

570
560
550
540
530
520

Torque (ft-lbs)

510
500
490
480
470
460
450
440
430
420
1600

2000

2400

2800

3200

115 degree centerline

3600
4000
Engine Speed (rpm)
120 degree centerline

4400

124 degree centerline

4800

5200

5600

Summary

Components Relative Impact (Prioritized) on

Performance
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Cylinder Head Ports & Valve Area

Valve Events
Intake Manifold Runner Geometry
Compression Ratio
Exhaust Header Geometry
Exhaust Restriction
Air Cleaner Restriction

Making Power
Four-stroke engines are volumetric flow rate devices the
only route to more power is increased engine speed, more
valve area or increased charge density

More speed, charge density or valve area are expensive or

difficult to develop therefore minimizing losses is the
most efficient path with existing engine architectures
Friction horsepower is often overlooked.

Combustion Terms
Open Brake Power Power measured by the
absorber (brake) at the crankshaft
BSFC - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Fuel Mass Flow Rate / Brake Power
grams/kW-h or lbs/hp-h

LBT Fueling - Lean Best Torque

Leanest Fuel/Air to Achieve Best Torque
LBT = 0.0780-0.0800 FA or 0.85-0.9 Lambda

Thermal Enrichment Fuel added for cooling due to

component temperature limit
Injector Pulse Width - Time Injector is on

Lean Best Torque Fuel Air Sweeps

102%
100%
98%

Torque Delta Factor From LBT

96%
94%
92%
90%
88%
Spark Held Constant During Fuel Air Sw eep
86%
84%
82%
80%
78%
76%
0.0660

0.0690

0.0720

0.0750

0.0780

0.0810

0.0840

0.0870

0.0900

0.0930

0.0960

0.0990

0.1020

0.1050

F/A FN
1856 RPM, 70 kPa MAP

3296 RPM, 98 kPa MAP

3296 RPM, 56 kPa MAP

4544 RPM, 70 kPa MAP

3296 RPM, 98 kPa MAP

2688 RPM, 70 kPa MAP

3296 RPM, 84 kPa MAP

0.1080

0.1110

Using Exhaust Energy

Highest expansion ratio
recovers most thermal
energy
Turbines can recover
heat energy left over
from gas exchange
Energy can be used to
drive turbo-compressor or
fed back into crank train

Source: Advanced Engine Technology

Supercharging
Increases specific output
by increasing charge
density into reciprocator
Many methods of
implementation, cost
usually only limiting factor

Source: Internal Comb. Engine Fund.

Valvetrain
Specific Power = f(Air Flow,
Thermal Efficiency)
Air flow is an easier variable to
change than thermal efficiency
90% of restriction of induction
system occurs in cylinder head
Cylinder head layouts that allow
the greatest airflow will have
highest specific power potential
Peak flow from poppet valve
engines primarily a function of
total valve area
More/larger valves equals greater
valve area

Combustion Terms continued

Spark Advance Timing in crank degrees prior to TDC for
start of combustion event (ignition)

MBT Spark Maximum Brake Torque Spark

Minimum Spark Advance to Achieve Best Torque

Burn Rate Speed of Combustion

Expressed as a fraction of total heat released versus crank
degrees

MAP - Manifold Absolute Pressure

Absolute not Gauge (does not reference barometer)

Combustion Terms continued

Knock Autoignition of end-gasses in combustion chamber,
causing extreme rates of pressure rise.
Knock Limit Spark - Maximum Spark Allowed due to Knock
can be higher or lower than MBT
Pre-Ignition Autoignition of mixture prior to spark timing,
typically due to high temperatures of components
Combustion Stability Cycle to cycle variation in burn
rate, trapped mass, location of peak pressure, etc. The lower
the variation the better the stability.

Engine Architecture
Influence on Performance
Intake & Exhaust Manifold Tuning
Cylinder Filling & Emptying
Momentum
Pressure Wave

Aerodynamics
Flow Separation
Wall Friction
Junctions & Bends

Induction Restriction
Exhaust Restriction (Backpressure)
Compression Ratio
Valve Events

Part Two
Torque, Power, and Performance

Driver

Pedal

Driver pushes on Pedal to move vehicle

Pedal formerly known as Gas Pedal, and
before that, Accelerator Pedal

Driver Intent Relates to Pedal Position

Driver Intent

Speed up
a lot
Speed up
a little

Maintain
speed Foot off
Pedal
Slow
down

Floored

Pedal Position

Driver Intent
Driver Intent is essentially acceleration rate (+
or -)
Since pedal position is related to driver intent,
pedal position is related to desired vehicle
acceleration.

Vehicle Acceleration

Acceleration Relates to Pedal Position

Foot off
Pedal

Floored

Pedal Position

Vehicle Acceleration
Newtons First Law:

F=ma
Vehicle mass is constant (ignoring fuel usage,
washer solvent spray, and any fluid leaks)

So, Force is proportional to acceleration

Force Applied to Vehicle

Force Relates to Pedal Position

Foot off
Pedal

Floored

Pedal Position

Where Does the Force Come From?

Power- the rate at which work is done:
Power is Force times Velocity (linear)

Power Force Velocity

F V
Power is Torque times Rotational Speed (rotary)

Power Torque Rotational Speed

T

Where Does the Force Come From?

Engine produces power:

Pengine Tengineengine

Where Does the Force Come From?

Transmission:

Ptrans Ttranstrans
engine
Tenginentrans

ntrans
Tengineengine
Ptrans Pengine
Ignoring Losses, of Course

Where Does the Force Come From?

Axle:

Paxle Taxle axle

trans
Ttransnaxle

naxle
Ttranstrans
Paxle Ptrans Pengine
Ignoring Losses, of Course

Where Does the Force Come From?

Tire:

Pvehicle FvehicleVvehicle

Taxle

TireDiamet er
axle

2
TireDiamet er

Taxle axle
Pvehicle Paxle Ptrans Pengine
Ignoring Losses, of Course

Where Does the Force Come From?

Power is conserved:

P engine P trans P axle P vehicle

POWER IS ABSOLUTE
Torque is relative (depends on gear ratio)
Ignoring Losses, of Course

Where Does the Force Come From?

The force comes from engine power:

Pengine
Fvehicle
Vvehicle
At a given vehicle velocity, force, and therefore
acceleration, depends on power produced by
the engine

Force Applied to Vehicle

Force Relates to Pedal Position

Foot off
Pedal

Floored

Pedal Position

Engine Power

Engine Power Relates to Pedal Position

Foot off
Pedal

Floored

Pedal Position

Engine Power Relates to Pedal Position

100

Power Demanded (% of max power)

90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
-10
100
75

-20
-30

50

-40
0

25
25

50

75

Vehicle Speed (% of max speed)

0
100

Pedal Position (%)

Powertrain Control
Should provide the power level demanded
by the driver as efficiently as possible
Efficiency could be based on:

minimum fuel consumption

minimum emissions
best NVH
some combination of these or other considerations

Should use the best combination of:

engine

speed (gear ratio)

throttle position (ETC)
spark advance
fuel flow rate
EGR rate

cylinder

deactivation
variable valve timing
active manifold
boosting devices

Specific Fuel Consumption vs. Speed & MAP

0.80
0.75
0.70

0.70

0.65

0.65

0.60

0.60
0.55

0.55
0.60

0.50
0.50

0.45
0.40
20

BSFC (lb/hp-hr)

0.45

0.41

6000

5000

4000

70

3000Eng
ine S2000
peed (rpm) 1000

80
90
0100

a) 30
P
(k 40
AP50
M
60

Engine Power vs. Speed & MAP

300.00

250.00

350
200.00

300
250

150.00

Power (bhp)

200

100.00

75.00

25.00

100

150
100
50

10.00

0
6000

50.00

90
80
70

HP = (Torque

5000

25.00

60MAP
(kP
50
x RPM) a/)

5252

10.00

40
30

10.00

pee
S
ine 2000
Eng

1000
200

4000

pm
d (r

3000

Vehicle Performance
Best possible vehicle acceleration if engine runs at
peak power (not at peak torque)

Transmission that allows the engine to provide the

highest average power over an acceleration event
will give best vehicle acceleration
more transmission gears improves vehicle acceleration
by keeping engine speed in range that makes more
power

Simulated Vehicle Performance with Different

Transmissions
160

140

Vehicle Speed (mph)

120

100

100% Efficient CVT

80

90% Efficient CVT

4 Speed Automatic
60

40

20

0
0

10

20

30
Time (s)

40

50

60

Engine Performance Optimization Criteria

Typically engine program goals are a peak
torque value and a peak power value
Assuming different sets of engine hardware
could meet the program goals, only one set
of hardware will perform the best in a
vehicle
The best performing vehicle will have the
highest average power delivered to the
wheels during an acceleration event, which
is dependent on transmission capability

Engine Optimization Example:

Which Engine Performs Better in a Vehicle?
450
400

Torque (lb-ft), Power (bhp)

350
300
engine A
engine B

250
200
150
100

Peak Torque (lb-ft)

Average Torque (1200-5600rpm) (lb-ft)
Peak Power (bhp)
Average Power (1200-5600rpm) (bhp)

50
0
1000

1500

2000

2500

3000
3500
4000
Engine Speed (rpm)

4500

engine A
400
362
350
234
5000

engine B
400
351
350
231
5500

6000

Engine Optimization Example

Engine A & Engine B both meet program
objectives
Which one is better?
It depends on the transmission
Engine B will perform better if transmission
keeps engine speed above 3200 rpm during an
acceleration event
This is true for any of the typical vehicle
performance metrics:
5 sec. Distance
0-60 time
1/4 mile time

Engine Tuning
Various mechanical elements and effects
combine to determine how well an engine
moves air into and out of the combustion
chamber.
Magnitude of effects are not equal, find out
which ones affect your engine most through
1D modeling or dyno testing.

Intake Tuning
for WOT Performance
Intake manifolds have ducts (runners) that
tune at frequencies corresponding to engine
speed, like an organ pipe
Longer runners tune at lower frequencies
Shorter runners tune at higher frequencies

Tuning increases local pressure at intake valve

thereby increasing flow rate
Duct diameter is a trade-off between velocity
and wall friction of passing charge

Exhaust Tuning
for WOT Performance
Exhaust manifolds tune just as intake
manifolds do, but since no fresh charge is
being introduced as a result not as much
impact on volumetric efficiency (~8%
maximum for headers)
Catalyst performance usually limits production
exhaust systems that flow acceptably with
little to no tuning

Tuned Headers
WOT IMEP Exhaust Manifold Comparison
4-2-1 Tubular Header vs 4-1 Close Coupled Cast

IMEP (kPa)/PMEP (kPa)

Tuned Headers
generally do not
appear on production
engines due to the
impairment to catalyst
light-off performance
(usually a minimum of
150% additional
distance for cold-start
exhaust heat to be
lost). Performance
can be enhanced by
3-8% across 60% of
the operating range.

1500

1450

-15

1400

-30

1350

-45

1300

-60

1250

-75

1200

-90

1150

-105

1100

-120

1050

-135

1000
IMEP 4-2-1

1200

PMEP 4-1 Cast

2000

2400

2800

3200

3600

4000

4400

4800

5200

5600

6000

6400

1044.1 1122.8 1188.5 1226.6 1269.2 1290.5 1337.9 1390.1 1445.7 1427 1445.8 1435.4 1411.7 1337.9
1102.5 1162.2 1225.5 1252.3 1248 1262.4 1320.9 1403.6 1403.5 1406.3 1398 1367.2 1294.6

IMEP 4-1 Cast

PMEP 4-2-1

1600

-5.3

-9.7

-14.2

-19.7

-23.0

-29.9

-38.4

-52.3

-64.0

-78.5

-90.8

-107.9 -122.8 -136.2

-12.5

-16.8

-20.8

-26.1

-32.0

-40.3

-54.0

-68.6

-81.0

-89.0

-99.8

Engine Speed (rpm)

-111.5 -119.5

-150

Tuning in Production I4 Engine

470

Air Mass per Cylinder (mg)

450

430

410

390

370

350
Trapped Mass

1200

1600

2000

2400

2800

3200

372

381

373

421

428

402

3600

4000

4400

4800

5200

5600

6000

6400

397

430

454

453

458

460

431

401

Engine Speed (rpm)

Engine Power and BSFC vs Engine Speed

2006 2.4L WE BSFC MAP (g/kW-h)

1200

1100

250

110

120

100

1000
275

90

80

900

300

70
60

800

240

BMEP SI [kPa]

50
40

700
30

600
250
500
20

400

275

300

300
10

200

350
400
450
500

100

0
1200

600

1600

2000

2400

2800

700

3200

3600

4000

d Speed [rpm]

4400

4800

5200

5600

6000

6400

Summary

Components Relative Impact on

Performance
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Cylinder Head Ports & Valve Area

Valve Events
Intake Manifold Runner Geometry
Compression Ratio
Exhaust Header Geometry
Exhaust Restriction
Air Cleaner Restriction

Powertrain Closing Remarks

Powertrain is compromise
Four-stroke engines are volumetric flow rate devices
the only route to more power is increased engine
speed, more valve area or increased charge density
More speed, charge density or valve area are
expensive or difficult to develop therefore
minimizing losses is the most efficient path within
existing engine architectures
Highest average power during a vehicle acceleration is
fastest peak power values dont win races

Part Three Calibration

Calibration
What is it?
Optimizing the control system (once hardware is finalized) for
drivability, durability & fuel economy

Its just spark and fuel how hard could it be?

Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Combustion and Control
Theory all play in
Fortunately race engines have no emissions constraints and
use race fuel (usually eliminates any knock) therefore are
relatively easy to calibrate

Calibration Terms
Stoichiometry Chemically correct ratio of fuel to air for
combustion

F/A Fuel/Air Ratio

Mass ratio of mixture, a determination of richness or

leanness. Stoichiometry = 0.0688-0.0696 FA

Lambda Excess Air Ratio

Stoichiometry = 1.0 Lambda

Rich F/A F/A greater than Stoichiometry

Rich <

Lean F/A F/A less than Stoichiometry

Lean >

1.0 Lambda
1.0 Lambda

Calibration Terms continued

Brake Power Power measured by the absorber
(brake) at the crankshaft
BSFC - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Fuel Mass Flow Rate / Brake Power
grams/kW-h or lbs/hp-h

LBT Fueling Lean Best Torque

Leanest Fuel/Air to Achieve Best Torque
LBT = 0.0780-0.0800 FA or 0.85-0.9 Lambda

Thermal Enrichment Fuel added for cooling due to

exhaust component temperature limit
Injector Pulse Width - Time Injector is Open

Calibration Terms continued

Spark Advance Timing in crank degrees prior to
TDC for start of combustion event (ignition)

MBT Spark - Maximum Brake Torque

Minimum Spark Advance to Achieve Best Torque

Burn Rate Speed of Combustion
Expressed as a fraction of total heat released
versus crank degrees

MAP - Manifold Absolute Pressure

Absolute not Gauge (which references barometer)

Control System Types

Alpha-N
Engine Speed & Throttle Angle

Speed-Density
Engine Speed and MAP/ACT

MAF
Engine Speed and MAF

Alpha-N
Fuel and spark maps are based on throttle
angle which is very non-linear and requires
complete mapping of engine
Good throttle response once dialed in
Density compensation (altitude and
temperature) is usually absent needs to be
recalibrated every time car goes out

Speed-Density
Fuel and spark maps are based on MAP density of
charge is a strong function of pressure, corrected by
air temp and coolant temp therefore air flow is
simple to calculate
Less time-intensive than Alpha-N, once calibrated is good
most common type of control
Needs less mapping can do WOT line and mid-map then
curve-fit air flow (spark needs a little more in-depth for
optimal control)

MAF
Fuel and spark maps are based on MAF airflow
measured directly
MAF sensor isnt the most robust device
Pressure pulses confuse signal, each application has to be
mapped with secondary damped MAF sensor (usually a 55 gallon
drum inline)
Least noisy signal is usually at air cleaner so separate transport
delay controls need to be calibrated for transients and leaks need
to be absolutely eliminated

Boosted applications usually add a MAP as well

Control System Components

Fuel System
Injectors, Fuel pump & Regulator

Basic Sensors
Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) or Mass Air Flow
(MAF)
Crank Position (Rpm & TDC)
Cam Position (Sync)
Air Charge Temp (ACT)
Engine Coolant Temp (ECT)
Knock Sensor
Lamda Sensor

Fuel System
Injectors
Volumetric flow rate solenoids, linear relationship between
pulsewidth and flow for given pressure delta
Battery offset is time necessary to open and close solenoid
time is fixed for any voltage
Duty cycle is injector on time itll go static above 95%
Bernoulli relationship for different pressure deltas allowing
differing flow rates for a given injector
High impedance injectors have lower dynamic range and
lower amperage and thus less heat in controller

Pulsewidth + Battery Offset

P2

P1
V1

V2
Pintle Height

Pulsewidth

Fuel Pump & Regulator

Pressure needs to be sufficiently high to prevent vapour lock
(>4bar) and low enough that engine can idle
In-tank regulation adds least heat but has line-loss as flow
rate increases, ie fuel pressure changes with flow
Manifold-referenced regulation can help injectors achieve
higher flow rates at elevated boost or lower flows at low
vacuum making calibration more complicated
Bernoulli Effect of Fuel Pressure

Sensors
Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP)
A variable-resistance diaphragm with perfect vacuum on one side and
manifold pressure on other

Mass Air Flow (MAF)

A heating element followed by a temperature-sensitive element. Heated
element is maintained at a constant temperature and based upon the
measured downstream temperature the mass flow rate can be
determined

Crank Position
High resolution for spark advance, less-so for crank speed and with onceper-rev can indicate TDC

Cam Position
Low resolution for syncronization for sequential fuel injection and
individual cylinder spark

Air Charge Temp and Engine Coolant Temp

Thermistors used for air density correction and startup enrichment

Sensors, cont
Knock Sensor
A piezoelectric load cell that measures structural vibration. Knock is a
pressure wave that travels at local sonic velocity and rings at a
frequency that is a function of bore diameter (typically between 1418kHz). When the structure of the engine (typically the block) is hit with
this pressure wave it rings as well, but at a frequency that is a function of
the structure (ie materials and geometry). A FFT analysis of different
mounting positions (nodes not anti-nodes) is necessary to determine the
center frequency to listen for knock (which is measured via in-cylinder
pressure measurements) without picking up other structure-borne
noise.

Sensors, cont
Lamda Sensor (EGO)
Compares ambient air to exhaust
oxygen content (partial pressure of
oxygen). Sensor output is
essentially binary (only indicates
rich or lean of stoichiometry).

Wide-band Lamda Sensor

(UEGO)
Compares partial pressure of
oxygen (lean) and partial pressure
of HmCn, H2 & CO (rich) with
ambient. Gives output from ~0.6
to 2 Lamda. Turns vehicle into a
rolling dyno.

EGO Schematic

UEGO Schematic

Knock
Causes of Knock
Knock = f(Time,Temperature,Pressure,Octane)
Time Higher engine speeds or faster burn rates reduce knock tendency.
Burn rate can come from multiple spark sources, more compact
combustion chambers or increased turbulence
Temperature Reduced combustion temperatures reduce knock through
reduced charge temperatures (cooler incoming charge or reduced
residual burned gases), increased evaporative cooling from richer F/A
mixtures and increased combustion chamber cooling
Pressure Lower cylinder pressures reduce knock tendency through
lower compression ratio or MAP pressure
Octane Different fuel types have higher or lower autoignition
tendencies. Octane value is directly related to knocking tendency

Knock continued
Effects of Knock
Disrupts stagnant gases that form boundary layer at edge of
combustion chamber, increasing heat transfer to components
and raising mean combustion chamber temp that can lead to
pre-ignition
Scours oil film off cylinder wall, leading to dry friction and
increased wear of piston rings
Shockwave can induce vibratory loads into piston pin, piston
pin bore and top land - reducing oil film thickness and
accelerating wear
Shockwave can be strong enough to stress components to
failure

In-cylinder Pressure Measurement

Piezoelectric pressure
transducers develop
charge with changes in
pressure
Installed in combustion
chamber wall or spark
plug to measure fullcycle pressures

Typical pressure probe installation

Passage drilled through deck face (avoiding coolant jacket)

Cylinder Pressure Trace

No Knock

Cylinder Pressure Trace

Knock Limit or Trace Knock - Best Power

Cylinder Pressure Trace

Severe Damaging Knock

Pre-Ignition
Effects of Pre-Ignition
Increases peak cylinder pressure by beginning heat release
too soon
Increased cylinder pressure also increases heat load to
combustion chamber components, sustaining the pre-ignition
(leading to run-away pre-ignition)
Increases loads on piston crown and piston pin
Sustained pre-ignition will typically put a hole in the center of
the piston crown

Burn Rate
Burn Rate = f(Spark, Dilution Rate/FA Ratio, Chamber Volume Distribution,
Engine Speed/Mixture Motion/Turbulent Intensity)
Spark
Closer to MBT the faster the burn with trace knock the fastest

Dilution Rate/FA Ratio

Least dilution (exhaust residual or anything unburnable) fastest
FA Ratio best rate around LBT

Chamber Volume Distribution

Smallest chamber with shortest flame path best (multiple ignition sources shorten flame
path)

Engine Speed/Mixture Motion/Turbulent Intensity

Crank angle time for complete burn nearly constant with increasing engine speed
indicating other factors speeding burn rate
Mixture motion-contributed angular momentum conserved as cylinder volume decreases
during compression stroke, eventually breaking down into vortices around TDC increasing
kinetic energy in charge
Turbulent Intensity a measure of total kinetic energy available to move flame front faster
than laminar flame speed. More Turbulent Intensity equals faster burn.

Combustion & Thermodynamics Summary

Peak Specific Power
LBT fuelling for best compromise between available oxygen and
charge density
MBT spark if possible, fast burn rate assumed at peak load
Highest engine speed to allow highest compression ratio
Highest octane

Peak Thermal Efficiency at desired load

Highest compression ratio will have best combustion, usually
with highest expansion ratio for best use of thermal energy
MBT spark with fastest burn rate
10% lean of stoichiometry will provide best compromise
between heat losses and pumping work, but not used because
of catalyst performance impacts in pass cars

Transient Fueling
Liquid fuel does not burn, only fuel vapour
Heat from somewhere must be used to make vapour which is why
up to 500% more fuel must be used on a cold start to provide
sufficient vapour for engine to run (relationship between
temperature and partial pressure of fuel fractions)
Most of heat during fully warm operation comes from back side of
intake valve and port walls
Because of geometry a large portion of fuel wets wall this film travels at
some fraction of free stream. Therefore some fuel from every pulse goes
into engine and some onto port wall.
On a fast acceleration, additional fuel must be added to offset the slowly
moving wall film. Opposite true on decels.
If injector is positioned far upstream volumetric efficiency increases due fuel
heat of vapourization cooling incoming charge, but a large amount of wall is
wetted leading to poor transient fuel control

Injector Targeting
Bad Tip Location

Better Tip Location

Targets Valve

Targets Port Wall

Thermal Enrichment
Durability
Combustion temperatures can reach 4000 deg K and drop
to 1800 deg K before Exhaust Valve Opening (EVO)
Materials must operate at sufficiently low temperature to
maintain strength, so Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)
limits must be adhered to for sufficient durability
Usually 950 deg C runner temperature is acceptable for a
developed package, as low as 800 deg C for undeveloped
components may be necessary
Primary path for cooling is additional fuel beyond LBT, as
heat of vapourization cools the charge before ignition
(pressure-charged engines primarily)

Drivability
Throttle Response
Drivers expect some repeatability and resolution
of thrust versus pedal position some degree of
spark mapping (retard) and pedal to throttle cam
can help a drivers confidence
Usually least developed and of most importance is
tip-in (throttle closed to small opening) where
torque can come in as a step change

Calibration Summary
Calibration is compromise
Fueling level is a compromise between engine protection
and good V.E.
Best spark advance for drivability may be too close to the
knock limit.
Focus on calibration of primary functions first (fuel and
spark)
Need to understand to understand why a dyno engine
calibration will be different than one derived from a
vehicle. Can the dyno replicate vehicle transients fully?

References
Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, John B
Heywood, 1988 McGraw-Hill
The Design and Tuning of Competition Engines Sixth
Edition, Philip H Smith, 1977 Robert Bentley
Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke Engines, Gordon
P. Blair, 1999 SAE
Advanced Engine Technology, Heinz Heisler, 1995 SAE
Vehicle and Engine Technology, Heinz Heisler, 1999 SAE

Copyright 2011 Kim M. Lyon.

All rights reserved.