Powertrain & Calibration 101

John Bucknell DaimlerChrysler Powertrain Systems Engineering December 4, 2006

Powertrain & Calibration Topics

Background

Architecture

Powertrain terms Thermodynamics Mechanical Design Combustion Cylinder Filling & Emptying Aerodynamics

Calibration

Spark & Fuel Transients & Drivability

What is a Powertrain?

Engine that converts thermal energy to mechanical work

Particularly, the architecture comprising all the subsystems required to convert this energy to work

Sometimes extends to drivetrain, which connects powertrain to end-user of power

Characteristics of Internal Combustion Heat Engines

High energy density of fuel leads to high power to weight ratio, especially when combusting with atmospheric oxygen External combustion has losses due to multiple inefficiencies (primarily heat loss from condensing of working fluid), internal combustion has less inefficiencies Heat engines use working fluids which is the simplest of all energy conversion methods

Reciprocating Internal Combustion Heat Engines

Characteristics

Slider-crank mechanism has high mechanical efficiency (piston skirt rubbing is source of 5060% of all firing friction) Piston-cylinder mechanism has high singlestage compression ratio capability leads to high thermal efficiency capability Fair to poor air pump, limiting power potential without additional mechanisms

Reciprocating Engine Terms

Vc = Clearance Volume Vd = Displacement or Swept Volume Vt = Total Volume TC or TDC = Top or Top Dead Center Position BC or BDC = Bottom or Bottom Dead Center Position Compression Ratio (CR)

Vd Vc CR Vc

Further explanation of aspects of Compression Ratio

Reciprocating Engines

Most layouts created during second World War as aircraft manufacturers struggled to make the least-compromised installation

Thermodynamics

Otto Cycle Diesel Cycle Throttled Cycle Supercharged Cycle

Source: Internal Comb. Engine Fund.

Thermodynamic Terms
MEP Mean Effective Pressure Average cylinder pressure over measuring period Torque Normalized to Engine Displacement (VD) BMEP Brake Mean Effective Pressure 4 Torque(Nm) 48 Torque(ftlb)
BMEP (kPa) VD (liter ) BMEP (psi) VD (cu.in.)

IMEP Indicated Mean Effective Pressure MEP of Compression and Expansion Strokes PMEP Pumping Mean Effective Pressure MEP of Exhaust and Intake Strokes FFMEP Firing Friction Mean Effective Pressure

BMEP = IMEP PMEP FFMEP

Thermodynamic Terms continued

Work =

P dV

Power = Work/Unit Time

Work Cycles / Second Power Re volutions / Cycle

Specific Power Power per unit, typically displacement or weight Pressure/Volume Diagram Engineering tool to graph cylinder pressure

Indicated Work

TDC

BDC
Source: Design and Sim of Four Strokes

Pumping Work

TDC

BDC
Source: Design and Sim of Four Strokes

History of Internal Combustion

1878 Niklaus Otto built first successful four stroke engine 1885 Gottlieb Daimler built first high-speed four stroke engine 1878 saw Sir Dougald Clerk complete first twostroke engine (simplified by Joseph Day in 1891)

1891 Panhard-Levassor vehicle with front engine built under Daimler license

Energy Distribution in Passenger Car Engines

Source: SAE 2000-01-2902 (Ricardo)

Using Exhaust Energy

Highest expansion ratio recovers most thermal energy Turbines can recover heat energy left over from gas exchange

Energy can be used to drive turbocompressor or fed back into crank train
Source: Advanced Engine Technology

Supercharging

Increases specific output by increasing charge density into reciprocator Many methods of implementation, cost usually only limiting factor

Source: Internal Comb. Engine Fund.

Mechanical Design

Two Valve Valvetrain

Pushrod

OHV (Type 5)

HEMI

2-Valve (Type 5)

SOHC

2-Valve (Type 2)

Four Valve Valvetrain

SOHC

4-Valve (Type 3)

DOHC

4-Valve (Type 2)

DOHC

4-Valve (Type 1)
Desmodromic

Valvetrain

Specific Power =

f(Air Flow, Thermal Efficiency)

Air flow is an easier variable to change than thermal efficiency 90% of restriction of induction system occurs in cylinder head Cylinder head layouts that allow the greatest airflow will have highest specific power potential Peak flow from poppet valve engines primarily a function of total valve area More/larger valves equals greater valve area

Combustion Terms

Brake Power Power measured by the absorber (brake) at the crankshaft BSFC - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Fuel Mass Flow Rate / Brake Power grams/kW-h or lbs/hp-h

LBT Fuelling - Lean Best Torque

Leanest Fuel/Air to Achieve Best Torque LBT = 0.0780-0.0800 FA or 0.85-0.9 Lambda

Thermal Enrichment Fuel added for cooling due to component temperature limit Injector Pulse Width - Time Injector is Open

Combustion Terms continued

Spark Advance Timing in crank degrees prior to

TDC for start of combustion event (ignition)

MBT Spark Maximum Brake Torque Spark

Minimum Spark Advance to Achieve Best Torque

Burn Rate Speed of Combustion

Expressed as a fraction of total heat released versus crank degrees

MAP - Manifold Absolute Pressure

Absolute not Gauge (does not reference barometer)

Combustion Terms continued

Knock Autoignition of end-gasses in combustion

chamber, causing extreme rates of pressure rise. Knock can be higher or lower than MBT

Knock Limit Spark - Maximum Spark Allowed due to

Pre-Ignition Autoignition of mixture prior to spark

timing, typically due to high temperatures of components

Combustion Stability Cycle to cycle variation in

burn rate, trapped mass, location of peak pressure, etc. The lower the variation the better the stability.

Engine Architecture Influence on Performance

Intake & Exhaust Manifold Tuning

Cylinder Filling & Emptying

Momentum Pressure Wave

Aerodynamics

Flow Separation Wall Friction Junctions & Bends

Induction Restriction Exhaust Restriction (Backpressure) Compression Ratio Valve Events

Intake Tuning for WOT Performance

Intake manifolds have ducts (runners) that tune at frequencies corresponding to engine speed, like an organ pipe

Longer runners tune at lower frequencies Shorter runners tune at higher frequencies

Tuning increases local pressure at intake valve thereby increasing flow rate Duct diameter is a trade-off between velocity and wall friction of passing charge

Exhaust Tuning for WOT Performance

Exhaust manifolds tune just as intake manifolds do, but since no fresh charge is being introduced as a result not as much impact on volumetric efficiency (~8% maximum for headers) Catalyst performance usually limits production exhaust systems that flow acceptably with little to no tuning

Tuned Headers
Tuned Headers generally do not appear on production engines due to the impairment to catalyst light-off performance (usually a minimum of 150% additional distance for cold-start exhaust heat to be lost). Performance can be enhanced by 3-8% across 60% of the operating range.
WOT IMEP Exhaust Manifold Comparison
4-2-1 Tubular Header vs 4-1 Close Coupled Cast
1500 1450 1400 0 -15 -30 -45 -60 -75 -90 -105 -120 -135 -150

IMEP (kPa)/PMEP (kPa)

1350 1300 1250 1200 1150 1100 1050 1000

1200

1600

2000

2400

2800

3200

3600

4000

4400

4800

5200

5600

6000

6400

IMEP 4-2-1 IMEP 4-1 Cast PMEP 4-2-1 PMEP 4-1 Cast

1044.1 1122.8 1188.5 1226.6 1269.2 1290.5 1337.9 1390.1 1445.7 1427 1445.8 1435.4 1411.7 1337.9 1102.5 1162.2 1225.5 1252.3 1248 1262.4 1320.9 1403.6 1403.5 1406.3 1398 1367.2 1294.6 -5.3 -9.7 -12.5 -14.2 -16.8 -19.7 -20.8 -23.0 -26.1 -29.9 -32.0 -38.4 -40.3 -52.3 -54.0 -64.0 -68.6 -78.5 -81.0 -90.8 -89.0 -107.9 -122.8 -136.2 -99.8 -111.5 -119.5

Engine Speed (rpm)

Momentum Effects

Pressure loss influences dictate that duct diameter be as large as possible for minimum friction Increasing charge momentum enhances cylinder filling by extending induction process past unsteady direct energy transfer of induction stroke (ie piston motion) Decreasing duct diameter increases available kinetic energy for a given mass flux Therefore duct diameter is a trade-off between velocity and wall friction of passing charge

Pressure Wave Effects

Induction process and exhaust blowdown both cause pressure pulsations Abrupt changes of increased cross-section in the path of a pressure wave will reflect a wave of opposite magnitude back down the path of the wave Closed-ended ducts reflect pressure waves directly, therefore a wave will echo with same amplitude

Pressure Wave Effects cont

Friction decreases energy of pressure waves, therefore the 1st order reflection is the strongest but up to 5th order have been utilized to good effect in high speed engines (thus active runners in F1 in Y2K) Plenums also resonate and through superposition increase the amplitude of pressure waves in runners small impact relative to runner geometry

Effects of Intake Runner Geometry

Tuning in Production I4 Engine

470

450

Air Mass per Cylinder (mg)

430

410

390

370

350
Trapped Mass

1200 372

1600 381

2000 373

2400 421

2800 428

3200 402

3600 397

4000 430

4400 454

4800 453

5200 458

5600 460

6000 431

6400 401

Engine Speed (rpm)

Aerodynamics

Losses due to poor aerodynamics can be equal in magnitude to the gains from pressure wave tuning Often the dominant factory in poorly performing OE components If properly designed, flow of a single-entry intake manifold can approach 98% of an ideal entrance on a cylinder head port (steady state on a flow bench)

Aerodynamics cont

Flow Separation

Literally same phenomenon as stall in wing elements pressure in free stream insufficient to push flow along wall of short side radius Recirculation pushes flow away from wall, thereby reducing effective cross-section: socalled vena contracta Simple guidelines can prevent flow separation in ducts studies performed by NACA in the 1930s empirically established the best duct configurations

Aerodynamics cont

Wall Friction

Surface finish of ducts need to be as smooth as possible to prevent tripping of flow on a macro level
Everything from your fluid dynamics textbook applies
Radiused inlets and free-standing pipe outlets Minimize number of bends Avoid S bends if at all possible

Junctions & Bends

Induction Restriction

Air cleaner and intake manifolds provide some resistance to incoming charge Power loss related to restriction almost directly a function of ratio between manifold pressure (plenum pressure upstream of runners) and atmospheric

Exhaust Restriction
Back Pressure Effects on Peak Power - 2.0L SOHC R/T
152 151

150

Corrected Power (c Bhp)

149

148

147

146

145 0 2 4 6 8 Back Pressure (in-Hg) Peak Power Back Bhp 10 12 14 16

Compression Ratio

The highest possible compression ratio is always the design point, as higher will always be more thermally efficient with better idle quality Knock limits compression ratio because of combustion stability issues at low engine speed due to necessary spark retard Most engines are designed with higher compression than is best for low speed combustion stability because of the associated part-load BSFC benefits and high speed power

Valve Events

Valve events define how an engine breathes all the time, and so are an important aspect of low load as well as high load performance Valve events also effectively define compression & expansion ratio, as compression will not begin until the piston-cylinder mechanism is sealed same with expansion

Valve Event Timing Diagram

Spider Plot -

Describes timing points for valve events with respect to Crank Position

Cam Centerline -

Peak Valve Lift with respect to TDC in Crank Degrees

Valve Events for Power

Maximize Trapping Efficiency

Intake closing that is best compromise between compression stroke back flow and induction momentum (retard with increasing engine speed) Early intake closing usefulness limited at low engine speed due to knock limit Early intake opening will impart some exhaust blowdown or pressure wave tuning momentum to intake charge
Earliest intake closing to maximize compression ratio for best burn rate (optimum is instantaneous after TDC) Latest exhaust opening to maximize expansion ratio for best use of heat energy and lowest EGT (least thermal protection enrichment beyond LBT)

Maximize Thermal Efficiency

Valve Events for Power

Minimize Flow Loss

Achieve maximum valve lift (max flow usually at L/D > 0.25-0.3) as long as possible (square lift curves are optimum for poppet valves)
Earliest exhaust opening that blows down cylinder pressure to backpressure levels before exhaust stroke (advance with increasing engine speed) Earliest exhaust closing that avoids recompression spike (retard with increasing engine speed)

Minimize Exhaust Pumping Work

Centerline Effects On Torque

570 560 550 540 530 520 510

Torque (ft-lbs)

500 490 480 470 460 450 440 430 420 1600

2000

2400

2800

3200

3600 Engine Speed (rpm)

4000

4400

4800

5200

5600

115 degree centerline

120 degree centerline

124 degree centerline

2006 2.4L WE BSFC MAP (g/kW-h)

Engine Power and BSFC vs Engine Speed

1200 1100 250
100 110 120

1000 275 900

70 60 50 80 90

300

800

240

BMEP SI [kPa]

700
30

40

600 250 500

20

400

275

300
10

300 350 400 450 500

200

100

600

700

0 1200

1600

2000

2400

2800

3200

3600

4000

4400

4800

5200

5600

6000

6400

d Speed [rpm]

Summary

Components Relative Impact on Performance

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Cylinder Head Ports & Valve Area Valve Events Intake Manifold Runner Geometry Compression Ratio Exhaust Header Geometry Exhaust Restriction Air Cleaner Restriction

Powertrain Closing Remarks

Powertrain is compromise

Four-stroke engines are volumetric flow rate devices the only route to more power is increased engine speed, more valve area or increased charge density More speed, charge density or valve area are expensive or difficult to develop therefore minimizing losses is the most efficient path within existing engine architectures Highest average power during a vehicle acceleration is fastest peak power values dont win races

Break

Calibration

What is it?

Optimizing the control system (once hardware is finalized) for drivability, durability & emissions Knowledge of Thermodynamics, Combustion and Control Theory all play in Fortunately race engines have no emissions constraints and use race fuel (usually eliminates any knock) therefore are relatively easy to calibrate

Its just spark and fuel how hard could it be?

Calibration Terms

Stoichiometry Chemically correct ratio of fuel to air

for combustion

F/A Fuel/Air Ratio

Mass ratio of mixture, a determination of richness or leanness. Stoichiometry = 0.0688-0.0696 FA

Lambda Excess Air Ratio

Rich < 1.0 Lambda

Stoichiometry = 1.0 Lambda

Rich F/A F/A greater than Stoichiometry Lean F/A F/A less than Stoichiometry
Lean > 1.0 Lambda

Calibration Terms continued

Brake Power Power measured by the absorber (brake) at the crankshaft BSFC - Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
Fuel Mass Flow Rate / Brake Power grams/kW-h or lbs/hp-h

LBT Fuelling Lean Best Torque

Leanest Fuel/Air to Achieve Best Torque LBT = 0.0780-0.0800 FA or 0.85-0.9 Lambda

Thermal Enrichment Fuel added for cooling due to exhaust component temperature limit Injector Pulse Width - Time Injector is Open

Calibration Terms continued

Spark Advance Timing in crank degrees prior to

TDC for start of combustion event (ignition)

MBT Spark - Maximum Brake Torque

Minimum Spark Advance to Achieve Best Torque

Burn Rate Speed of Combustion

Expressed as a fraction of total heat released versus crank degrees

MAP - Manifold Absolute Pressure

Absolute not Gauge (which references barometer)

Lean Best Torque Fuel Air Sweeps

102% 100% 98% 96%
Torque Delta Factor From LBT

94% 92% 90% 88% Spark Held Constant During Fuel Air Sw eep 86% 84% 82% 80% 78% 76% 0.0660

0.0690

0.0720

0.0750

0.0780

0.0810

0.0840

0.0870

0.0900

0.0930

0.0960

0.0990

0.1020

0.1050

0.1080

0.1110

F/A FN 1856 RPM, 70 kPa MAP 4544 RPM, 70 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 98 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 98 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 56 kPa MAP 2688 RPM, 70 kPa MAP 3296 RPM, 84 kPa MAP

Spark Advance vs Torque

102% 100% 98% 96% 94% 92% 90% 88% 86% 84% -22 -20 -18 -16 -14 -12 -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12

Torque Delta from MBT

Delta Spark Advance From MBT

Control System Types

Alpha-N

Engine Speed & Throttle Angle Engine Speed and MAP/ACT Engine Speed and MAF

Speed-Density

MAF

Alpha-N

Fuel and spark maps are based on throttle angle which is very non-linear and requires complete mapping of engine

Good throttle response once dialed in Density compensation (altitude and temperature) is usually absent needs to be recalibrated every time car goes out

Speed-Density

Fuel and spark maps are based on MAP density of charge is a strong function of pressure, corrected by air temp and coolant temp therefore air flow is simple to calculate

Less time-intensive than Alpha-N, once calibrated is good most common type of control Needs less mapping can do WOT line and midmap then curve-fit air flow (spark needs a little more in-depth for optimal control)

MAF

Fuel and spark maps are based on MAF airflow measured directly

MAF sensor isnt the most robust device

Pressure pulses confuse signal, each application has to be mapped with secondary damped MAF sensor (usually a 55 gallon drum inline) Least noisy signal is usually at air cleaner so separate transport delay controls need to be calibrated for transients and leaks need to be absolutely eliminated

Boosted applications usually add a MAP as well

Control System Components

Fuel System

Basic Sensors

Injectors, Fuel pump & Regulator

Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP) or Mass Air Flow (MAF) Crank Position (Rpm & TDC) Cam Position (Sync) Air Charge Temp (ACT) Engine Coolant Temp (ECT) Knock Sensor Lamda Sensor

Fuel System

Injectors

Fuel Pump & Regulator

Volumetric flow rate solenoids, linear relationship between pulsewidth and flow for given pressure delta Battery offset is time necessary to open and close solenoid time is fixed for any voltage Duty cycle is injector on time itll go static above 95% Bernoulli relationship for different pressure deltas allowing differing flow rates for a given injector High impedance injectors have lower dynamic range and lower amperage and thus less heat in controller

Pulsewidth + Battery Offset Pulsewidth

Pressure needs to be sufficiently high to prevent vapour lock (>4bar) and low enough that engine can idle In-tank regulation adds least heat but has line-loss as 2 2 flow rate increases, ie fuel pressure changes with flow Manifold-referenced regulation can help injectors achieve higher flow rates at elevated boost or lower 1 flows at low vacuum making calibration more 1 complicated Bernoulli Effect of Fuel Pressure

Pintle Height

P P V

Manifold Absolute Pressure (MAP)

Sensors

Mass Air Flow (MAF)

A variable-resistance diaphragm with perfect vacuum on one side and manifold pressure on other A heating element followed by a temperature-sensitive element. Heated element is maintained at a constant temperature and based upon the measured downstream temperature the mass flow rate can be determined High resolution for spark advance, less-so for crank speed and with once-per-rev can indicate TDC Low resolution for syncronization for sequential fuel injection and individual cylinder spark Thermistors used for air density correction and startup enrichment

Crank Position

Cam Position

Air Charge Temp and Engine Coolant Temp

Sensors, cont

Knock Sensor

A piezoelectric load cell that measures structural vibration. Knock is a pressure wave that travels at local sonic velocity and rings at a frequency that is a function of bore diameter (typically between 14-18kHz). When the structure of the engine (typically the block) is hit with this pressure wave it rings as well, but at a frequency that is a function of the structure (ie materials and geometry). A FFT analysis of different mounting positions (nodes not anti-nodes) is necessary to determine the center frequency to listen for knock (which is measured via incylinder pressure measurements) without picking up other structure-borne noise.

Sensors, cont

Lamda Sensor (EGO)

Wide-band Lamda Sensor (UEGO)

Compares ambient air to exhaust oxygen content (partial pressure of oxygen). Sensor output is essentially binary (only indicates rich or lean of stoichiometry).
EGO Schematic

Compares partial pressure of oxygen (lean) and partial pressure of HmCn, H2 & CO (rich) with ambient. Gives output from ~0.6 to 2 Lamda.
UEGO Schematic

Calibration Goals

Combustion & Thermodynamics

Work, Power & Mean Effective Pressures Knock, Pre-Ignition Burn Rate Wall film

Transients

Thermal Enrichment Drivability

Knock

Causes of Knock

Knock = f(Time,Temperature,Pressure,Octane) Time Higher engine speeds or faster burn rates reduce knock tendency. Burn rate can come from multiple spark sources, more compact combustion chambers or increased turbulence Temperature Reduced combustion temperatures reduce knock through reduced charge temperatures (cooler incoming charge or reduced residual burned gases), increased evaporative cooling from richer F/A mixtures and increased combustion chamber cooling Pressure Lower cylinder pressures reduce knock tendency through lower compression ratio or MAP pressure Octane Different fuel types have higher or lower autoignition tendencies. Octane value is directly related to knocking tendency

Knock continued

Effects of Knock

Disrupts stagnant gases that form boundary layer at edge of combustion chamber, increasing heat transfer to components and raising mean combustion chamber temp that can lead to pre-ignition Scours oil film off cylinder wall, leading to dry friction and increased wear of piston rings Shockwave can induce vibratory loads into piston pin, piston pin bore and top land - reducing oil film thickness and accelerating wear Shockwave can be strong enough to stress components to failure

In-cylinder Pressure Measurement

Piezoelectric pressure transducers develop charge with changes in pressure Installed in combustion chamber wall or spark plug to measure full-cycle pressures

Typical pressure probe installation

Passage drilled through deck face (avoiding coolant jacket)

Cylinder Pressure Trace No Knock

Cylinder Pressure Trace Knock Limit or Trace Knock - Best Power

Cylinder Pressure Trace Severe Damaging Knock

Pre-Ignition

Effects of Pre-Ignition

Increases peak cylinder pressure by beginning heat release too soon Increased cylinder pressure also increases heat load to combustion chamber components, sustaining the pre-ignition (leading to run-away pre-ignition) Increases loads on piston crown and piston pin Sustained pre-ignition will typically put a hole in the center of the piston crown

Burn Rate

Burn Rate = f(Spark, Dilution Rate/FA Ratio, Chamber Volume

Distribution, Engine Speed/Mixture Motion/Turbulent Intensity)

Spark

Dilution Rate/FA Ratio

Closer to MBT the faster the burn with trace knock the fastest Least dilution (exhaust residual or anything unburnable) fastest FA Ratio best rate around LBT Smallest chamber with shortest flame path best (multiple ignition sources shorten flame path) Crank angle time for complete burn nearly constant with increasing engine speed indicating other factors speeding burn rate Mixture motion-contributed angular momentum conserved as cylinder volume decreases during compression stroke, eventually breaking down into vortices around TDC increasing kinetic energy in charge Turbulent Intensity a measure of total kinetic energy available to move flame front faster than laminar flame speed. More Turbulent Intensity equals faster burn.

Chamber Volume Distribution

Engine Speed/Mixture Motion/Turbulent Intensity

Peak Specific Power

Combustion & Thermodynamics Summary

LBT fuelling for best compromise between available oxygen and charge density MBT spark if possible, fast burn rate assumed at peak load Highest engine speed to allow highest compression ratio Highest octane
Highest compression ratio will have best combustion, usually with highest expansion ratio for best use of thermal energy MBT spark with fastest burn rate 10% lean of stoichiometry will provide best compromise between heat losses and pumping work, but not used because of catalyst performance impacts in pass cars

Peak Thermal Efficiency at desired load

Transient Fuelling

Liquid fuel does not burn, only fuel vapour Heat from somewhere must be used to make vapour which is why up to 500% more fuel must be used on a cold start to provide sufficient vapour for engine to run (relationship between temperature and partial pressure of fuel fractions) Most of heat during fully warm operation comes from back side of intake valve and port walls

Because of geometry a large portion of fuel wets wall this film travels at some fraction of free stream. Therefore some fuel from every pulse goes into engine and some onto port wall. On a fast acceleration, additional fuel must be added to offset the slowly moving wall film. Opposite true on decels. If injector is positioned far upstream volumetric efficiency increases due fuel heat of vapourization cooling incoming charge, but a large amount of wall is wetted leading to poor transient fuel control

Injector Targeting
Bad Tip Location

Better Tip Location

Targets Valve

Targets Port Wall

Thermal Enrichment

Durability

Combustion temperatures can reach 4000 deg K and drop to 1800 deg K before Exhaust Valve Opening (EVO) Materials must operate at sufficiently low temperature to maintain strength, so Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT) limits must be adhered to for sufficient durability Usually 950 deg C runner temperature is acceptable for a developed package, as low as 800 deg C for undeveloped components may be necessary Primary path for cooling is additional fuel beyond LBT, as heat of vapourization cools the charge before ignition (pressure-charged engines primarily)

Drivability

Throttle Response

Drivers expect some repeatability and resolution of thrust versus pedal position some degree of spark mapping (retard) and pedal to throttle cam can help a drivers confidence Usually least developed and of most importance is tip-in (throttle closed to small opening) where torque can come in as a step change

Closing Remarks

Calibration is compromise

Best spark for drivability may not produce sufficient combustion stability or fuel consumption Best fuelling for drivability is voracious fuel consumer - decel fuel shut off can improve economy by 20% but has tip-in torque bumps without careful calibration

References

Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals, John B Heywood, 1988 McGraw-Hill The Design and Tuning of Competition Engines Sixth Edition, Philip H Smith, 1977 Robert Bentley The Development of Piston Aero Engines, Bill Gunston, 1993 Haynes Publishing Design and Simulation of Four-Stroke Engines, Gordon P. Blair, 1999 SAE Advanced Engine Technology, Heinz Heisler, 1995 SAE Vehicle and Engine Technology, Heinz Heisler, 1999 SAE

Q&A