1

sing the language of

knowledge states and
operators, how can we
characterize more precisely
the knowledge a scientist
brings to solving problems? A
physicist solving the sled
problem might begin a solution
in
the

upward force is a combination

of the vertical component of
the force due to the rope,
Fry, and the normal force N
exerted on the sled by the
snow.

T
following way.
The key thing is that the sled
(with the boy) moves at
constant speed. That means
theres no net force
increasing or decreasing the
speed of this system. So, in
each direction, the forces on
the boy-sled system must
balance, yielding a zero net
force. I can therefore
separately add up the
horizontal and vertical
components of the forces on
the boy-sled system and make
them balance. In the
horizontal direction, the
forces are the horizontal
component of force due to the
rope Fry, and the frictional
force f. These forces balance,
so Fry = f. In the vertical
direction, the downward force
is equal to the weight of the
boy-sled system (W). The

he upward and downward

forces must balance, so
N + Fry = W. [Note that
the expert picks up a point
that the student, simply
juggling symbols, missed: the
normal force alone does not
balance the full weight of the
boy and sled, because the girl
is pulling up as well as
forward.] The frictional force
f depends on the normal force
N and the coefficient of
friction r. So f = run. I can
now combine these equations to
solve for r in terms of Fr and
W. [Note that the expert has
not yet used specific
numerical values for any of
the quantities, but first
solves the problem in
general.] Even these initial
statements soggiest a very
different solution process
from that of typical physics
students. What can we infer
about the knowledge states and
operators used here? First,
the scientists initial state
seems to be quite different
from the symbol-quantity state
characteristic of students.

2
The physicists initial state,
for example, clearly contains
the information that the
sleds speed is constant and
explicitly groups the boys and
sled, calling them the boysled system. Then, the
physicist applies successive
operators, which each add more
information about the system.
The first operator applied
adds the information that in

every direction the forces on

this system must balance, or
yield a net force of zero. The
next operators add information
about the forces in the
horizontal and vertical
direction. There is a very
visual or spatial flavor to
these comments, and physicist
solutions often contain
diagrams like that in Figure
8.3.